Journal of Materials Processing Tech.

327 (2024) 118377

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Materials Processing Tech.

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jmatprotec

On the chip formation mechanism when cutting Ti6Al4V with localised

supply of liquid nitrogen
Jianming Li a, b, Yueshuai Zuo a, b, Yang Wang a, b, Yongqing Wang a, b, Haibo Liu a, b, *,
Jie Zhang a, b, Shaowei Jiang a, b
a
School of Mechanical Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China
b
State Key Laboratory of High-performance Precision Manufacturing, Dalian 116024, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In cryogenic machining, employing internal supply cooling through the tool not only diminishes tool wear and
Cryogenic machining enhances workpiece machining quality but also offers the benefits of reduced liquid nitrogen consumption and
Cooling supply method more precise cooling. These advantages are particularly noteworthy for efficiently machining challenging ma­
Chip formation mechanism
terials. However, prevailing research on internal supply cooling through tools predominantly concentrates on
Titanium alloys
aspects such as tool wear and surface integrity, with a relatively limited exploration of material removal
mechanisms. The material removal process stands as a crucial factor influencing cutting stability and surface
smoothness. Thus, this study focuses on the Ti-6Al-4 V alloy, utilizing numerical modeling to investigate the
impact of liquid nitrogen cooling methods on the cutting deformation zone. In addition to its benefits for
difficult-to-machine materials, internal supply cooling through the tool presents a promising avenue to enhance
machining efficiency. Consequently, this study strategically selected the Ti-6Al-4 V alloy as the research subject,
employing numerical modeling to delve into the influence of liquid-nitrogen cooling methods on the cutting
deformation zone. Furthermore, employing a combination of cutting experiments and simulations, we analyzed
the evolution of temperature fields and microstructures within the deformation zone to elucidate the chip for­
mation mechanism under liquid nitrogen cooling conditions. The outcomes of this investigation reveal that in
comparison to liquid nitrogen external supply cooling, internal supply cooling through the tool effectively re­
strains chip serration, thereby contributing to an enhancement in machining quality. The analysis demonstrates
that, under conditions of internal supply cooling through the tool, chip formation is predominantly influenced by
the adiabatic shear effect induced by low temperatures. In contrast, under external supply cooling conditions,
susceptible to the low-temperature embrittlement effect, the chip’s free surface tends to undergo brittle cracking.
This shift in the chip formation mechanism toward the co-dominance of adiabatic shear and brittle cracking
results in a more pronounced serration of the chips. This study establishes a theoretical foundation and guides the
industrial application of cryogenic machining.

1. Introduction
Titanium alloys are characterized by a high specific strength,
excellent toughness, superior corrosion resistance, and stable mechani­
cal performance at low temperatures. Consequently, they have found
widespread applications in the aerospace and defense industries and
deep space exploration (Chakraborty et al., 2022). For instance, tita­
nium alloys constitute approximately 15% of the total mass of the
Boeing 787 and approximately 9% of that of the C919 (Liu et al., 2022a).
Additionally, as the applications of titanium alloys continue to advance,
they are increasingly being utilized in civilian sectors such as biomedical
engineering, the petrochemical industry, and rail transportation for
applications such as heat exchangers, distillation towers, artificial joints,
and artificial teeth (Muthaiah et al., 2022). However, titanium alloys
belong to the category of difficult-to-machine materials, exhibiting
challenges such as high cutting temperatures, low cutting efficiency,
rapid tool wear, difficulty in chip evacuation, and poor surface quality
(Lu et al., 2020). These issues significantly impede the further devel­
opment and application of Ti alloys. To ensure the continued use of Ti
alloys in modern industries, it is important to explore efficient

