CHAPTER I The concrete

material

1. The concrete material

Concrete is a mixture in appropriate proportions of aggregates, water and cement.

Aggregates consisting of sand and gravel form a stiffened skeleton in which the gap between
elements is filled with a paste of a mixture of water and cement. To fix ideas, in a cubic meter of
concrete, the weight of the constituents in magnitudes are the following:

Cement 200 to 500 kg

Sand from 400 to 700 kg
chippings 800 to 1200 kg
Water 150 to 200 kg (Water / cement ~ 0.4 to 0.7).

2. The components of the concrete

2.1 aggregates
Aggregates are inert materials, which come from:
- either from natural deposits and simply need to be selected through a screening, it will be
rounded aggregates to be called aggregates rolled;

- or extracting solid rock crushed to obtain the desired dimensions, it will be crushed
aggregate;
- or special manufacturing for producing special concrete: lightweight concrete, heavy,

refractory concrete. Nature of concrete or

Volumic mass Nature aggregates

the book concrete
Concrete classic site or 2,2 to 2,4 t / m 3 All rolled or crushed aggregate with
prefabrication preference for quartz, limestone or
sand-lime
Concrete architectural 2,2 to 2,4 t / m 3 The same, but basalts, granites, diorites,
apparent which offer a palette rich in appearance and
color
lightweight concrete to structure 1.5 to 1.8 t / m 3 Clay, slag

semi-insulating 1 to 1.5 t / m 3 Clay, pozzolan

insulating 0.3 to 0.8 t / m 3 Cork, wood, polystyrene, glass
heavy concrete 3 to 5 t / m 3 Corundum, magnetite
refractory concrete 2.2 to 2.5 t / m 3 Corundum, refractory waste,
silicaux bricks, alumina, dairy

Pozzolan: red volcanic rock Magnetite:

iron oxide (rock)
Corundum: rock aluminum oxide.

1
The main characteristics of the aggregates are:
The cleanliness of aggregates
For gravel, we appreciate cleanliness by weighing before and after washing with water, then drying a
quantity representative of the whole.
Impurities are indicated in percentage of the weight of own material: weight change of weight of the
washed material - dried. For quality concrete, this value should not exceed 2%.

For the sand, cleanliness is assessed by means of various tests, the most common is the equivalent of
sand. The sand equivalent ( ES) is represented by one hundred times the ratio of two heights measured
on a measuring cylinder after decantation of a quantity of sand stirred in a washing solution.

Sands for the

making concrete must have an ES>
70.

2
The shape of aggregates
Assessing this, there is determined a coefficient of flattenings ( A) involving the ratio between the
dimension (G) of the minimum square mesh through which the grit and the minimum distance (E)
between two parallel planes containing the gravel.

The determination of this coefficient is performed per double sieving: first through a sieve with square
mesh G and then parallel slotted spacer grids G / 1.58
.
The kurtosis is defined as the percentage of the elements such that G / E> 1.58.

The fixed standard the maximum value of this coefficient to 30% (A <30%).

3
the particle size
To know the size distribution in a set of aggregates, one proceeds to a particle size analysis.

The analysis consists of measuring by means of screens and move quantities of materials that cross
or remain on these son:
* the undersize is what goes through
* the refusal is what remains.
* present a sieve with square mesh holes
* present a strainer round holes.
There particle size of identity if the diameter of the circular hole is equal to 1.25 times the side of the square
mesh.

A class of aggregate, designated by d / D is comprised of aggregates retained by the sieve whose

holes have a diameter "d" after passing through the holes "D" of the upper sieve for example, a 16/25
grit is consists of elements which are 16 mm smaller and larger 25 mm. In a given construction
element, the maximum aggregate size should not exceed the lower of the following values:

* a quarter of the smallest dimension of the element

* the distance between the armatures least 5 mm
* 1.3 times the thickness of concrete cover.

The water content and the water absorption coefficient

* water content: the ratio of the amount of continuous water in the material in the natural state to the dry
mass of the carried material to 105º C.
* absorption coefficient: the ratio of the amount of water absorbed by the material immersed for
24 hours at 20º C in the dry mass of the material.

4
The fixed maximum normalization coefficient from 4 to 3%.

The mechanical properties of aggregates

These characteristics are assessed on the sands by measuring friability (test "Micro-Deval") and on
the gravel by a measurement of impact resistance and wear (Los Angeles test and Micro-Deval dry or
in the presence of water).

friability coefficient sands

It allows to assess the resistance to fragmentation on the fraction 0.1 / 2 mm from the sand. The
Micro-Deval test consists in measuring the mass of the lower elements to 0.05 mm produced after
introduction of the sand in the presence of water in a rotating cylinder equipped with steel balls. FS = 100 x mass
products elements (less than 0.05 mm)

initial sand mass to be tested

The required values ​are less than 40 or even 20, depending on the expected performance of the concrete.

Impact resistance
The principle of the test identical to that of the MDS for sands.
Los Angeles coefficient (LA) Dry measured on granular classes (4 / 6.3 to 25/50) each subjected to
the action of a specific number of steel balls (500 t / min). LA = 100 x weight of product items (less
than 1.6mm)

Mass of starting aggregates

Micro-Deval dry or in the presence of MDS or MDE water concerns three ranges granularities 4 / 6.3 - 6.3
/ 10 and 10/14. The values ​required are:
THE <40 or 25 MDE
<35 or 20

2.2 cements
Called hydraulic binders because capable of hardening under water. They are in the form of fine
powder of silicate and lime aluminate hydrates in the presence of water to form a solid material.

The manufacture of Portland cement

They are manufactured by grinding an artificial rock obtained after cooking until a partial melting of
about 1450º C, mixtures of limestone and clay (about 80% - 20%). Grinding is done in the presence
of a low percentage of gypsum (sulphate of lime) which will allow regular use of cement.

The main constituents of cement

The Clinker:
The main constituents of clinker are:
* tricalcium silicate if O 2 - 3 CaO (C 3 S)
* dicalcium silicate if O 2 - 2 CaO (C 2 S)
* tricalcium aluminate Al 2 O 3 - 3 CaO (C 3 AT)
* alumino - ferrite tetracalcium 4 CaO - Fe 2 O3 - Al 2 O3 (C4 AF)

5
according to the proportions of these elements, which will result cements will have particular
properties, such as:
* good resistance to water with low sulfated C 3 AT
* high mechanical strength with high levels of C 3 S
* white cement, if no C 4 AF.

