incident. Therefore, the key to effective SAR operations lies
Due to their adaptability, affordability, and
in accurately estimating the ship's drift path.
The distress target's force formula is [3] :
𝑑𝑣
𝑀 × + 𝑚𝑓 = 𝐹𝑤 + 𝐹𝑐 (1)
𝑑𝑡
M : The mass of the distress target
𝑑𝑣 : The speed of the distress target
mf : The Coriolis force
𝐹𝑤 : The force of the wind on the portion of
the distressed target
𝐹𝑐 : The force which seawater exerts on the distress
target.
Fig. 3 : The SAR target's drift trajectory and the
anticipated scatter dispersion at every instant [3]
The Lagrange particle tracking algorithm [20] is
employed to calculate particle displacement, capturing
variations in physical quantity as particles move and
intuitively generating their motion paths. This dynamic
particle tracking is facilitated by the algorithm's continuous
solution for particle displacement. However, in the drift
prediction equation, the use of both experimental and
empirical coefficients introduces inherent calculation errors.
To enhance prediction accuracy, the model calculates drift
trajectories for five hundred particles Fig. 3, determining the
Search and Rescue (SAR) range based on their collective
drift range [3].
To create a convex hull, the Graham scanning process
[22] is used. Graham's scan is a time-complex method for
finding the convex hull of a finite set of points in the plane.
The convex hull is formed by combining two convex
polygons. However, using the convex polygon as the search
area can affect search route planning. To address this, the
convex polygon is transformed to create the Minimal Area
Bounding Rectangle (MABR) [21] that encompasses it, and
the search region is determined by the drift time [3].
B. Autonomous robots
Once the search region is identified, in Search and
Rescue (SAR) operations, especially in marine situations,
autonomous robots, such as Unmanned Surface Vehicles
(USVs), Unmanned Underwater Vehicles (UUVs) [15], and
support Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) [27], are
essential.
simplicity of use, small-scale unmanned aerial vehicles
(UAVs) are being used in a wide range of industries,
including construction, border control, environmental
monitoring, disaster surveillance, search and rescue
operations, and commodities delivery. These applications
need sophisticated three-dimensional (3D) spatial awareness
and reliable wireless connectivity to be successful [23].
Along with support UAVs, surface and underwater
robots are often employed in maritime SAR missions. These
robots are outfitted with specialised sensors designed to
meet the demands of marine SAR. Seismometers,
hydrophones, sensors for water and weather conditions, and
sensors measuring seafloor pressure are examples of this.
Their uses range from employing laser fluorosensors to
identify compounds to detecting earthquakes, tsunamis, and
oil spills [17].
Robotic SAR systems must react quickly in sea SAR
operations [25] because these operations are characterised
by unexpected incidents and are impacted by several aspects
such as ambient conditions, location devices, and injury
circumstances [17]. Particularly in close proximity to
shorelines, the vital function these systems serve is
exemplified by innovations like as the life-ring drone
delivery system [26].
Projects like ICARUS [15] provide as examples of how
autonomous robots, including support UAVs, UUVs, and
USVs, might work together in maritime SAR. USVs are
superior in assessment, whereas UAVs are useful in
mapping. The combined use of USVs and UUVs, frequently
with UAV assistance, for activities including mapping,
surveying, identifying pipe leaks, and locating victims
underwater is still being investigated [17].
Fig. 4 : Pars robot [27]
One illustrative example of an autonomous robot is Pars,
an innovative Unmanned Aerial System (UAS) designed for
maritime rescue. Through radio control, lifeguards or rescue
teams can operate Pars. By lowering life rings, this eight-
rotor rescue robot effectively reaches injured people at sea.
A victim 75 metres off the coast received a float from Pars
in 22 seconds, as opposed to 90 seconds for a human
lifeguard, in a practical exercise showcasing the device's
greater speed. It is vital to identify the victim's exact
location precisely because it guarantees the proper
deployment of emergency flotation devices. A possibly life-