* Corresponding author at: School of Mechanical Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China.
E-mail addresses: hbliu@dlut.edu.cn, 15554135712@163.com (H. Liu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2024.118377
Received 25 November 2023; Received in revised form 7 March 2024; Accepted 8 March 2024
Available online 10 March 2024
0924-0136/© 2024 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
J. Li et al.
machining processes.
Cryogenic machining is a green machining technology that utilizes
cooling media, such as liquid nitrogen and liquid CO2 transported to
machining areas (Jawahir et al., 2016). It has advantages such as high
cooling efficiency, low tool wear, and superior machining quality,
making it widely applicable in the efficient machining of
difficult-to-machine materials such as titanium alloys and superalloys.
Over the past few decades, researchers have reduced cutting tempera­
tures by spraying liquid nitrogen through nozzles into the cutting zone,
significantly improving the machining quality of difficult-to-machine
materials (Danish et al., 2022). In recent years, with the development
of internally cooled equipment, breakthroughs have been achieved in
cryogenic internal cold machining technology. Cryogenic internal sup­
ply cooling through the tool not only reduces tool wear and improves the
machining quality of components, but also offers advantages such as
lower consumption of liquid nitrogen and more precise cooling, pre­
senting significant advantages in the efficient machining of difficult
materials. Hong et al (Hong et al., 2001). pointed out that the use of
cryogenic internal supply cooling through tool methods can enhance the
cooling precision, thereby achieving optimal cooling efficiency and
extending the tool life by nearly five times. Wang et al (Wang and Wang,
2021). performed cryogenic internal supply cooling through a tool
during the milling of a Ti-6Al-4 V alloy and compared it with conven­
tional cryogenic externally supplied cooling. The results showed that
internal supply cooling through the tool resulted in lower cutting tem­
peratures even at low flow rates, reduced tool thermal damage, and
enhanced tool life. This study indicated that the internal supply cooling
through the tool resulted in smaller cutting forces. Based on internally
developed turning tools, Gan et al (Gan et al., 2021). conducted
comparative experiments on cutting a Ti-6Al-2Zr-1Mo-1 V alloy using a
self-developed lathe tool, and the results showed that internal supply
cooling through the tool suppressed the Leidenfrost phenomenon and
effectively improved the cooling efficiency, reduced the surface rough­
ness by 28%, and improved the tool life by 34% compared with external
supply cooling. In milling experiments, Albertelli et al (Albertelli et al.,
2023). discovered that cryogenic internal supply cooling through the
tool not only reduced cutting forces by 23.3%, but this strategy also
produced more fragmented chips compared to conventional external
supply cooling. Moreover, they report that liquid nitrogen reduces the
deformability of the material. In addition, cryogenic internal supply
cooling through the tool reduced the cutting energy consumption by
25%, owing to improved frictional properties (Albertelli and Monno,
2021). In addition, the study mentioned that the method of cryogenic
internal supply cooling using the tool significantly reduced the con­
sumption of liquid nitrogen. The above research suggests that cryogenic
internal supply cooling through the tool not only provides higher cool­
ing efficiency but also has the advantage of lower liquid nitrogen con­
sumption and is more environmentally friendly than external supply
cooling. However, current research on methods of cryogenic internal
supply cooling through tools has focused on surface integrity and tool
wear, with limited exploration of material-removal mechanisms.
Further exploration of the material removal process is required to
determine the nature of the techniques involved.
The essence of cutting is the purposeful fracture of chips from the
workpiece, and the study of chip morphology and formation process is of
positive significance for the study of the cutting force, tool wear, and
surface integrity. In addition, the formation of serrated chips in the high-
speed cutting process is helpful for further optimizing the machining
process and reducing cutting energy consumption. Researchers have
extensively investigated the chip formation process. Hua et al (Hua and
Shivpuri, 2004). investigated the effect of cutting speed on chip
morphology, finding that due to factors such as adiabatic shear defor­
mation, and the initiation and propagation of cracks, titanium alloy
produces discontinuous banded chips at low cutting speeds and serrated
chips at high cutting speeds. Fazlali et al (Fazlali et al., 2022). discov­
ered in high-speed cutting of titanium alloys that the displacement
2
Journal of Materials Processing Tech. 327 (2024) 118377
occurring in chips during separation is caused by the deformation of
shear bands, rather than being due to crack propagation. Additionally,
they posited that the variation in stored energy at the tool-chip interface
has a transient effect on shear bands and does not affect the overall chip
formation process. Wang et al (Wang et al., 2021). conducted experi­
ments on the ultrahigh-speed cutting of titanium alloys and found that at
sufficiently high cutting speeds, both ductile fracture and adiabatic
shear deformation occur, contributing to the formation of serrated chips.
In ultra-high-speed cutting experiments, Ma et al (Ma et al., 2017).
discovered that high cutting speeds cause cracks on the free surface of
chips that extend toward the bottom of the chips. Aydin et al (Aydın and
Köklü, 2017). explored chips of titanium alloys based on cutting simu­
lation modeling and found that an increase in the cutting speed led to a
change in the material fracture behavior, which in turn promoted the
fracture of the chips. In addition (Aydın and Köklü, 2020), the fracture
form of the chip changed from ductile to brittle after an increase in
cutting thickness. Cedergren et al (Cedergren et al., 2013)., based on
cutting experiments with Ti-6Al-4 V alloy, studied the influence of the
material microstructure and mechanical properties on chip formation.
Their results indicated that the initial mechanical properties and
microstructure of the material affected the variation in cutting forces,
thereby influencing the chip formation process. Furthermore, the
innovation of the model also significantly aids in the study of chips.
Hajdu et al (Hajdu et al., 2023). introduced a new concept of “the curved
uncut chip thickness,” enabling the accurate prediction of cutting forces
in titanium alloys under high feed cutting conditions, laying the foun­
dation for elucidating the mechanism of chip formation. The afore­
mentioned researchers conducted extensive cutting experiments to
explore the chip formation mechanism of titanium alloys, which yielded
fruitful results. However, current research on chip formation mecha­
nisms mostly focuses on dry cutting, and in-depth studies on the specific
aspects of cryogenic machining are lacking. Therefore, using this tool, it
is necessary to investigate the chip formation mechanism during cryo­
genic internal supply cooling.
In summary, researchers in the field of cryogenic machining have
carried out a large number of studies in the areas of machined surface
integrity, tool wear, and cutting heat analysis, and have achieved a large
number of achievements. However, relatively few studies have been
conducted on the mechanisms of material removal in cryogenic
machining, and even fewer studies have been conducted on the effects of
liquid nitrogen supply modes on the chip formation process. Therefore,
it is of great significance to elucidate the chip formation mechanism
during cryogenic machining to improve the material removal and frac­
ture mechanisms and enrich the cryogenic machining mechanism. This
study is the first to explore the influence of liquid nitrogen supply on
chip formation using a self-developed cryogenic machine tool. Based on
a combination of experiments and simulations, the chip formation
mechanism under the two conditions of cryogenic external supply
cooling and cryogenic internal supply cooling was determined using the
tool. Breakthroughs in related research are of positive significance for
chip control, quality improvement, and efficiency enhancement of
difficult-to-machine materials.
2. Experimental materials and methods
2.1. Experimental material
This experiment takes Ti-6Al-4 V alloy after solid solution aging
treatment as the research object, the material takes α-phase and β-phase
as the basic metallurgical phase, and its crystal structure is the densely-
arranged hexagonal structure (HCP). Ti-6Al-4 V alloy is mainly used in
the manufacture of aircraft engine parts, and there are problems of high
cutting temperature, low tool life, and the obvious effect of thermal
adhesion of chips during cutting, which make it difficult to improve
machining efficiency and machining quality (Aydın, 2021). Its chemical
composition is presented in Table 1 (Li et al., 2023). For the material to
J. Li et al. Journal of Materials Processing Tech. 327 (2024) 118377