The secondary constituents

* milk: forming the mineral residue of the preparation of the cast
* fly ash combustion residue collected dust collectors of coal fired power plants

* pouzzonlanes.

2.3 The water

The mixing water should not contain organic materials, drinking water is suitable. The sea water is
not recommended.

2.4 The additives

plasticizers
They are in liquid form or in the form of very fine powders that improve handling and implementation
of concrete.
They are also called water reducers because they reduce the amount of mixing water.

The air coaches

As powder or liquid. They are incorporated in the mixing water and produce in the concrete of air
microbubbles. This air improves handling, allows water reduction and provides good protection against
the effect of the concrete from freezing.

Accelerators and hardening

also incorporated during the production of concrete, they allow more cement hydration speed, useful
for urgent work.

retardants
They cause a slowing of hydration and will be used particularly for concreting in hot weather or
important job deadlines fresh concrete (increases resistance).

The anti-gels and anti-frost susceptible

The anti-gels provide protection of fresh concrete against the effects of frost accelerating its socket.

The anti-frost susceptible protect concrete from freezing after taking. In practice, a product combining both
functions is used.

3. The composition of concrete

The study of the composition of concrete is to look in the laboratory from available components,
aggregates, water, possible additives, the amounts to be mixed to obtain the most suitable concrete
part of the work to be performed. Several methods have been developed (Abrams, Joisel
Dreux-Gorisse, etc.).

6
 Moisture content of Dry Wet Wet temper
aggregates

Aspect Mat, a little dusty Brilliant, Very moist, Water runs

slight water deposit between
adhesion aggregates
on the hand on the hand
% Water sand 0 to 3% 4 to 7% 8-11% > 12%
% Water

4. The properties of concrete

4.1 Consistency
The consistency characterizes workability (workability - ability to implement) of concrete which
depends mainly on the amount of water contained in the concrete. The test most commonly practiced
to measure the consistency is called "slump test" (by means of a slump cone).

The test consists of filling a frustoconical roller (base diameter 20 cm, top 10 cm, height 30 cm) 4
stitched layers 25 strokes each by means of a base of 16 mm diameter. The level of the concrete of
the last layer is set at the vertex of the cone, then the mold is removed vertically with care. The value
of consistency is the value in centimeters of concrete slump cone after release.

4.2 The catch

The cement hydration occurs by unstable minerals that transform into crystals.

7
The amount of water needed for the hydration is only 25 to 30% by weight of cement, the rest of water is
absorbed by the porosity of the aggregates or remains as free water which will be eliminated by drying.

The concrete begins to set, when the mixture changes rapidly enough viscosity to produce heat;
taking is completed when this mixture forms a rigid block. The initial setting, very important in
determining the implementation period, appreciates a standard test using the "Vicat needle" it is to
measure the time at which a calibrated needle (1 mm 2 section) and charged (300 g) can no longer
penetrate to the bottom of a container filled with pure cement paste (generally 1 hour to 1:30 pm).

in general there is a setting time of mortar on top of one hour setting time of pure pulp.

4.3 Hardening and resistance

Hydration will continue for several days, even months, to allow the concrete to achieve strength.

The resistance measurement

The compressive strength of concrete depends on the shape of the compact. In France, it is usually
measured by axial compression of specimens of concrete cylindrical slenderness 2, whose cross
section is 200 cm 2 it is the standard test specimens height 32 cm and diameter 16 cm.

Elancement Out of the value

Diameter Out of the value

16/32 A cylindrical specimen with break 30 MPa is equivalent to:

- 16/64 a cylindrical specimen with rupture to 28 Mpa
- 25/50 a cylindrical specimen with rupture 28.5 Mpa
- a cubic test piece 14 x 14 with break Mpa 36 14 14 x 200 cm 2 3.14 *
(16) 2 / = 4 x 0.83 = cube cylinder
- a cubic test piece 25 x 25 with rupture 33.2 Mpa. The structural calculations are made on the

basis of compressive strength at 28 days fc 28.

To make an order of magnitude, compression strength in the day "j" before 28 days (fc j) are close to:
fc j = 0,685 fc 28 log (j + 1)

8
5. The manufacture of concrete
5.1 The choice of material
Depending on the size of the site, a simple mixer will be used site, we will use a concrete plant ready
or we deem necessary to install a concrete manufacturing plant on the site.

The concrete mixer site

This material allows to make the wasted from 100 to 500 liters of concrete. This is generally used by
the mason material.
It consists of rotating vessel, in horizontal or inclined axis, in which are fixed helical form of pallets.
These pallets ensure mixing of the components for one direction of rotation of the tank and the drain
thereof to the opposite direction of rotation.

9
The concrete plant
Concrete plants use from 0.5 to 3.5 m vats 3 capacity to ensure production speeds of between 15 to
120 m 3 / h.

5.2 The functions of a concrete plant

Storage components
Storage of aggregates: they are sometimes stored in silos but more often in the open air and
separately by class.

10
The storage of cement: cement is usually stored in silos.

The introduction of the constituents of order

Before being introduced into the kneader or the mixer, the solid materials are usually placed in skip in
the following order: gravel, cement, sand. After loading the contents of the skip, the water is
discharged directly into the mixer or cement mixer.

Mixing the components

Mixing is carried out by means of mixer or mixer whose speed of rotation is about 15 to 20 rpm and
the mixing time is 2 to 3 minutes.

6. The fiber concretes

The fibers are designed to limit cracking structures, and in some cases to obtain an improvement in
the mechanical strength.
Various fibers are used: polymer fibers (polyester, nylon, etc.), steel fibers; 20-30 kg of fibers per m 3 of
concrete.

11
 CHAPTER II FORMS

1- The functions Formwork

The forms are elements, usually temporary, which determine the shape and appearance of the work
in ensuring the stability of the fresh concrete until his hardening.

2- The Cost of Formwork

It is easily understood that more forms of work will be complex, thin or slender more from the
formwork will be important in the price per cubic meter of concrete. The order to hand the magnitude
of work time per m 3 Concrete can be appreciated as follows:

Designation Quantity to m 3 Duration Total duration by quantity

formwork 4 to 6m 2 2-3 h / m 2 8-18 h
reinforcement 100 kg 7-10 h / 100 kg 7-10 h
Concrete 1 m3 3-8 h / m 3 3-8 h

The cubic meter of reinforced concrete coffered 18 to 36 hours.

