Lecture Notes in Production Engineering

Hans Kurt Toenshoff

Berend Denkena

Basics of Cutting
and Abrasive
Processes
Chapter 12
Broaching

12.1 Broaching Process

Broaching is a productive cutting process of serial production. Functional surfaces

of high surface quality at a high dimension and form accuracy can be generated by
a single tool stroke. The process is characterised by a high material removal rate.
A broaching tool, which carries out a straight cutting motion, is composed of
several/many offsetwise positioned cutting edges (Fig. 12.1). Special variants
(rotary broaching, gear shaving of involute surfaces) cut with rotary cutting
motions. Broaching is the only cutting process, which works without feed motion
given that the engagement from cutting edge to cutting edge is achieved by their
grading or offset. Thus, the undeformed chip thickness is predefined by the tool.
One must differentiate between internal and external broaching. During internal
broaching, a tool is pulled or pushed through a prefabricated hole [DIN8589-5].
Internal broaching is typically applied for the manufacturing of profiled holes
such as quadrangular, polygonal and spline profiles, internal gearing and grooves
(Fig. 12.2). Since the tools which are bound to the profile and due to the offset
(undeformed chip thickness) mostly also to the material, are very elaborate
because of their complex construction, internal broaching is only applied either in
serial production or for the manufacturing of standardised profiles, if an elaborate
tool can be amortised by means of a higher number of orders or different appli-
cations (example: standardised spline profiles). External broaching is used for the
manufacturing of plan or profiled surfaces. Frequently, it is the more productive
alternative to milling. Yet, a sufficient serial size should also be required in this
case (Fig. 12.2).
During a tool stroke, roughing, finishing, fine finishing and sizing processes are
generally carried out. The undeformed chip thicknesses can be adapted accord-
ingly by varying the offset. The strongest forces occur during the roughing phase.
High dimension and form accuracies up to IT7 (normal IT8) can be achieved by
broaching. It is also possible to generate high surface qualities of Rz up to 5 lm
(normal Rz = 6, 3–25 lm, with special effort up to 1 lm). However, the position

H. K. Toenshoff and B. Denkena, Basics of Cutting and Abrasive Processes, 237

Lecture Notes in Production Engineering, DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-33257-9_12,
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013
238 12 Broaching

Fig. 12.1 Internal broaching tool with tooth graduation

Fig. 12.2 Internally and externally broached profiles

accuracy during internal broaching may be critical, since the workpieces are mostly
supported afloat and the slender tools possess only a low transverse stiffness.
Broaching tools are mostly manufactured from high speed steel. The cutting
materials HS 6-5-2, HS 6.-5-2-5 or HS 2-9-2 with hardnesses of 64 HRC to
66 HRC are common. Due to the percussion-type load of the cutting edges, the
cutting material has to be tough enough. The broaching tools can be coated with
titanium nitride (TiN) or titanium carbonitride (TiCN) so as to increase the tool life
12.1 Broaching Process 239

travel path. Only coating processes with working temperatures below the
annealing temperature can be applied because of the hardened high speed steel.
These are PVD processes at 480–500 C. Due to their high value, the broaching
tools are reground repeatedly. This occurs at the rake face, at which the first
coating is lost. Nevertheless, the coating has a supportive effect on the flank face
and delays the wear. So as to limit the regrinding depth, it is advantageous to work
only up to a flank wear land of 0.2 mm. In some cases broaching tools with
cemented carbide elements are used for high volume production. The profitability
for the choice of the cutting material is to be considered.
Materials with strengths in a wide area of 400–1,000 N/mm2 can be broached.
However, it has proved of value to hold steel workpieces at strengths of
500–900 N/mm2, so as to avoid overstressing the cutting edges (high strength of
material) or smearing and unfavourable long chips (low strength).
A linearly distributed, spatially inclined resulting force acts at every cutting
edge. It can be summarised in one discrete force Fz and broken down into three
components: the cutting force Fc in cutting direction; perpendicular to it and
normal to the created surface, the normal cutting force FcN and vertical to both
components, the passive force Fp (Fig. 12.3).
Only if the cutting edges are inclined against the cutting direction (k = 0), does
the passive force Fp not disappear. The cutting force can be determined with the
approach of Kienzle via the specific cutting force kc—as stated before:

Fig. 12.3 Forces at the cutting edge

240 12 Broaching

Table 12.1 Undeformed chip thicknesses, cutting space values and cutting speeds
Material fz (lm) c vc (m/min)
Roughing Finishing
Steel 10–150 3–30 5–15 6–25
Non ferrous metals 20–200 10–40 3–12 10–40
Synthetics 30–60 10–30 5–15 10–40