Table 1
Material parameters of Ti-6Al-4 V alloy. The relevant parameters are used for subsequent analytical calculations and simulation modeling.
Parameter Notation Numerical source Parameter Notation Numerical source

Density Р 4510 Reference shear strain rate ε̇0 0.00001

(kg⋅m− 3)
Thermal conductivity (W⋅m− 1 ⋅K− 1) K 6.7 Tool front angle (◦) γ0 4
Specific heat C 611 Material deformation coefficient ξ High-speed machining is approximately 1
(J⋅kg− 1 ⋅K− 1)
Poisson’s ratio I 0.33 Material melting temperature (℃) Tm 1650
Yield stress A 782 Reference shear stress (MPa) τ0 550
(MPa)
Hardening modulus B 498 Non-dimensional material coefficient θ Metal close to 0.51
(MPa)
Strain rate dependency coefficient C 0.028 Non-dimensional material coefficient m′ Metal close to 0.03
Strain hardening coefficient n 0.28 Heat distribution coefficient (◦C) μ High-speed machining is approximately 1
Thermal softening coefficient m 1 Taylor-Quincy coefficient η High-speed machining is approximately 0.9

satisfy the orthogonal cutting method proposed by Buda, the material
was cut into 3 mm × 30 mm × 100 mm sheets using laser cutting.
2.2. Experimental equipment and methods
An orthogonal cutting method is used to simplify the subsequent
calculation steps. In other words, only one cutting edge was involved in
the cutting, and the inclination angle of the cutting edge was 0◦ , which
ensured that the direction of the cutting speed was perpendicular to the
cutting edge. This method equates the complex cutting problem to a
simple 2D strain problem, which is convenient for studying the chip
formation mechanisms.
This experiment was carried out on the self-developed CVM650
cryogenic machine tool, which can not only cool by supplying liquid
nitrogen inside the tool, but also prepare liquid nitrogen by itself, as
shown in Fig. 1. At the same time, we have independently developed the
matching cryogenic internal cooled spindle, toolholder and tool.
In this experiment, for the method of internal supply cooling through
the tool, the specific setup is as follows, after the liquid nitrogen is
output from the storage tank, it reaches the tool through the conveying
pipeline, the internally cooled spindle, and the internally cooled tool
shank in turn, and then the workpiece is cooled accurately. The length of
the tool selected for this experiment is 150 mm, the diameter is 16 mm,
and there is a liquid nitrogen channel with a diameter of 5 mm inside the
body of the tool, which reaches the front of the tool after passing through
the channel, and finally the liquid nitrogen is sprayed to the machining
area by the jet hole with a diameter of 2 mm (mainly spraying the rake
face of the cutter, which also affects the flank face of the cutter). In this
case, the distance between the jet hole and the insert is about 10 mm,
and the angle between the jet hole and the horizontal plane is 60◦ . The
tool is shown in Fig. 2(c). In addition, the milling cutter is equipped with
Fig. 1. Cryogenic machine tool CVM650. Self-developed cryogenic machine
tools that enable cryogenic internal supply cooling through the tool.
coated carbide inserts (TiAlN coating, cutting edge length 4 mm) with a
rake angle of 4◦ , a clearance angle of 7◦ and a tool cutting edge angle of
0◦ . The external supply cooling method is set up as follows: Liquid ni­
trogen is injected directly onto the workpiece after passing through the
storage tank, external piping, and nozzle (2 mm in diameter and about
40 mm from the workpiece) in order to ensure that the workpiece to be
machined can be cooled continuously. For both liquid nitrogen supply
methods, the flow rate was 45 L/h and the liquid nitrogen pressure was
set at 0.4 MPa. The parameters were determined according to Tahma­
sebi’s study (Tahmasebi et al., 2019), which concluded that the best
cooling effect was achieved at a liquid nitrogen pressure of 0.4 MPa.
After the liquid nitrogen supply equipment was fixed, the titanium
alloy sheet was fixed on the fixture for orthogonal cutting. At the same
time, a force gauge (Kistler 9257B) was installed under the fixture to
monitor the stability of the cutting process and the tool condition. In
order to make the experimental setup clearer, we provide a schematic
diagram of the site and schematic diagram of the cutting, the positioning
of the workpiece and the tool in Fig. 2. The cutting parameters for this
experiment are shown in Table 2.
At the end of the experiment, the chips were collected under different
cutting conditions. One part of the chips was resin inlaid and then
sequentially sanded, polished, etched (Kroll reagent, 40 s), and placed
under an ultrafield microscope (VHX-600E, Japan) to observe the degree
of serration and distribution of shear bands of the chips. The other part
was ultrasonically cleaned with alcohol and then placed under a scan­
ning electron microscope (Q45, USA) to observe the microstructural
features of the chip with the specific viewing orientation shown in Fig. 2.
2.3. Modeling of cutting simulation
Utilizing experimental and analytical methods to explore cutting
mechanisms can achieve higher physical accuracy, but issues such as
low efficiency, inconvenience, and difficulty in obtaining some data
exist. Therefore, this experiment is further combined with cutting
simulation (Liu et al., 2022b). In this experiment, the ABAQUS/Explicit
software was used as the basic platform, and a 2D cutting model was
established using the thermal-displacement coupling model. To ensure
the stability of the cutting process, the first-order linear quadrilateral
cell CPE4RT was chosen. The model was divided from top to bottom into
removal, separation, and material matrices. Mesh accuracy is the key to
improving the simulation accuracy (Aydın, 2023). To obtain better
calculation results, we set the mesh of the removal and separation layers
smaller, whereas the mesh of the workpiece matrix was set larger. In
addition, to prevent mesh distortion at the moment of contact between
the tool and workpiece, we set a certain tilt angle for the removal layer.
After several pretests, further changes in the size and number of meshes
did not affect the experimental results.
Previous studies concluded that the Johnson–Cook constitutive
model has wide applicability in simulations (Imbrogno et al., 2017).
Therefore, this model was selected for the simulation. Its expression is as