The labor time consumed by the forms are close to half the time necessary for the realization of the
work.

3- The constituents of a Formwork

Formwork usually consists of an assembly of five elements that are "skin", the frame, the support, the
security elements and accessories.
- The skin : This is the temporary surface which in contact with concrete, will determine its final
appearance in him leaving his mark.
- The framework : It maintains the shuttering skin and transfer efforts support.

- The support : Its function is to ensure the position, the setting and stability of the assembly during
the concreting phase.
- Security features They allow you to use the formwork in the best safety conditions.

- The accessories : They are trained additional equipment

necessary for the use of formwork.

12
13
3-1 The different formwork skins
The choice of shuttering skin will depend on the surface condition but also to get desired number of
re-employment.

14
- Wood : This is the most frequently used material in the form of boards or plywood large whose
thicknesses vary from 5 to 25
mm.
- Metal : It is generally the steel that is used in the form of sheets (3 to 5 mm) or thick sheets (7
to 12 mm).
- Special materials : This is shuttering skins made using polyester, rubber to obtain complex
shapes usually difficult to unmold.

3-2 and the support frame

The framework allows through its main and secondary beams to limit deformation of the skin and
defer to the support the forces transmitted by the fresh concrete. The secondary beams are the most
numerous, they can consist of grids wood or folded sheets whose spacing ranges from 20 to 40 cm.
The main beams further apart, but more important sections are fixed orthogonally to earlier.

The support (in the past) tree trunks (called "sapines") Next cut the required height. The overall
stability is ensured by a spacer formed of planks nailed diagonally between "sapines" or "was".
Currently, use is commonly tubular metal was. The adjustment is made to jack screw means.

15
3-3 Security features
Example: scale, body guard.

3-4 Accessories
the spacers : They provide relative position of two formwork faces conform to the thickness of the work
to achieve.

16
Reservations : They are made of materials in form and determined position, put in place on the
formwork skin and for holding a volume without concrete (switch housing, etc.)

4. Designing forms
Formwork will be designed based on many parameters that must be analyzed individually and
globally.

4-1 prescribed aspect siding

- geometry
- texture: smooth, rough
- Hue: Color.
4-2 The choice of skin
Depending on the shape, texture, repetition.

4-3 Selection of the framework and the support

Equipment availability. Preferably use elements studied previously and manufactured in the
workshop. Using support devices ensuring stability, allowing for easy adjustments. Ensuring access
and security personnel during the performance; and the quality, stability, compliance with
specifications for siding, waterproofing, durability of materials, quality, deadlines and prices.

4-4 Calculation of formwork

4-4-1 The applied forces
The calculation of a formwork begins with determining the efforts that will be applied to it. It is
necessary to examine the impact of the following:

17
- the weight of the formwork
- the weight of the reinforcements
- the weight of the concrete do
- the thrust of the fresh concrete
- the weight of personnel
- dynamic effects brought by pouring concrete
- dynamic effects brought by the vibration of concrete
- parasites actions to wind, etc. 4-4-2 The

verifications
On a practical level, there will be frequent use of materials usage charts.

5. The thrust of the fresh

concrete Experiments 5-1
The concrete would be poured quickly into a form would behave approximately as a density of about
2.5 fluid.
In this case, the concrete pressure diagram is represented by a triangle, the thrust is zero at the head
and foot with a maximum value equal to 2.5 times the height.

Given the decrease in fluidity of concrete made by taking, many tests were conducted to assess the
likely thrust of concrete during its implementation.

5-2 The estimated thrust

The technology Manual "Formwork" published by the International Committee of Construction
estimates the thrust of the fresh concrete using formulas whose results are shown in tables

Fresh concrete density of 2.5 t / m 3

A Portland cement
The pressure to take into account is the lowest of the three values: P 1 P 2 and P 3.
P1 Indeed height P 2
effect of arc P 3
hardening effect.

6. Mold release agents

Mold release agents or release agents, facilitate demoulding operation allowing a good homogeneity
of the facings while limiting wear to the formwork skin.

6-1 Types and conditions of employment

Oils, simple or adjuvanted; chemical release agents. In case of highly repetitive jobs, it is preferable to
adopt for wood waterproof coatings, such as paints which have to be addressed by a complementary
product that performs the function of mold release.

6-2 Qualities of a release

The most important features of a release are:
- job security (non-aggressive to the skin, without harmful vapors)
- Non-impaired concrete

18
- limitation bubbling and color deviations.

7. Removing formwork
It is possible in some cases to dispense with the use of formwork for the production of horizontal or
vertical pavements:
1. masonry: walls mounted brick or rubble
2. prefabricated elements.

8. Controls
The main controls
For the backbone and the support:
- the lift of the different support points inside the structure and in contact with the wearer field

- the condition of the equipment used

- the geometrical adjustment of the various elements (vertical struts, etc.)
- the topographic survey of the pins prior to concreting. For

shuttering skin:
- Compliance thicknesses, skin elements the dimensions of
- quality appearance of the skin and its preparation (mold release)
- sealing between panels and parts of the works already completed
- respect for the cover to reinforcement

19
 CHAPTER III
IMPLEMENTATION OF CONCRETE

I. Transport of concrete

From its production, the concrete must be transported to its final location by means of transport that
will limit the segregation of components. In the case of manufacturing the concrete plant, concrete
mixer is trucked also called top.

Depending on the nature of the work of part to be concreted, use:

an dump direct discharge but with a drop height of less than 1 m (invert floor)

concrete pumps which discharge by transporting concrete in pipelines over long distances.

II. The use of concrete deadline

The employment period is from the end of the manufacture of concrete at the end of its implementation. This period
includes:
Transport time the waiting time
implementation time.

III. The implementation of concrete

Techniques are used to ensure the compactness of concrete: vibration and spin.

20
III.1 vibration
surface vibration
It applies through screed asked then pulled on guides for clamping and smoothing usually thick slabs
of less than 25cm.

internal vibration
It is realized by means of vibrators 3 to 7cm in diameter and 30-60 cm in length, immersed vertically
and lifts.

21
III.2 spinning
Pressurisation
The water is driven by the formwork walls equipped with filters and pressure is usually provided by
compressed air.

Dewatering by vacuum
These draw the water by vacuum, through the formwork surfaces equipped with filters.

IV. The curing of concrete

Given the duration of hydration of cement, it is necessary to maintain throughout this period the free
water which enters into the composition of the concrete and thus limit its evaporation surfaces or
bring water to these surfaces. This is called the cure.

