Science Notes

Module 1
Lesson 1
 Latitude is the measurement on a globe or map of a place north or south of the
equator. It is measured in degrees, minutes, and seconds. The greatest possible
latitudes are 90° N and 90° S. To identify different latitudinal positions on maps or
globes, equidistant circles are plotted and drawn parallel to the equator and each
other. These are known as the parallels, or parallels of latitude.

 The equator is also called the great circle around the Earth that is equidistant from
the geographic poles and lies in a plane perpendicular to the Earth's axis. It divides the
Earth halfway into the Northern and Southern hemispheres at 0 degrees latitude and
forms the imaginary reference line.

 The starting point for latitude is the equator at

latitude 0° (0 degree). At the North Pole, the latitude
is 90°N (90 degrees north) and at the South Pole, the
latitude is 90°S (90 degrees south).

 The lines of latitude are also known as parallels of

latitude. That is because the lines of latitude are
parallel to the equator and to each other. Five lines of
latitude have special names. They are listed in the
table below. The latitude values have been rounded
off to the nearest half-degree.

 Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. The part of the world between these
two parallel lines is called the tropics. Countries
that are located in this zone experience a tropical
climate where the annual average temperature is
above 18°C.

 Arctic Circle and the Antarctic Circle on the

globe. Between the Tropic of Cancer and the
Arctic Circle is the northern temperate zone;
between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic
 Circle is the southern temperate zone. Countries in these zones go through four
seasons – winter, spring summer, and autumn.

 Arctic Circle and Antarctic Circle are called the polar regions or frigid zones.
People who choose to live in these areas have to deal with temperatures that never go
above 10°C.

 To sum up, the closer the latitude is to the equator, the warmer the climate. The closer
it is to the poles, the colder. Thus, it is clear that there is a relationship between the
latitude of a place and the climate it experiences.

Lesson 2
 Lines which run from north to south are called longitudes. The longitude which
passes through Greenwich, England is called the prime meridian.

 As a reference point, the prime meridian is read as 0º longitude. The degree increases
as it moves westward or eastward until it reaches the longitude opposite to the prime
meridian, the antemeridian (read as 180 º longitudes). The prime meridian and
antemeridian divide the globe into its eastern and western hemispheres. The right side
of the prime meridian is the eastern hemisphere while the left side is the western
hemisphere.

 Starting at the Prime Meridian, moving 180 degrees to the east or to the west brings
you to longitude 180° or also known as antemeridian. Like the Prime Meridian,
longitude 180° represents the boundary of the eastern hemisphere and western
hemisphere. The Prime Meridian and longitude 180° are on opposite sides of the
world.
Module 2
Lesson 1
 Renewable resources are materials that can be replaced easily or have the potential
to be replaced over time. On the other hand, nonrenewable resources are natural
resources that are in limited supply or once consumed, cannot be replaced.

 The foods we eat originate from plants and animals. Plants can be replenished by
replanting after each harvest, and animals reproduce to replenish their populations.
This makes plants and animals renewable resources. In contrast, coal, oil, and
natural gas are nonrenewable resources because they will eventually be depleted.

 The "Ring of Fire" derives its name from the continuous movement of hot magma
beneath the Earth's surface. This region, encompassing countries around the Pacific
Ocean, houses approximately 75% of the world's active volcanoes.

 Heat within the Earth melts rocks, forming magma, which can rise during volcanic
eruptions or cool underground to create igneous rocks. Favorable conditions lead to
the formation of metallic minerals, such as copper, gold, and silver, which are often
mined from extinct or inactive volcanoes.

 These metals have various uses, from electrical wires to jewelry. While metals are
nonrenewable resources, their economic value drives their extensive usage.
Additionally, geological conditions offer potential for renewable energy resources, as
detailed in the accompanying table.

 Renewable energy resources offer alternatives to commonly used nonrenewable

energy sources like coal, oil, and natural gas, which are formed from decayed plants
and animals over millions of years. Despite their extensive use, nonrenewable energy
sources are exhaustible and take millions of years to replenish.

 In the Philippines, nonrenewable sources like oil and coal dominate energy
consumption, comprising 88% of total usage in 2017, while renewable sources only
account for 12%. Given the potential for cheap and clean energy from renewables, it
is crucial to explore and invest in these alternatives to meet energy needs sustainably.