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J. Li et al. Journal of Materials Processing Tech. 327 (2024) 118377

Fig. 2. Experimental program and principle of cryogenic machining. (a) Diagram of the equipment used for the cutting test, observation diagram, tool movement
diagram and workpiece positioning diagram. (b) Schematic diagram of cryogenic internal supply cooling through tools. (c) Internally cooled tool used for this cutting.

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J. Li et al. Journal of Materials Processing Tech. 327 (2024) 118377

Table 2 3.1. Analysis of forces in the first deformation zone

Cutting parameters of the experiment. The influence of the coupling effect of low
temperature and high strain rate on chip formation can be explored by changing During the cutting process, stress distribution within the chip
the gradient of cutting speeds. deformation zone is highly complex, and analytical and experimental
v(m/min) f (mm/r) ap (mm) aw (mm) methods often fail to provide accurate stress distributions. Finite
40 0.1 3 10 element simulations proved to be more advantageous in this regard. We
80 simulated the stress distribution inside the serrated chips under different
120 liquid nitrogen supply conditions, and the results are shown in Fig. 4. It
200 can be observed from the figure that the stress inside the shear band is
300
not constant but varies with position. Near the cutting edge, the stress
was compressive, whereas positions farther from the cutting edge
follows: showed tensile stress. Additionally, a point with a stress value of zero
( )[ ( )m ] was evident in the middle of the stress lines. Based on this analysis, it is
σ = (A + Bεn ) 1 + Cln
ε̇
1−
T − Tr
(1) evident that the chip formation process is a complex mechanical varia­
ε̇0 Tm − Tr tion involving deformation and fracture of the material induced by the
combined effects of tension, compression, and shear.
where σ is the flow stress, ε is the equivalent plastic strain, and ε̇ is the Based on the above results, it is evident that during the cutting
equivalent plastic strain rate. Herein, T is the deformation temperature process, the first deformation zone should be divided into two regions:
of the workpiece, Tr is the room temperature, Tm is the melting tem­ tensile and shear deformation. First, in the tensile deformation zone,
perature of the material, and A, B, C, n, and m are material constants, when the deformation at this location did not reach the fracture limit,
which are all recorded using the Hopkinson Impact Device. All the above the material did not undergo fracture, and no cracks appeared on the
values can be obtained from Table 1. free surface. Tensile fracture occurs only when the material reaches the
Additionally, the Johnson–Cook damage model was employed in this fracture limit and cracks may appear on the free surface. In the shear
simulation as the fracture criterion for the chip formation process; its region, when the deformation at this location reaches the critical strain
expression is given in Eq. (2). rate, adiabatic shear occurs, leading to thermoplastic shear deformation.
[ ( ) ]( )( ) Based on this concept, we established a local schematic of the chip, as
P ε̇ T − Tr
εJC = D1 + D2 exp D3 1 + D4 ln 1 + D5 (2) shown in Fig. 5. Fig. 5(b) shows an enlarged view of the inside of the
ε ε̇0 Tm − Tr
chip shear band. In this diagram, OA represents the boundary between
where D1–D5 are the fracture constants of the material, and their rele­ the deformation zone and material matrix, MN is the boundary with
vant values are listed in Table 3. other chips, ON represents the free surface of the chip, AM represents the
In the simulation, the maximum shear stress equation was used to contact surface between the tool and chip, C is the point where the
determine the effect of friction during cutting. In this case, when the tensile and compressive stresses meet, and the point where the stress is
deformation is internal friction, the shear model used is τf = mτs and the zero. On the OA connecting line, OC shows tensile stress and AC shows
friction coefficient m is 0.9. When the friction is external friction, the compressive stress.
Coulomb model used is τf = μσ n and the friction coefficient μ is set to 0.6 Based on the description in the above figure, it is necessary to obtain
(Rotella and Umbrello, 2014). the stress distribution along the OA section through a simulation. In the
In this simulation, to differentiate between the different liquid- ABAQUS simulation, different liquid-nitrogen supply conditions were
nitrogen supply modes during the modeling process, we differentiated simulated to obtain the stress distribution inside the chip, as shown in
between convective heat transfer boundary conditions based on previ­ Fig. 6. From Fig. 6, it can be observed that when the cutting speed is
ous studies by Pusavec et al (Pusavec et al., 2016). The specific settings 300 m/min, the length of the OA segment is approximately 0.14 mm.
are shown in Fig. 3. According to Hribersek (Hribersek et al., 2017), the Under external supply cooling conditions, the length of the OC segment
convective heat transfer coefficient of liquid nitrogen is about is 0.074 mm, with a maximum tensile stress of 885.12 MPa, and the
75000 W⋅m− 1⋅K− 1 during metal cutting. length of the AC segment is 0.069 mm, with a maximum compressive
stress of 595.69 MPa. Under conditions of internal supply cooling
3. Analysis of chip formation under liquid nitrogen cooling through the tool, the length of the OC segment is 0.077 mm, with a
conditions maximum tensile stress of 851.34 MPa, and the length of the AC
segment is 0.062 mm, with a maximum compressive stress of
During the cutting process, when the tool squeezes the cutting layer, 654.59 MPa. A change in the cooling method affects the stress distri­
the material in the cutting layer produces a shear slip along the shear bution in different regions; however, the liquid nitrogen cooling method
surface until its flow direction is parallel to the front tool surface, and does not significantly affect the position of point C. Therefore, we only
subsequently, the cutting layer forms chips and flows out along the front need to explore the deformation of the material under the same stress
tool surface. The region where this deformation occurs is referred to as values. In materials science, the deformation of a material after it is
the first deformation zone. Therefore, to reveal the chip formation subjected to force is believed to be closely related to its temperature and
mechanism, it is necessary to analyze it based on the first deformation strain rate. Hence, further analysis of the deformation environment in
zone. the different regions based on Fig. 5 is necessary.