The different possible treatment methods are:

the impermeable temporary protection: by use of impermeable formwork humidification,
dipping, spraying, intermittent sand kept moist by watering.

The period of application of the cure : According to French regulations:

to a temperature> 10 ° C the duration is of the order of 5 days at a temperature between 5 and
10 ° C, the delays are doubled at t <5 ° C, the cure is ensured as long as the temperature does
not exceed 5 ° C.

22
V. The sprayed concrete

This technique consists of projecting on the walls by means of a lance, a concrete transported in
pipelines.

It is widely used in underground work on embankments or stabilizing cliffs (in association with
anchors).

23
 CHAP IV Stripping

4.1 The deadline for shuttering

The stripping time depends on the strength attained by the concrete so that it can withstand without
damage the stresses due to this operation.

For the walls and columns, the stripping time is of the order of a dozen hours after the concreting
under average climatic conditions (temperature between 10 and 25º C).

By cons, it is essential to appreciate by calculating the necessary strength of concrete when stripping
the after part of the structure is subject to the constraints of its own weight; and surcharges to the
structure.

4.2 Methods of stripping

Stripping must take place progressively and without shock for a given face, the stripping operation
must be carried out continuously to ensure conditions identical treatment to the entire surface.

For the shuttering of horizontal surface, we will proceed first to the loosening was situated near the
supports, was midspan being removed at last. After stripping, the material must be cleaned and
protected if it is planned to reuse.

24
 CHAP V SIDING

5.1 Definition

A facing means:
a concrete surface obtained after stripping a concrete
surface from public view.

25
5.2 The siding appearance

5.2.1 The form

General appearance: the aesthetics of the structure.
Localized aspect depends on the footprint of the tool embodiment which is the formwork, and the distribution
of construction joints.

5.2.2 The texture

5.2.2.1 Gross facings demoulding

When stripping, the texture may be smooth or rough, it results from the nature of the shuttering skin
or technical achievement.

A metal pan and painted plywood will achieve smooth surfaces.

Wooden planks produce more or less rough siding.

5.2.2.2 The concrete surface treatments

Sanding: The surface is attacked by a jet of abrasive projected by compressed air. ( Sandblasting
is to attack the siding with a sandblast projected by compressed air. The most often performed manually, this
technique requires a good knowledge and many precautions to obtain a regular income. Important nuances may
indeed appear if changes in distance during the operation, the projection speed, the angle of incidence of the jet
or the air pressure of the compressor. Aggregates according to their hardness, are more or less eroded by this
technique but, unlike the wash, they are cleared and the concrete surface is more homogeneous.)

Washing: This treatment is applied on fresh concrete to highlight the most frequently rolled
granulation. It is always complementary to a chemical treatment.

26
5.2.2.3 The concrete coatings

A surface of unsurfaced exposed concrete can form a support for carrying out the final cladding to be
constituted of a coating.
Cement coated: usually applied in 3 layers:
* gobetis: constitutes the bonding layer
* the body of coating allows to approximate the geometry of the surface to obtain and seals

* the topcoat.

27
 The paintings

5.2.3 The tint

For gross facing formwork, the hue is determined by the hue of the finest of the formulation of the
concrete elements, cement, and fine sand. A waterproof casing guarantee a uniform color.

28
 2nd PART: FOUNDATION AND EXCAVATION

CHAPTER VI
GENERAL

6.1 Definition

Part of the book is called foundation that rests on the ground and it transmits the forces due to the specific
loads and overloads. thus the stability of a structure depends on the good performance of foundations,
including the study and design of a hand, and implementation on the other are essential.

The practical implementation regarding construction general processes. There are

shallow foundations and deep foundations.

Superficial means accessible to man and designates soles and riffles. The report "H" height
"S" surface of the foundation and weak: Deep involves indirect access, not to man, with the
help of machines. The ratio H / S is high:

29
6.2 shallow foundations

There are the foundation surface in the immediate vicinity of the natural land (possibly several
meters) and deep foundation, from a trench bottom.

Often we try to make shallow foundation depth (not to be confused with a deep foundation).

Example: building with basements in urban areas. It is then digging an excavation, to make an
excavation in the open, accessible to man. If the present insufficient natural soil characteristics, we
can try to consolidate the first. The consolidation process which is called drainage, overloading the
natural terrain, overload and drainage, compaction, etc.

6.3 deep foundations

Fall into this category: piles, supports, and caissons.

30
The term "pile" full support of a circular cross section of diameter varying between 0.2 to 4 m.

We reserve the term "support" to the deep foundations of various shapes (rectangular H, L, t).

Called "box" support hollow circular shape.

It is not uncommon to run deep foundations from a platform not working in the vicinity of the natural
terrain as in most cases, but in depth from a trench bottom.

31
 CHAP VII
VARIOUS PROCESSES OF CONSOLIDATION

7.1 freezing

Freezing unstable land is an old process, to temporary, used for digging or excavation pit. It makes it
resistant and impermeable floor.

The process flow diagram is as follows:

sampling execution banking the structure to be built over the height of aquifers, spacing of
neighboring holes of 1 m. Establishment of refrigerant tubes (probes) closed at their base,
they contain more small tubes open at their lower part. Circulating a liquid at low temperature
supplied through the inner tube and back into the annular space via the heat surrounding
ground.

progressive freezing of the layers around the sensors, obtaining a hard frozen ground wall
and waterproof.
Maintaining this wall during the civil works.

Eg liquid refrigerant is liquid nitrogen, it is transported to the site by special tankers where it is
maintained at a temperature of - 196º C under a pressure of 5 bars.

32
7.2 The draining

7.2.1 vertical drains

The method involves increasing the permeability of the soil in the vertical direction by the laying of permeable
drains over the entire height of the layer to be stabilized. Two types of drains exist:

sand drains, drilling ø 0.50 m drains "wick"

(cardboard, non-woven textile).

To the extent that the clay layers are not consolidated under their own weight, the phenomenon is
accelerated through an overload that may be layers of filler materials (it will fill a height such that the
applied load is greater than the future solicitation of consolidated ground.

33
7.2.2 sub-horizontal drains
It is up drilling, made with rotary rigs, equipped with special tubes, Ø neighbor of 10 cm and length up
to 100 m.

34
Their effectiveness is due, not only to capture and removal of water, but also to changes in flow within
the earth mass: a vertical stabilizer current pressure substituent to a horizontal current pressure
disruptive.