Lesson 2
  Maintaining resource sustainability involves various practices, such as reforestation
to replenish forests and preserve water sources, which also help mitigate floods and
combat global warming by storing carbon dioxide. While modern life demands
constant energy, our reliance on nonrenewable sources like coal and petroleum
contributes to pollution and climate change. However, cleaner and renewable
alternatives such as solar, wind, hydro, and geothermal energy are readily available
and should be harnessed for a sustainable future.

 Responsible waste management, including the 5Rs (reduce, recycle, reuse, refuse,
and recover), is essential to minimize environmental impacts and conserve resources.
Ultimately, ensuring the sustainable use of Earth's resources and minimizing waste
accumulation is vital for the well-being of current and future generations.

Module 3
Lesson 1
 The Earth's atmosphere primarily consists of nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%),
essential for growth and survival, respectively. Oxygen is produced as a by-product of
photosynthesis by plants.

 Other gases like water vapor, carbon dioxide, ozone, and trace gases exist in smaller
amounts, including argon, neon, helium, hydrogen, dust particles, and
chlorofluorocarbons. These trace gases play important roles despite their small
quantities.

 The temperature profile of the atmosphere is the basis for dividing the atmosphere
into several layers: (1) troposphere, (2) stratosphere, (3) mesosphere, (4)
thermosphere, and the (5) exosphere.

 The troposphere, the layer closest to Earth's surface, spans from the surface
to about 8 km to 14.5 km high, containing about 75% of the atmosphere's
gases due to gravity. As altitude increases, temperature decreases because the
troposphere is heated from below by the Earth's surface, similar to water
heated in a pan on a stove. The ground absorbs sunlight and warms the lower
layers of the atmosphere through radiation and convection.

 The stratosphere, the second layer of the atmosphere, extends from just
above the troposphere to about 50 km high. Unlike the troposphere,
temperature increases with altitude in the stratosphere. This temperature rise is
attributed to the presence of the ozone layer, which absorbs harmful radiation
from the sun, protecting plant and animal life on Earth.

 The mesosphere, the third layer of the atmosphere, spans from 50 km to 80

km above Earth's surface. In this layer, temperature decreases with altitude,
reaching an average of -90 ℃. Unlike the stratosphere, it lacks gases that
absorb UV rays from the sun. Despite its extreme cold, the mesosphere
contains a thin layer of air that slows down meteors entering Earth's
atmosphere, causing them to produce a burning tail and appear as shooting
stars.

 The thermosphere, the fourth layer of the atmosphere, extends from 80 km to

110 km above Earth's surface and is characterized by extremely high
temperatures, exceeding 1000 ℃. This temperature rise is caused by the
absorption of intense solar radiation by a limited number of molecular oxygen
particles. Within the thermosphere, there is a layer called the ionosphere,
where gas particles become charged by solar energy. The ionosphere reflects
 radio waves from different parts of the world and is known for producing
auroras.

 The exosphere is the outermost layer of the atmosphere, extending beyond 700
km, possibly up to 10,000 km from Earth's surface, with no distinct boundary.
This layer transitions into outer space, where gas particles can freely move due
to weak gravitational forces, resulting in very thin air. Satellites are positioned
within this area, typically 500 km to 1000 km from Earth.

 Surrounding earth is a layer of gas which is a critical factor in sustaining life on the
planet. This layer of gas called the atmosphere, is held together by earth’s gravity. It
makes earth “livable” by regulating solar energy, or the energy coming from the sun
which drives all life processes on Earth.

Lesson 2
 Greenhouses work by allowing sunlight to
enter but preventing heat from escaping. The
transparent covering absorbs energy, warming
the interior, while retaining heat with walls
and roofs. Similarly, Earth's atmosphere acts
like a greenhouse, with trace gases such as
carbon dioxide and methane allowing sunlight
to pass through but trapping heat, creating a
warming effect known as the greenhouse
effect. This natural process keeps Earth's
temperature suitable for life, preventing it
from becoming too cold, particularly at night.
 Increased levels of carbon dioxide and other
greenhouse gases lead to a phenomenon
known as global warming, where more heat
becomes trapped in Earth's atmosphere, resulting in rising temperatures worldwide.
This warming effect affects all countries and populations, even those that contribute
minimally to greenhouse gas emissions.