3.2. Analysis of conditions in the first deformation zone

(1) Strain and strain rate

The strain rate, as a key factor in cutting, is closely related to the
Table 3 cutting speed, and its relationship with the cooling factors is not
J-C damage model parameters for Ti-6Al-4 V. These parameters are used for obvious. However, further analysis is required to determine the strain
modeling damage evolution in cutting simulation. rate state in the first deformation zone. First, an infinitesimal cube was
D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 intercepted on the OA connecting line shown in Fig. 5, and the distri­
bution of its equivalent stress was analyzed. It is evident that the cube
-0.09 0.25 -0.5 0.014 3.87
was subjected to three stress components: one normal stress component

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J. Li et al. Journal of Materials Processing Tech. 327 (2024) 118377

Fig. 3. Schematic diagram of heat transfer imposition. (a) External supply cooling. (b) Internal supply cooling through the tool. The difference in the applied position
of convective heat transfer was utilized to differentiate the liquid nitrogen supply cooling method, and the convective heat transfer coefficient of liquid nitrogen was
set to 75000 W⋅m− 1⋅K− 1.

Fig. 4. Stress distribution in the chip deformation area. (a) External supply cooling. (b) Internal supply cooling through the tool. The cutting speed is 300 m/min, the
undeformed chip thickness is 0.1 mm and the tool rake angle is 4◦ .

and two shear stress components, as shown in Fig. 7. In the experimental shear stresses can be mutually converted, so τxy and τyx are equal. The
section, we clarified that this experiment involved orthogonal cutting; normal stress in the z direction was obtained using Eq. (3). The stress
therefore, the cube was not subjected to force in the x-direction, and its state of the cube in the first deformation zone is shown in Fig. 7(b).
value could be set to 0. At the same time, from the plane state analysis, ( ) σ
the normal stress in the y-direction and the shear stress in the z-direction σz = v σx + σy = (3)
2
are also 0. This means that τxz, τyz, τzx, and τzy are all equal to 0. The

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J. Li et al. Journal of Materials Processing Tech. 327 (2024) 118377

Fig. 5. Schematic diagram of chip analysis model. (a) Modeling of serrated chips. (b) Enlarged diagram of the shear band. Fig. (b) is a magnification of the shear
band AONM in Fig. (a).

The stress state of the cube can be obtained using Eq. (4).
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
σ x τxy τxz 0 τ 0
σ ij = ⎣ τyx σy τyz ⎦ = ⎣ τ σ 0 ⎦ (4)
τzx τzy σz 0 0 σ/2

Consequently, the stresses, strains, and strain rates applied within

the hexahedron are expressed in Eq. (5) below.
⎧ √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
⎪
⎪ σ σ2 σ σ σ2
⎪
⎪ & σ = + + τ 2
, σ = , σ = − + τ2
⎪
⎪ 1
2 4
2
2
3
2 4
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ √ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
⎨ ε ε2 γ2 ε ε ε2 γ2
&ε1 = + + , ε2 = , ε3 = − + (5)
⎪
⎪ 2 4 9 2 2 4 9
⎪
⎪ √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ ε̇ ε̇2 γ̇2 ε̇ ε̇ ε̇2 γ2
⎪
⎪ + , ε̇2 = , ε̇3 = −
⎩ &ε̇1 = + +
2 4 9 2 2 4 9

Fig. 6. Simulation results of stresses in the first deformation zone. The pink The hydrostatic pressure, P, of the hexahedron can be obtained using
color of the graph shows the condition of external cooling, the green color Eq. (6).
shows the condition of internal supply cooling through the tool, the positive σ1 + σ2 + σ3 σ
values are tensile stresses and the negative values are compressive stresses. The P= = (6)
3 2
values are taken from the case of a cutting speed of 300 m/min.
The equivalent stress (σ), equivalent strain (ε), and equivalent strain
rate (ε̇) of the hexahedron are further calculated using the following
equation:

Fig. 7. Force diagram analysis of a cube. (a) Generalized model. (b) Actual stress state. By extracting the tiny cubes in the shear zone and analyzing their stress state,
the equivalent stress, strain, and strain rate can be deduced.