7.3 Dynamic compaction

This is a recent process (1965 - L. Ménard) which involves pounding the floor surface with a
sledgehammer. The energy transmitted by each impact penetrates the ground and produces a
destructuring. After a few days (or weeks) a restructuring takes place which results in improved lift
characteristics. The material consists of a pestle of 8 to 50 t (hull cubic steel or solid cylindrical
reinforced concrete) manipulated by a lifting device (up to 40 m drop height). The current height of
layers to be compacted is 10 to 15 m. Often several compaction operations are required, separated
by a period of a few weeks (2 to 6).

35
36
 CHAP VIII.
INJECTIONS

8.1 General

The introduction into the voids of the soil, a liquid product stiffens later - called grout - allows an
injection of this soil. The purpose of the injection soil treatment can be:

- The consolidation
- and / or sealing. The work to

be performed can be:

- a vertical web
- a land mass on which will be based. The terrain can be:

- fissured rock
- cavities
- a mass of alluvium.

8.2 processes

Generally, the slurry is fed deep into the soil through the drilling. These, with a diameter between 5
and 15 cm, are equipped according to the terrain.

8.2.1 Roche cracked

A drilling executed in cracked rock remains open over a great length due to the good performance of
its walls.

Injection advance : By this method, also called injection downhill, a slice is injected immediately after his
puncture. Perforation and injection therefore succession from top to bottom of the borehole, and after each
injection, it is necessary to perforate the hardened grout.

37
Injection going up : With this method, it executes the drilling along its length, then it is injected starting
from the bottom.

It has the advantage of separate perforation and injection. It does not apply to cracked rocks too.

In both methods, the base slurry used is a simple cement slurry in water. The suspension is diluted
ever: from 1/10 to 1/1 for the C / E ratio (water / cement).

38
8.2.2 cavities

- A first solution is to perform an injection in progress.

- A second solution is to temporarily tuber drilling to its base then inject progressively up the
casing.

8.2.3 alluvium

The injection is always made through a coating tube, eg the tube with sleeves. It usually begins with
the background.

39
8.3 grout

The choice of injection grout depends on the terrain and lens (sealing and / or consolidation).

Type grout util i satio not

RA Ca And Co
cement suspended in water C / E x x x Ca = Cavities
1/10 to 1/1
Cement - clay cement - x x x x x R = Rocher
Suspension

bentonite
Clay or bentonite treated x x A = Alluvium

plastic gel silicate x x And sealing =

Gel of silicate x x Co = Consolidation

(chemicals)

hard
Liquids

binders hydrocarbon x x

40
 CHAP IX WALLS
CAST

1 Overview
It is proposed by the method, to achieve in-situ reinforced concrete vertical wall located under the
work platform from which the operating machine. The schematic succession of elementary operations
is key:
* digging a trench in the shelter of a drilling mud,
* the introduction into the trench of a reinforcement cage, and
* substitution of drilling mud with concrete.

2 Technology
2.1 Preliminary activities

They consist of the installation of the working platform and the execution of the trench-pre or low
walls guides or the présaignée.

High 1m on average, generally in reinforced concrete, the présaignée a slight extra width over the
future wall. It has four functions:

* materializes implantation allows trails and leveling,

* support for certain maneuvers,
* reserve mud at the beginning of perforation,
* stability of land in mind.

41
2.2 Perforation

* The widths can vary from 0.5 m to 1.5 m. Usual widths are 0.6 m and 0.8 m.

* The depths of 30 m are common, exceptional beyond 50m.

* is generally carried out by juxtaposed panels: Primary odd order secondary then.

* The size of the elementary panels is on average 5 to 6 m.

2.3 Drilling mud

The drilling mud is typically a bentonite solution (50 kg) in water (1 m 3). A new mud has a density of
1.04 / 1.05.

The mud deposited on the borehole wall slightly permeable cake which contributes to the stability of
bleeding.

amounts used of the order of 0.5 to 1 m 3 per square meter of trench (or 25 to 50 kg of bentonite).

The speed is a positive factor for the stability of the trench.

2.4 the reinforcements

The horizontal and vertical steels must leave between them a free space of 10 to 15 cm so that the
concrete can pass.

The cages generally have a width less than 10 cm than that of the wall (for good lateral coating).

2.5 concreting

A concrete molded wall is never vibrated.

It is implemented by the method of the dip tube, diameter 0.2 m to 0.3 m. The tube down to the base
(a few centimeters) of the trench. The concrete goes back into the trench.

An operation concreting can not be interrupted: it must be done at once from bottom to top.

2.6 Joints

This is a relatively weak point. Most often, the process is used "joint tube" that is removed once the
concrete made his decision (that is to say in a few hours)

42
2.7 sealing

A diaphragm wall has a relative seal, allowing the work to its shelter in satisfactory conditions. For a
perfect final sealing must either provide an against-wall with drainage at the interface or use the
prefabricated wall. For basic usage such as car park, the wall can be used alone as it is.

3 applications
3.1 Walls with struts

3.2 Wall with tie

The advantage is significant because it helps to identify fully the internal volume of the excavation.

3.3 Buttress wall

The walls buttress allow a significant increase in the inertia and resistance moment.

43
 CHAP X
WALLS PREFABRICATED

1 Overview
The use of prefabricated panels instead of molded concrete offers many advantages:

* quality control easier and improved safety concrete

* better use of materials (concrete vibrated)
* overall accuracy
* improved sealing.

The schematic succession of elementary operations is key:

* excavation of the trench, with filling thereof by a sealing grout

* introduction of prefabricated panels.

The panels are suspended until the grout seal has been taken (and then removing the suspension
device).

2 Technology
2.1 Preliminary activities identical to work for diaphragm walls.

2.2 Perforation

2.3 drilling mud and sealing grout

During perforation, the fluid must have all the qualities of a drilling mud. During the installation of the
panels, it must remain liquid. Then he has to harden and taken to effectively ensure the sealing
between the elements and the surrounding ground.

There are two techniques:

* Substitution: is drilled with a bentonite slurry. At the end of perforation, it replaces the mud a
bedding grout (cement, bentonite, water).
* The single grout: It employs a unique special mix (cement, bentonite, water, chemical
additives) successively ensuring all the required functions.

44
2.4 Placing failure to the

The installation of the panels is made to the crane. Thus, unit weight must be less than 50 t. This
value limits the size of a panel in the following ranges:

* thickness : 0.50 to 0.80

* height: 10 to 20 m
* width : 1.5 to 2.5 m

The verticality of the panels is ensured by the gravity, since there is always a household on-width of
0.1 m on each side.