Pc mc
kc ¼ ¼ kc1:1 ðh=ho Þ ð12:1Þ
Qw
and so the cutting force is
X
z
Fc ¼ kc bj hj gj ð12:2Þ
j¼1

In Eq. 12.2, the cutting width bj is given by the length of the engaged cutting
edge j. For example, if a circular hole is broached that is then the circumference.
The undeformed chip thickness hj results from the graduation and z is the number
of cutting edges. The factor gj considers whether the corresponding cutting edge is
in the engagement or not and is accordingly either 1 or 0. The tool tooth pitch ls
determines the length of the broaching tool, which is limited by the maximum
stroke of the broaching machine, via the offset. The minimum tooth pitch ls,min
results from the necessary cutting space to be provided between the single cutting
edges, an addition for the regrinding at the cutting surfaces of the cutting edges and
a rest thickness of the cutting wedge (see Fig. 12.1). A common experience for-
mula is [SCH80]
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ls ¼ 2; 5 h lw c ð12:3Þ
with the undeformed chip thickness h, the cutting path lw and the chip space factor c
(see Table 12.1). Depending on the material (Table 12.1), the chip space factor is
determined.
The positioning of the cutting edges is generally adjusted to generate an offset
in depth. That means that the cutting edges are placed parallel to the final contour.
In lateral offset, the material is broached diagonally to the final contour (Fig. 12.4).
Lateral offset is applied so as to avoid excessive wear on the casting or forging
skin of a workpiece. The undeformed chip thicknesses are determined by the offset
of the broaching tool. Table 12.1 provides some reference values, at which we
must differentiate between roughing and finishing [LAN05].
The periodical cutting edge engagement leads to force fluctuations and thus to
the vibrational excitation of the machine. Figure 12.5 illustrates the force–time
course for a straight-grooved (k = 0) and a diagonally-grooved (k = 0) tool. For
internal broaching, straight-grooved tools are generally used, because diagonal
grooves are more difficult to manufacture. Whereas during external broaching, a
finite inclination angle arranges for a smoother force increase, so that the dynamic
12.1 Broaching Process 241

Fig. 12.4 Offset or

graduation of broaching
tools

load on the system machine-tool-workpiece is considerably lower. A Fourier

analysis of the trapezoidal force course results in
^c
4F 1 1 1
FcTR ¼ sin a sin X þ sin 3a sin 3X t þ sin 5a sin 5X . . . ð12:4Þ
pa 12 32 52
with the time t and
2p 2p
a¼ a ;X ¼ vc ; a ¼ dw tan k
lw ls
In the case k = 0, the function is not explained according to Eq. 12.4, because
the numerator and denominator disappear at the same time. With the rule by
L’Hospital it is possible to name a limit value for the rectangular force course FcRE

Fig. 12.5 Cutting force time course

242 12 Broaching

^c
4F 1 1
FcRE ¼ lim FcTR ¼ sin X t þ sin 3X t þ sin 5X þ . . . ð12:5Þ
k!0 p 3 5
Equation 12.4 shows that the excitation with the basic frequency
f ¼ 21p X ¼ mc =ls is dominant. This is different with inclined steep engagement
FcRE (see chart 12.5). On the one hand, the amplitude relation (only calculated
with the first element) is higher by the factor,
FcRE =FcTR ¼ a=sin a ð12:6Þ
On the other hand, all the following elements of the series are considerably
higher with a steep gradient. This means that the acceleration is several times
stronger at k = 0 and higher natural frequencies are also stimulated to a consid-
erably higher degree. In this case—that means especially for internal broaching—
the dynamic behaviour of the machine and the broaching tool with its clamping are
especially critical.

12.2 Machine Development

Most internal broaching machines work with pulled tools. So the unloaded part of
the broaching tool is long and tends to considerable bending vibrations, especially
in the initial or roughing phase. Some internal broaching machines therefore work
with pushed tools. This constellation may have the advantage that the tool is well-
guided after its clamping, but it also has the disadvantage that the tools are loaded
at buckling, which can be critical.
A constellation of interest in this context is the pull–push-broaching machine.
The tool is tightly clamped at both ends by means of a thrust rod, both clamping
bridges are tightly connected with each other and jointly driven. The principle and
a spring representation are shown in Figs. 12.6 and 12.7.
Dependent on the design of the broaching tool, this can be the most compliant
element in the force flow. In a mechanical sense, the force-penetrated components
of a broaching machine can be understood as a chain of springs connected in series
from the point of action, where the tool and the workpiece are in contact, over the
broaching tool, the broaching slide(s), the base frame of the machine up to the tool
bridge. The total stiffness kges results from