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J. Li et al. Journal of Materials Processing Tech. 327 (2024) 118377

⎧ √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
⎪
⎪ 1[ ] 3σ 2 1
⎪
⎪
⎪ &σ = (σ 1 − σ2 )2 + (σ2 − σ 3 )2 + (σ 3 − σ1 )2 = + 3τ2 μ= √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ (11)
⎪
⎪ 2 4
⎪
⎪ √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ 1 + 1.328 vakrc ρc
⎪
⎨ 1[ ] 3ε2 γ2
&ε = (ε1 − ε2 )2 + (ε2 − ε3 )2 + (ε3 − ε1 )2 = + (7) From Eq. (11), it can be seen that the heat distribution coefficient is
⎪
⎪ 2 4 3
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ proportional to the cutting speed, i.e., the heat distribution coefficient
⎪ 2
will increase after the cutting speed is increased, and when the cutting
⎪ [ ] 2
⎪
⎪ 1 2 2 2 3ε̇ γ̇
⎩ &ε̇ = (ε̇1 − ε̇2 ) + (ε̇2 − ε̇3 ) + (ε̇3 − ε̇1 ) = +
2 4 3 speed is at a higher value, the theoretical value of μ is close to 1.
Theoretically, when cutting at high speeds, the time for the radiative
In orthogonal cutting, the values of the normal strain and normal
transfer of the cutting heat to the outside environment is significantly
strain rate are much smaller than the values of the shear strain and shear
shortened, and the heat loss in the cutting process is reduced, which
strain rate. Therefore, the equivalent strain and strain rate can be
ultimately leads to an increase in the heat distribution coefficient.
expressed by the following equations:
The cutting process is a deformation process involving large tem­
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
3ε2 γ2 γ perature gradients, high strains, and large strain rates, therefore, the
&ε =
4
+ ≈ √̅̅̅
3 3 (8) flow stress τ of the processed material needs to be represented by the
Johnson–Cook model, whose expression is shown in Eq. (1). In the
&
previous calculations, we expressed the equivalent strain and equivalent
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ strain rate in Eq. (8)(9). In that equation, the strain γ and strain rate γ̇ are
ε̇ =
3ε̇2 γ̇2
+ ≈ √̅̅̅
γ̇
(9) then expressed in Eqs. (12) and (13), respectively.
4 3 3 cosγ0
γ= (12)
(2) Temperature sinφcos(φ − γ0 )
During the metal-cutting process, with the rapid movement of the
vcosγ0
tool, an adiabatic temperature increase occurs in the processed material γ̇ = (13)
under strong extrusion, resulting in a rapid increase in temperature in Scos(φ − γ 0 )
the shear zone. The interaction between the high temperature and high
Where γ0 denotes the rake angle of the tool, φ denotes the shear angle in
strain rate causes the material to undergo adiabatic shear thermoplastic
cutting, and the expression is shown in Eq. (14). v denotes the cutting
instability, resulting in the formation of jagged chips. The temperature
speed and S denotes the width of the adiabatic shear band, which can be
distribution in the shear zone is plotted in Fig. 8.
calculated using Eq. (15).
In the first deformation zone, owing to the extremely short plastic
deformation time, the generated cutting heat cannot be emitted into the φ = arctan
cosγ0
(14)
environment in time. Therefore, the temperature in the first deformation ξ − sinγ 0
zone can be expressed as the sum of the initial and adiabatic temperature Where ξ denotes the deformation coefficient of the material. In
increases, as shown in Eq. (10). Komanduri’s (Komanduri and Von Turkovich, 1981) previous study, it
∫γ was concluded that the value of ξ is approximately 1 for high-speed
μη 0 τdγ
T = T0 + ΔT = T0 + (10) machining of titanium alloys.
ρc
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
12 2m′cos(φ − γ 0 )kT0
Where T0 is the initial temperature of the workpiece, ΔT is the tem­ S= (15)
θτ0 cosγ0 v
perature generated under adiabatic conditions, ρ is the density of the
material, c is the specific heat capacity of the material, μ is the heat
Where k is the material thermal conductivity, T0 is the initial deforma­
distribution coefficient, γ is the shear strain of the material, τ is the flow
tion temperature of the material, m′ and θ are the material constants, and
stress of the material, and η is the Taylor Quinney coefficient, which is
τ0 is the material reference shear stress.
usually taken as 0.9.
By applying Eqs. (10)–(15), the ideal cutting temperature in the
The heat distribution coefficient μ means the proportion of heat
primary deformation zone can be calculated. However, the above dis­
capable of generating a temperature rise after taking into account the
cussion did not consider the cooling aspect. Therefore, to differentiate
heat losses in the first deformation zone, and the formula for this value
between the two supply methods, it is necessary to ensure that the
was proposed by Loewen (Loewen and Shaw, 1954) and is shown in Eq.
cutting experiments begin immediately after liquid-nitrogen spraying
(11).
starts, without the need for pre-cooling of the workpiece to prevent
complete infiltration of the material by liquid nitrogen owing to pro­
longed exposure. Based on these assumptions, we recalculated the
temperature after the introduction of liquid nitrogen as follows.
In cryogenic machining, liquid nitrogen is supplied through the tool
in two main ways: external supply cooling and internal supply cooling.
External supply cooling uses external piping to spray liquid nitrogen
onto the machining area to achieve cooling. This method provides
continuous cooling of the workpiece material but does not provide real-
time cooling of the cutting tool. Internal supply cooling through the tool
implies that liquid nitrogen is delivered and sprayed through the in­
ternal cavity of the tool to its tip, providing real-time cooling of the
insert with minimal impact on the workpiece. Fig. 9 illustrates these two
cooling methods.
Based on Fig. 9, we conclude that the temperature distribution of the
chip is influenced by the application method of liquid nitrogen; its
impact mechanism is illustrated in Fig. 10. During external supply
Fig. 8. Schematic diagram of the temperature field of the chip. S is the width of cooling, liquid nitrogen continuously cools the workpiece, resulting in
the shear band, φ is the shear angle, and γ0 is the rake angle of the tool.