Different systems ensure the guidance of the panels to each other.

45
2.5 Joints

The best principle is to use a water-swellable stop (injected cement).

2.6 sealing

In terms of sealing, the prefabricated wall is more effective than the diaphragm wall. One can make an
improvement with filing a waterproof layer (bitumen) to the upper surface of the panels before installation.

3 applications
In general, all applications of the diaphragm wall are conceivable prefabricated solution, with some
advantages (sealing, appearance, safety, speed) and disadvantages (weight limit).

46
 CHAP XI WALL SEALING

6.1 Overview

The method "sealing wall" is divided into four techniques:

* very thick wall (2 m or more)
* the thick wall to plastic concrete (0.5 to 1.5m)
* thick slurry wall (0.5 to 1.5 m)
* the thin wall (0.1 to 0.25 m).

The wall is always included in a land mass (embankment dam), it not directly involved in the
mechanical strength of the banking book which she seals. In some cases (dams) a small mechanical
strength may be necessary.

6.2 Technology

6.2.1 The wall bentonite

This type of wall is formed of aggregates mixed with bentonite. The perforation is made in large
thickness (1.5 m to 3 m) and the trench is kept filled with bentonite mud.

Aggregates from the perforation are discharged into the kerf.

6.2.2 The plastic concrete wall

This is a perforated diaphragm wall under bentonite slurry, concrete with a plastic concrete. Such a concrete
must be sealed and deformable.
This concrete is composed of 100 to 200 kg of cement, 1800 to 2000 kg of fine aggregate and rolled from 20
to 40 kg of bentonite. Generally, the thickness is 0.60 m.

6.2.3 The wall grout

This is a perforated diaphragm wall with use of a special mud is taken within hours and is the body of
the waterproof screen. The special mud "cement slurry" or self-curing grout "remains fluid during
perforation. Its composition includes cement, bentonite, chemical additives to control setting time and
the speed of evolution. The common thickness is 0.6 m.

6.2.4 The thin wall

47
It is performed by placing in the soil of a metal section, extraction of this section with simultaneous
injection of waterproofing grout fills the cavity thus released, movement of the machine a profile
width.

6.3 applications

6.3.1 Major excavations

The method is perfectly applicable to the case of large excavation digging in alluvial masses
permeable substratum with naturally available waterproof (40 to about 50 m) with the possibility of
grading, near rivers, coastlines or in the presence of a sheet of water.

6.3.2 Dam Screens

One type of application is that the nuclei sealing in the body of earth dam.

48
 CHAPTER XII PILE -
SUPPORT

1. Overview
A stake is a circular section. Support is any form pile: rectangle, etc. There are small diameter piles
(0.25 m) that carry such name: micro-pile, pile needle.

Wood is no longer employed, the metal is rarely, reinforced concrete is generally used material.

2. Processes - technology and tools

A principle of distinction is made between the processes where the land is repressed and those where it is excavated.

2.1 Land repressed

This is generally the hype which is the traditional process. We can beat a

prefabricated pile.
- reinforced concrete, square or hexagonal
- profiled metal (iron H).

piles can be molded tube beaten into the ground. This is the most often used method. The principle
consists in introducing into the ground (by repression of the ground) a hollow metal tube, closed at its
base, to fill out the concrete pipe and recovering the tube.

The hype has its limits: we can develop such energy, it would destroy the pile head (if prefabricated)
or tube. This results on the grounds of the plane (which should not be hard: clay, silt, sand and
gravel) in terms of heights achievable piles (less than 20 m) and that of the usual dimensions (

0.40 m to 0.60 m or equivalent square section).

The hype generates vibration and shock: it can not be used in town, at least not in the immediate
vicinity of existing buildings.

In some cases, it is interesting to make a pilot hole, removing a piece of carrot on the height of the
surface layers.

2.2 excavated Land

2.2.1 Drilling tools

Widely used it a few years ago, tools tubant field in provisional phase of drilling.

Forcing the temporary casing, open at its base can be made by driving, vibrating, simply by hewing.

49
When meeting a hard horizon, casing stops. Conventional pipe diameters are between 0.6 / 0.7 m
and 1.2 m (1.5 m exceptionally). Few tools to descend beyond 30/40 m. Machines that know at
present the biggest developments: augers which are tools that work in rotation. There are many types
whose general characteristics are: diameter 0.5 m used to 4m Maximum depth: 60 m Rotation: empty

40 to 120 revolutions / min

load 10 revolutions / min.

2.2.2 the reinforcements

In a pile, the reinforcement cage comprises essentially longitudinal reinforcement held by a propeller
or sometimes two pitch propellers crossed.

2.2.3 concreting

The method offers the maximum possible security is the dip tube. Is made to get the concrete by a
tube diameter of between 100 and 200 mm down to the bottom of the borehole.

2.2.4 concrete

In practice, the key is that the concrete is properly implemented, evenly, with good cover to
reinforcement and filling of extra widths due to perforation or released during the casing extraction.

Under these conditions, a particular character concrete cast under water or in mud becomes
essential: maneuverability. For good handling, include a large proportion of fines and plenty of water.

To maintain a C / E (water to cement) expressed in acceptable weight, we use strong cement

dosages: 350 to 400 kg / m 3

50
3. Controls - Tests
controls: during and after execution
During execution: concrete samples after execution:
Method sonic and ultrasonic

sonic:
Study of the complex vibration behavior of pile-ground
together. A generator and a receiver are placed at the head
of the pile, and measuring the resultant speed under the
effect of incident and reflected waves. The procedure

usually by statistical comparison.

Ultrasound:
Study: measuring the wave propagation speed.

51
 - Small anomaly.

- Important Problem

- Stake cut

- background concrete polluted stake

Schematic section of a stake the logging

To control the bearing strength: static load tests and dynamic

pious

52
FIG schematic test setup for performing vertical load test with the minimum distance between the
charging device and the test stake for: a) Support for dead weight, b) Battery voltage, c) Drafts
arranged expansion star
(According to Working Group 5, DGEG 1993)

53
54
 CHAPTER XIII THE PILE

1. General

The uses of walls and sheet piles are neighbors and compatible. The application areas are
separated (in principle):
- wall: urban site, land site
- piles: sea or river site.