1 Xn
1
ð12:7Þ
kges i¼1
ki

That means that the total stiffness is always lower than the lowest stiffness of
one of the components.
As visible in Fig. 12.6, the broaching tool is clamped between an upper and a
lower bridge, after having been inserted into the workpiece. Both bridges are moved
concurrently.
12.2 Machine Development 243

Fig. 12.6 Pull-push internal broaching machine (type LLR, Balve)

Fig. 12.7 Force balance

244 12 Broaching

Broaching force F acts between the tool and the workpiece. This force is
determined by the cutting process. On the one hand, the broaching force is sup-
ported by the workpiece bridge and, on the other hand, transmitted into the base
frame of the machine by the mobile slides, i. e. the push-and pull-bridge. The
system is symmetrically designed. Thus, no tilting or bending moments occur,
which develop in an unsymmetrical constellation and then have to be supported by
the guideways of the broaching slide against the base frame of the machine.
How the broaching force is introduced into the driven pushing bridge via the
mobile part, i. e. what pull and push forces develop in the broaching tool, depends
on the stiffnesses of the transfer elements. The spring representation illustrated in
Fig. 12.7 is used to determine the force distribution. The compliance of the push
and pull bridge (bending) and the ball bearing spindle as well as the connecting
rods (pressure) is reproduced by the spring constant ks. The springiness of the
upper and lower part of the broaching tool is characterised by the spring constants
ko (upper part) and ku (lower part).
Thus, only the forces F and -F act on the spring system from the outside. On
the inside of the system, Fu (lower part) and Fo (upper part) act in the broaching
tool. The forces are transferred onto the pushing bridge (upper part) via the ball
bearing spindles. Thus, the following applies:
F Fo Fu ¼ 0 ð12:8Þ
Under the influence of these forces, their points of action are displaced by the
small dislocation x1 at the point of action of the broaching force and xu at the
pushing bridge (lower part).
Therefore, the following applies:
F Fu ¼ ko x1 ð12:9Þ
and
Fu ¼ ks xu ð12:10Þ
Since Fu also acts in the thrust rod as well as in the lower part of the broaching
tool, the following also applies:
Fu ¼ ku ðx1 xu Þ ð12:11Þ
The spring constants ks, ku and ko can be calculated from the sizes and the
elastic properties of the force penetrated components. So after a force balance, the
following applies:
ko ðku þ ks Þ ku ðku þ ks Þ
Fo ¼ F Fu ¼ F ð12:12Þ
ko ku þ ko ks þ ku ks ko ku þ ko ks þ ku ks
So as to simplify the calculation, it is to be assumed that ks is much larger than
ko and ku
ks ko ; ku
12.2 Machine Development 245

The Eq. 12.12 will then become

ko ku
Fo ¼ F Fo ¼ F ð12:13Þ
ko þ ku ko þ ku
In principle, this simplification is not necessary for the calculation.
For an elastic calculation, the broaching tool is understood as a cylindric bar.
Furthermore, it is assumed that the stiffnesses of the push and pull bridge are
irrelevant for a comparison, regardless of their type of drive. They are, however,
loaded by bending and therefore definitely contribute to the total compliance.
The spring constants ko and ku are variable along the travel x with the E-module
E, the cross-section A and the bar length l. Thus, the following applies:
E A E A
ku ¼ ko ¼ ð12:14Þ
x l x
With Eq. 12.7, the following results:
x l x
Fo ¼ F Fu ¼ F ð12:15Þ
l l
The force course is illustrated in Fig. 12.8.
So one can recognise that the pressure force in the broaching tool is low, if the
free buckling length is big and vice versa. As a consequence, the danger of
buckling is considerably reduced in spite of the proportionate pressurisation of the
tool. Then again, the tool is actively guided at both ends. Practical experiments
have shown that the tool life quantities at internal broaching on the machines,
according to the push and pull principle can be increased considerably, compared
with conventional machines [TÖN03].
Characteristics for broaching machines are the maximum broaching force and
the maximum broaching length. Internal and external broaching machines with
broaching forces of up to 1,200 kN and broaching strokes of up to 3,000 mm are
on offer. The drives can be carried out electro-mechanically or with hydraulic.
Broaching is a difficult cutting process with high technological requirements. For
internal broaching, the pilot holes have to lie within tight tolerances, which have to
be lower than the maximum undeformed chip thickness. Too small pilot holes
make broaching impossible. If the pilot holes are too big, drifts and strong position

Fig. 12.8 Forces and

stiffnesses
246 12 Broaching

deviations are to be expected. This error can also lead to the jamming and tearing
of the tool. In addition, the contact surface of the workpiece has to be at a right
angle to the pilot hole. If special position or angle tolerances are predetermined,
the internal broaching operations should be carried out first before the external
machining. Even if that means clamping in the broached surfaces and considering
these tolerances, which are not easily complied with. Hardened workpieces can
also be broached. In that case, hard metal or cubic crystalline bornitride (PCB) is
used as a cutting material. Machines and tools have to be apt for hard broaching. In
view of the technological difficulties of the process broaching, all precautions have
to be made so as to avoid tearing or badly damaging the complex tools.