 Carbon dioxide is naturally produced when people and animals breathe. Plants and
trees take in and use carbon dioxide to produce their own food. Volcanoes also
produce carbon dioxide. Methane comes from grazing animals as they digest their
food and from decaying matter in wet rice fields. Ozone is also naturally present in
the stratosphere. But human activities emit a lot of greenhouse gases into the
atmosphere.
  Natural atmospheric processes, like the greenhouse effect, maintain Earth's
temperature at suitable levels for life. However, human activities, such as burning
fossil fuels, have led to increased levels of greenhouse gases, causing global warming
and adverse effects on the environment and living organisms. These impacts include
rising temperatures, melting polar ice caps, flooding in low-lying areas, reduced
biodiversity, changes in global climates, stronger typhoons, and various health-related
issues.

Module 4
Lesson 1
 Specific heat capacity is defined by the amount of heat needed to raise the
temperature of 1 gram of a substance by 1 degree Celsius (0C). Substance with low
specific heat capacity heats up faster while a substance with high specific heat
capacity heats up slowly.
  Sand warms and cools down faster because it has dark color and has a low specific
heat capacity. Sand doesn’t need much energy from the sun to warm in a short period
of time.

 The paper bag moving was caused by the rising warm air from the lighted candle
below it that pushed the bag upward. The activity shows that heated or warm air rises
or tends to move upward.

 Density is how tightly packed the molecules are in an object. Oil is less dense than
water because its particles are less tightly packed than water molecules. If an object
sinks, it is denser than the other object. When air is heated, its molecules gain enough
energy to move around faster and spread out. When a mass of air takes up more space,
it becomes less dense than the surrounding air molecules. Hence, warm air rises above
the cold and denser air below it.

 the air above the lighted candle became warm and less dense than the rest of the air
inside the box which caused it to rise. You observed that the smoke from the mosquito
coil moved inside the box through the side hole. This is so because it came through
the cool air inlet at the side. This movement of the smoke inside the box shows that
the surrounding air is affected by the rising warm air.

 The rising warm air creates a low pressure inside the box which pulls in cool air from
the outside to replace the rising air. Low air pressure is associated with rising air as air
particles leave the surface. As the cool air descends, it creates a high pressure at the
surface. Air that moves from places of high pressure to low pressure make winds.

 Convection is heat transfer by the movement of heated fluid like air. During
convection, heated particles of fluid begin to flow, transferring heat from one part of
the fluid to another. Convection is caused by differences of temperature and density
within a fluid like air. Density is a measure of how much mass than the same volume
of fluid.

Lesson 2
 Monsoons are large-scale wind systems characterized by seasonal changes in
prevailing wind direction, resulting in distinct wet and dry seasons. In the Philippines,
two types of monsoons occur: the northeast monsoon and southwest monsoon,
bringing significant changes in rainfall patterns.
  The northeast monsoon locally known as amihan in the Philippines affects the eastern
parts of the country from October to March. This is brought by the cold air mass that
comes from Siberia and gathers moisture as it travels over the Pacific Ocean. Amihan
is characterized by widespread cloudiness with slight to moderate rainfall and
prevailing cold winds.

 During the months of July to September, the southwest monsoon, known as habagat,
affects the western parts of the Philippines, bringing heavy rainfall and initiating the
rainy season in these areas. Originating from a high-pressure zone in Australia, cool
air absorbs moisture over warm equatorial oceans, resulting in the formation of rain-
laden air masses that release significant rainfall as they move northward and ascend
over land.

 The Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) appears as a band of clouds consisting

of showers, with occasional thunderstorms, that encircles the globe near the equator.

 The Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) is where tropical winds converge due to
temperature differences between the equator and the poles. Cooler air moves toward
the warmer equator to replace rising warm air, leading to condensation of vapor
pressure, cloud formation, and rainfall. Monsoon rainfall often occurs in the ITCZ due
to these atmospheric conditions.

Module 5
Lesson 1
 Direct rays from the Sun, which hit the Earth at a 90-degree angle, provide more
warmth to the areas they reach compared to indirect rays, which hit the Earth at an
angle. The equator receives direct rays, resulting in warmer temperatures, while the
poles receive indirect rays, leading to colder conditions.