2. Structure - Manufacture

In general, the sheet piles are steel, their profiles: there are flat sheet piles and sheet piling in
section modulus.
The most common type of module sheet piles used in France is the Larsen profile whose joint is in the
axis of the curtain. They are often beaten in pairs after pinched seal corresponding to tighten. The
heights of the double profiles vary from 80 to 450 mm, the widths of 365 to 500 mm, the thicknesses
of 5 to 20 mm, the maximum length of 27 m.

55
3. Implementation

The implementation of piles can be done in different ways:

- For classic hype
- drilling

In the first, we must not give too powerful blows that could twist the pile head. The second,
slightly used, said the possibility of combining wall and sheet piles.

3.1 Machinery percussion

Mass striking: 1 to 10 t (up to 24 t) Cadence: 30

to 70 strokes per minute based energy:
compressed air, diesel.

3.2 jetting

When the beating is difficult, we associate jetting of sending, at the base of the sheet pile, high
pressure water jets (10 kg / cm 2).

3.3 Machinery using vibration (technique of vibro-sinking)

The range of vibration changing in the field: size 1 to 15 mm; frequency 1 to 200 Hz. The energy is
usually electric.

4. applications

4.1 river site

A typical case is that of an enclosure to allow the realization, for example, a bridge pier.

56
4. 2 maritime site

We mention the case of quay wall made of sheet piles. Another example of application is
constituted by the cofferdam embodiment for a wide search or a large speaker port site, to
construct a dry dock or docks walls.

4.3 urban site

Recent progress in the development of advanced threshing means, allow the use in town. A notable
example is the construction of a metro line of Lyon (France, 1974 - 1976) which was used sheet pile
in the wide streets. They act as a waterproof support.

57
 CONCRETE BRIDGES

CHAP XIV
GENERAL

1 Definition

A bridge is a work intended to ensure the crossing by a road range of a natural or artificial barrier:
river, valley, crossroads, etc.

The route scope can be a road, a railway or exceptionally a waterway (aqueduct). A bridge consists
of:

* an apron which is the element on which the resistant track,

* intermediate supports called batteries
* of end supports, called abutments ensuring the transition between the apron and the access
embankments. The apron and the abutments are generally separated by an expansion joint.

The deck is supported on piers and abutments through bearings (or no appliances).

The bridge deck is straight or obliquely (along the inclination of its support lines with respect to its
longitudinal axis). It can also be a curve of variable width.

58
2 Classification of bridges along their longitudinal diagram

Bridges can be classified into three families along their longitudinal diagram:
* the girder bridges: whose support reactions are vertical. They consist either of independent
spans, or continuous spans.
* arch bridges: whose supporting reactions are inclined
* cables bridges whose deck is supported by cables.

3 Classification of bridges according to their cross-sectional design

Bridges can also be classified according to their cross-sectional design. We then distinguished:

* slabs (solid slabs and slabs cored)

* the single or double tee beams
* the tubular beams (or box girders).

59
4 Classification of bridges according to their method of construction

* Bridges built scaffolding on the ground or on a hanger

* launched the prefabricated girder bridges
* pushed the bridges
* bridges built on hangers autolanceurs
* the bridges built by balanced cantilever.

5 Construction scaffolding on the floor or on a hanger

When the deck is located at a low height above ground of good lift, the method of the simplest and
most economic construction is to be concreted apron on scaffolding or on a hanger directly supported
on the ground.

60
 CHAP XV
BUILDING BRIDGES BY PREFABRICATED
BEAMS LAUNCHED

1 construction principle

This method of construction is to make the apron by means of prefabricated beams, set up on their
final supports with suitable handling and installation devices and interconnected in the transverse
direction by a slab sub floor and spacers.

2 Field of use, advantages and disadvantages of the process

2.1 Working area

The area of ​use of precast girder bridges launched ranges from 25 m to 50

m. The economic impact is generally between 30 and 40 m for structures whose foundations are
easy and low-rise batteries. Beyond 50 m, the rapid increase in weight of the beams (> 120 t)
requires means handling and exceptional poses that make up their implementation costly.

The works in prefabricated beams require installation of equipment relatively expensive beams that
can be used economically if the beams are sufficient.

2.2 Advantages and disadvantages of the process

The main advantages of prefabricated beams launched works to reside in the removal of hangers
and their timeliness.

The repetitiveness often at a significant scale of identical elements (beams) for some industrialization
is also the guarantee of a better quality and a source of savings in terms of labor.

The works, however, have a number of drawbacks due to the relaxation of tendons.

61
3 Basic design and dimensioning

3.1 prefabricated girders

The prefabricated beams are of constant height. Their cross-section is generally double-tee, although
in some cases a tubular section may be preferred: large-span beams.

The main geometric characteristics of the double tee beams are:

* height "h" next economic 1/16 of reach

* width compression table at least 0.6 h.

The spacing of the beams is commonly around 3 m, but may vary between 2.5 and 4 m.

3.2 Under floor slabs

There are two main steps to the sub floor slabs.

3.2.1 The intermediate slabs

It is performed between the beams of the compression tables in their extension and optionally
cantilevered beyond the edge beams.

3.2.2 The monolithic slab General

It is carried over the compression tables beams which it is continuous coverage, better layout than
the previous mechanically.

62
The slab formwork can be achieved either by wall panels at the ends of the wings of the beams
(intermediate slab) or by lost formwork: pedals Precast reinforced concrete or asbestos - cement
placed between the beams.

4 Prefabrication of beams

In general, the beams are prefabricated floor close the book on a specially equipped area with a large
enough tank farm.

5 Transportation and installation of beams

5.1 Transportation and installation of the beams by land or water vehicles

(Cranes)

5.2 Placing beams by lifting with vertical movement along the

Battery

63
The implementation of each beam comprises the following operations: longitudinal movement along
the ground, lifting itself using brackets swing arm attached to the head of the battery, transverse shift
and descent of the beam on its final support.

5.3 Establishment of beams by a beam of metal launch

The beam launch of a length greater than twice the range span, generally consists of two cross
members secured by spacers and carrying carriages.

* support of the prefabricated beam by the carriages of the launching beam on the right of the
span N-2
* advancement of the prefabricated beam to the right of the span N-1, the position of the
remaining unchanged launching beam
* immobilizing the carriages, advancing the launching beam on the right of the span N

* immobilization of the launching beam and progress of the prefabricated beam at the span N.