8
J. Li et al. Journal of Materials Processing Tech. 327 (2024) 118377

Fig. 9. Different ways of supplying liquid nitrogen. (a) External supply cooling. (b) Internal supply cooling through the tool. Liquid nitrogen is ejected from an
internal channel that protects the tool while minimizing the continuous irritation of the workpiece from the liquid nitrogen.

Fig. 10. Schematic diagram of heat exchange under different supply methods. (a) External supply cooling. (b) Internal supply cooling through the tool. In condition
(a), the cooling source generated by the liquid nitrogen exchanges sufficient heat with the workpiece surface. And in condition (b), liquid nitrogen continuously cools
the tool surface, which in turn exchanges heat with the tool-chip contact surface.

the free surface of the chip consistently being at an extremely low
temperature (-196◦ C). Furthermore, because the free surface is far from
the tooltip, its exposure to thermal shock effects is minimal. In contrast,
during internal supply cooling through the tool, the workpiece is less
affected by liquid nitrogen, and the low temperature primarily in­
fluences the contact surface between the tool and chip, leading to a
temperature reduction in that region.
Therefore, these two cooling methods can be distinguished. Firstly,
under the conditions of external supply cooling, due to the strong
convective heat transfer capacity of liquid nitrogen, the temperature
near the free surface remains close to − 196◦ C. At the tooltip away from
the free surface, the temperature is primarily the result of the heat
generated by plastic deformation and is the sum of the initial tempera­
ture and the adiabatic temperature rise, as expressed in Eq. (16). Under

Fig. 11. Schematic diagram of heat field distribution. Depending on the method of liquid nitrogen supply, under external supply cooling, the free surface of the chip
is always at a very low temperature, while the tool-chip contact surface is at normal temperature. In the case of internal supply cooling through the tool, the liquid
nitrogen continuously cools the tool, which in turn lowers the temperature of the tool-chip contact surface, while the free surface is at normal temperature.

9
J. Li et al. Journal of Materials Processing Tech. 327 (2024) 118377

the condition of internal supply cooling through the tool, although heat From Fig. 12, it can be inferred that after the tool contacts the chip,
exchange occurs with the air, the convective heat transfer capacity of the segment AC experiences compressive forces, leading to a shear defor­
air is close to zero and can be ignored. Therefore, the temperature near mation along the AC direction. To clarify the deformation of segment AC
the free surface is approximately the same as that in the first deforma­ after the application of liquid nitrogen, a comprehensive analysis of the
tion zone. However, the tooltip away from the free surface is constantly strain rate and temperature for this region must be conducted, consid­
subjected to strong cooling by liquid nitrogen, and the temperature at ering the information from Section 3.2.
this location is the sum of the actual temperature and the temperature of From the perspective of material deformation, when the deformation
the liquid nitrogen, as expressed in Eq. (17). Simultaneously, the results environment reached the critical strain rate, segment AC underwent an
shown in Fig. 11 can be obtained by calculating using this expression. ASD. The variation in the adiabatic shear deformation is closely related
⎧ ∫γ to the adiabatic shear band. Dodd and Bai (Dodd and Bai, 1985) indi­
μη 0 τdγ
⎪
⎪
⎪ &T 0 + + Tc (Tool − chip contact area) cated that the width of the adiabatic shear band is closely related to the
⎪ ρc
⎪
⎪
⎪ ∫ strain rate and temperature. Specifically, as the deformation tempera­
⎪
⎪
ture decreases and the cutting speed increases, the width of the adiabatic
γ
⎪
⎨ μη 0 τdγ
T0 + ( Shear zone area ) (16)
ρc shear band becomes narrower, as shown in Eq. (18).
⎪
⎪ ∫
⎪
⎪ γ √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
⎪
⎪ μη τ dγ
⎪ 0 1 λT ∗
⎪
⎪
⎪
T0 +
ρc
(Free surface area) S= (18)
⎩ 2 τ∗ ε̇∗

⎧ ∫γ where T∗ is the deformation temperature, ε̇∗ is the deformation strain

⎪
⎪ &T +
μη 0 τdγ
(Tool − chip contact area) rate, λ is the thermal conductivity of the material, and τ∗ is the shear
⎪
⎪ stress.
0
⎪
⎪ ρc
⎪
⎪ ∫
⎪
⎨ γ
μη 0 τdγ Researchers have indicated that the narrower the width of the
T0 + ( Shear zone area ) (17) adiabatic shear band, the less energy is required for plastic slip and
⎪
⎪ ρc
⎪
⎪
⎪ fracture in the shear band, and the higher the serration degree of the
⎪ Tc (Free surface area)
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩ chip (Guohe et al., 2009). Simultaneously, Eq. (15), to calculate the
specific width of the shear band. In subsequent analyses, we obtained an
accurate width for the shear band through numerical calculations.
Where Tc is the temperature of the cooling medium. Based on the analysis in Section 3.2, on the one hand, with the in­
crease in cutting speed, the strain rate of the material will be higher,
3.3. Analysis of chip formation mechanism making adiabatic shear more likely to occur. However, under conditions
of internal supply cooling through the tool, cooling is mainly applied to
Analyzing Figs. 5 and 11 together, in the first deformation zone near the shear band near the tooltip, and the temperature inside the shear
the free surface, at position OA, it is influenced by the tensile stress, and band is relatively low. At this time, a narrower shear band was gener­
this position is prone to tensile fracture. The first deformation zone near ated, which enhanced the adiabatic shear effect. The external supply
the tool tip at position AC was influenced by the compressive force and cooling did not significantly affect the compression zone; therefore, its
underwent adiabatic shear deformation at high strain rates, as illus­ impact on the shear band was insignificant. Therefore, cryogenic in­
trated in Fig. 12. Therefore, we must analyze the deformation conditions ternal supply cooling through the tool enhances the adiabatic shear ef­
at these two positions based on the content in Section 3.2. fect and exacerbates the chip serrations.
(1) AC shear-deformation zone (2) OC tensile-deformation zone