12.3 Questions

1. Which motion does a broaching tool carry out?

2. What does the undeformed chip thickness result from?
3. Name typical applications of broaching.
4. What is lateral offset applied for?
5. What does the tooth pitch of a broaching tool result from?
6. Why is there a limit to the workpiece height for a given broaching machine?
7. Name orders of magnitude for undeformed chip thicknesses in broaching.
What differentiation has to be carried out?
8. Outline the dynamic cutting force course in broaching for k = 0 and k = 0.
9. Why does one work mostly at k = 0 in internal broaching?
10. How can the acceleration frequencies be determined from the time course of
the cutting force?
11. What are the advantages and disadvantages of internal broaching machines
with pushed tools?
12. Describe the force course of an internal broaching machine in a push–pull-
constellation?

References

[DIN 8589-5] DIN 8589-5: Fertigungsverfahren Spanen, Teil 5: Räumen, Einordnung,

Unterteilung, Begriffe/Manufacturing processes chip removal—Part 5:
Broaching; classification, subdivision, terms and definitions, Beuth (2003)
[LAN05] Lang, H.: Trockenräumen mit hohen Schnittgeschwindigkeiten—Werkzeug
und Prozesskenngrößen für die Weich- und Hartbearbeitung [Dry broaching
with high cutting speeds—tool and process parameters for soft and hard
machining]. Dr.-Ing. Diss. Universität Karlsruhe (2005)
[SCH80] Schweitzer, K.: Räumen [Broaching]. In: Spur, G. Th. Stöferle (Hrsg.):
Handbuch der Fertigungstechnik (Band 3/2), Hanser-Verlag (1980)
[TÖN03] Tönshoff, H.K., Lübbers, E.: Produktivitätssprünge beim Räumen [Productiv-
ity leaps in broaching]. ZWF 7/8 (2003)
Chapter 13
Grinding

13.1 Cutting with Geometrically Undefined Cutting Edges

The process of the group ‘‘abrasive processes’’ or ‘‘Cutting with geometrically

undefined cutting edges’’ is structured according to DIN8589-0 (see Sect. 1.2), in
the processes grinding with rotating tools, belt grinding, stroke grinding, honing,
lapping, free abrasive cutting and abrasive blast cutting (Fig. 13.1). Processes with
fixed and loose abrasive particles can be distinguished. These processes are mainly
finishing processes. But nowadays, the development of high power grinding pro-
cesses permits the economic realisation of high material removal rates, so that the
areas of application of the processes with a geometrically undefined cutting edge is
no longer limited to finishing.
The removal of material can be a path-linked manner (grinding, honing), force-
linked (lapping) or energy-linked (blasting). The cutting edges of the abrasive
particles are thereby moved tangentially (e.g., in grinding) or normally (e.g., in
lapping) to the existing surface (Fig. 13.2). This effective motion determines the
effective mechanism: During the normal penetration of the single cutting edges
material is displaced and as a consequence of these wedge-type, plastic deforma-
tions is also tangentially shifted. Several or many such displacement processes
[SIM88] in one place, e.g., during lapping, lead to the disruption and separation of
material parts. The abrasive particles roll off on the workpiece driven by the lapping
wheel and are thereby continuously pressed, normally into the workpiece surface.
When the single cutting edges penetrate tangentially e.g., during grinding, the
process generally resembles cutting with a geometrically defined cutting edge. In
principal, the same separating mechanisms occur during the processes of both
groups (Fig. 13.3). In grinding, however, the cutting edges are formed by hard
material abrasive particles at which one abrasive particle can have several active
cutting edges. In general, the dimensions of the elements involved are consid-
erably smaller than in cutting with geometrically defined cutting edges. Cutting
with bond abrasive particles generally occurs with a strongly negative cutting
angle. When cutting with rotating tools, the paths of the cutting edges correspond
to epicycloids (by means of cutting and feed motions). The form of the cutting

H. K. Toenshoff and B. Denkena, Basics of Cutting and Abrasive Processes, 247

Lecture Notes in Production Engineering, DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-33257-9_13,
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013