64
 CHAP XVI
BUILDING BRIDGES BY PUSHING

1 construction principle

This method consists in constructing the deck by successive elements on an area located behind the
abutments and oriented along the axis of the structure, then to bring it into its final position by subjecting it
to longitudinal translation.

The apron is usually done by elements concreted in place. In all cases the elements are assembled
by a provisional prestress determined so as to avoid the occurrence of tensile stresses under the
effect of the own weight during launch operations and then to progressively concreting or setting up
elements, the apron is moved by sliding on its substructure by the action of jacks fixed on one of
supports.

2 Field of use, advantages and disadvantages of the process

2.1 Working area

The stuffing has long been used to launch the metal deck because of the lightness of the steel and its
ability to resist equally to tensile and compressive forces.

The application of pushing the concrete was made possible by the development of prestressing which
lightened structures and allowed to conveniently perform elements assemblies.

The area of ​use of the pushing is limited to works of apron at a constant height and constant
curvature (right circle).

The current scope multiple spans structures built by stuffing is generally between 40 and 50 m central
span (pushing from both sides) from 70 to 80 m.

2.2 Advantages and disadvantages of the process

Benefits :
* removal of hangers and scaffolding
* construction of the deck in an area easily accessible,

65
* timeliness.

Inconvénien t s:
Implementation of a significant provisional preload which penalizes the process economically.

3 constructive schemes

3.1 Structures of length less than about 160 m

The solution adopted is then that of a systematic work in three sections whose lateral spans have a
range substantially equal to half that of the central span.

The deck is constructed by half on each bank, the two parts being joined together by concreting a
keying element after stuffing in final position (bilateral stuffing).

3.2 Items crossing large breaches with average spans

The apron is executed entirely on one side by successive elements and pushed towards the other
side as and measuring concreting with a progressively increasing translation effort (unilateral
stuffing).

During launch, the end of the deck (the first span concrete) undergoes substantial bending stresses
since it must cross console a range equal to that of the current span. these efforts is limited using one
of the following ways:
* a cutwater long metal generally disposed at the end of the first span.

66
* auxiliary bents

* an adjustable voltage guying mast

4 The stuffing material

The equipment needed includes pushing:

* a sliding device
* a translation device
* a guide device in plan
* an end cutwater
* an adjustable tension tensioning device
* auxiliary devices.

4.1 The sliding device

The sliding device consists of plates bearing neoprene coated teflon, moving with the carriage and
sliding on stainless steel plates fixed to the supports and the building area.

4.2 The displacement device

at) by traction by means of jacks and cables or rods

b) for direct stuffing: stuffing apparatus (cylinders).

4.3 The guide device in plan

A lateral guide device consisting of hydraulic cylinders is disposed at the head of the substructure, in
order to control and correct the trajectory plane of the deck.

4.4 The end cutwater

The cutwater is generally metallic low weight consisting of metal beams or lattice arranged in the
extension of souls apron and braced therebetween. Its weight varies from 1 t / ml up to 3 t / ml.

67
4.5 The adjustable tension tensioning device

The tensioning device consists of a pylon based on the deck and supporting stay cables anchored in
the deck whose tension can be adjusted by means of jacks disposed most often at the base of the
pylon. It can reduce the false-to-door movement of the deck and control its deformation.

4.6 Additional features

example: batteries stabilization device

Battery head shrouds and adjacent batteries soles

68
 CHAP XVII BUILDING
BRIDGES ON HANGERS AUTOLANCEURS

1 construction principle

This method consists in constructing the deck on a self-supporting metal hanger, based on the final
support of the structure (substructure) and movable autonomously from one span to another.

2 Field of use, advantages and disadvantages of the process

Ist field of use of autolanceurs hangers is between 30 and 55 m. This process applies to the
rectilinear structures economically and usually of constant cross section. The main advantages:

* removal of scaffolding with floor support

* deck construction facility
* timeliness.

The major drawback lies in the significant investment in hardware, autolanceurs hangers gear being
heavy and therefore expensive.

3 concreting hangers upper beams (Hangers from above)

The support beams are disposed above the apron.

69
In the concrete pouring phase, the forms are hung from the main structure by lines for the launch of
the hanger, special arrangements for the passage of the formwork elements at the piers, erasing
formwork panels right the stack is achieved by lifting the lines located on one side and letting rotate
the panels clinging to the lines located on the other side.

Advantages and disadvantages of hangers from above

Benefits : Possibility of ensuring the supply of the site by means of a handling device (e.g., monorail)
fixed to the carrying beam.

Inconvénien t : Dimensions of the work plan.

4 lower beams to concreting hangers (Hangers from below)

The supporting beams are located under the deck and directly carrying forms the deck.

The supply of materials (reinforcement, concrete) is generally performed by a crane installed on the
part of the deck already executed.

Advantages and disadvantages of hangers from below

Benefits : Clearing lines shuttering supports.

Inconvénien t Special provisions to be provided on the batteries to ensure the support and the passage of the
supporting beams.

70
 CHAP XVIII BUILDING BRIDGES
BY SUCCESSIVE CANTILEVERS

1 construction principle

This method consists in making the deck of a bridge to the advancement from its support, in
successive stages constructed by cantilevering relative to the preceding, each slice is called voussoir.
The segments can be concreted in place or precast.

2 Field of use, advantages and disadvantages of the process

Working area : The area of ​use of the cantilever commonly worn covers 50 to 150 m.

Benefits : The main advantage of the construction by cantilever method is the removal of hangers
and scaffolding.

* Reduction and better use of formwork, limited to the length of the segment.

* Speed ​of construction in the case of works in precast segments.

3 The construction by cantilevering concrete by up segments

The weight of the segment being concrete and formwork needed for its implementation can be
supported by:
* scaffolding moving on the floor or on a boom in river (deck located at a low height above an
accessible land or shallow water)

* a metal beam resting on the pile head beam under construction and the end of the deck
already built,

71
* a movable element carried by the apron (method most frequent). The mobile assembly

consists of concreting formwork suspended from a steel structure carried by the part of the deck

already built.

72
The usual length of the current segments is between 3 and 4 m. Execu t ion battery on

the voussoir
This is usually the segment concrete on conventional scaffolding resting on the ground or on the
foundation, the scaffolding is often replaced by metal brackets.

4 Construction by cantilevering by assembling prefabricated segments

The concrete segments in place implies a limitation of the speed of progress of the construction.

Prefabrication allows the speed of execution and to avoid the difficulties caused by the tensioning
cable scourge on young concrete.

73