Fig. 12. Illustration of chip formation mechanism. The first deformation zone is subject to tensile / compression, the free surface is affected by tensile stress, and
tensile fracture occurs when it reaches the fracture limit. The bottom of the chip is subjected to compressive stress and reaches the critical deformation condition,
adiabatic shear deformation occurs.

10
J. Li et al.
From Fig. 12, it can be inferred that, after the tool contacts the chip,
the OC segment is subjected to tensile forces; consequently, tensile
fracture may occur. Therefore, investigating whether the material un­
dergoes fracture under cutting conditions is crucial for understanding
the deformation in this region. Material toughness is a major factor that
influences material fracture. During the cutting process, the material at
OC is always subjected to the coupling effect of temperature and strain
rate. Therefore, it is necessary to combine previous analyses to explore
the fractures at this location. In previous studies, we used Eq. (19) to
represent the material brittleness, indicating that the material brittle­
ness is directly proportional to the yield strength and inversely pro­
portional to the material fracture toughness.
f (ε̇, T)
B = ∫ εf (19)
f (ε, ε̇, T)
0 cooling during cutting, when liquid nitrogen was applied to the free
where B is the brittleness of the material and ε, ε̇, and T represent the
strain, strain rate, and temperature of the material, respectively.
The above equation indicates that the temperature and strain rate are
the main factors influencing material brittleness. Previous studies have
experimentally demonstrated that the material yield strength increases
with decreasing temperature or increasing strain rate. Under high-
strain-rate dynamic loading conditions, plastic metal materials exhibit
a specific strain-rate effect that distinguishes them from static loading
tests, resulting in significant changes in their mechanical properties and
fracture behavior. Generally, with an increase in strain rate, both the
yield strength and ultimate tensile strength of the material increase.
However, the increase in yield strength is greater than the increase in
tensile strength, leading to the yield strength ratio of the material
gradually approaching 1 (McCammon and Rosenberg, 1957). In the
context of materials science, changes in the yield-strength ratio affect
the toughness and brittleness of materials. A higher yield strength ratio
indicates greater brittleness, and when the yield strength ratio ap­
proaches 1, the material undergoes full embrittlement. However, as the
temperature decreases, the resistance to dislocation motion in the metal
crystals increases, making it difficult for dislocations to occur. This leads
to an increase in the YS of the material. Lower temperatures result in
weaker atomic thermal vibrational forces, causing the material to
transition from tough to brittleness (Stepanov et al., 2015). The effects of
temperature and strain rate on the mechanical properties of the material
are shown in Fig. 13; lower temperatures and higher strain rates led to
more pronounced material brittleness. According to relevant studies in
materials science, an increase in material brittleness shifts the fracture
Fig. 13. Relationship between tough-brittle properties and temperature &
strain rate. A decrease in temperature or an increase in strain rate enhances the
brittleness of the material and promotes fracture.
11
Journal of Materials Processing Tech. 327 (2024) 118377
mode toward a predominantly brittle fracture, with crack propagation as
the main mechanism.
Based on the previous temperature field modeling analysis, we
observed that under the condition of external supply cooling of liquid
nitrogen, liquid nitrogen mainly affects the tensile deformation zone. If
the strain rate is sufficiently high and the temperature is sufficiently low,
the free surface may crack, leading to brittle fracture. Therefore, under
external supply cooling conditions, the chip formation mechanism may
shift to the dominant roles of adiabatic shear and periodic cracking. In
contrast, internal supply cooling through the tool maintains a relatively
high free-surface temperature, and cracking is generally less likely to
occur.
In summary, we outlined the chip formation mechanisms under
different liquid-nitrogen cooling methods. First, for the external supply
surface of the chip, the plasticity of the free surface decreased because of
the low-temperature effect. However, the Ti-6Al-4 V alloy has good
mechanical properties at low temperatures, and its free surface does not
undergo tensile cracking at relatively low speeds. As the cutting speed
increased, the coupling effect of low temperature and high strain rate
further increased the brittleness of the free surface, making it more
prone to tensile cracking. At this point, the chip formation mechanism
shifts from the traditional adiabatic shear deformation to the coexis­
tence of adiabatic shear and periodic cracking. Under conditions of in­
ternal supply cooling through the tool, liquid nitrogen was ejected from
the tooltip, and the radiative range of the cooling medium was mainly at
the tooltip and the tool-chip separation surface, reducing the cutting
temperature near the tooltip. According to the analysis, a decrease in
temperature in the compression zone of the first deformation region
increases the sensitivity of the adiabatic shear behavior, promoting the
occurrence of adiabatic shear effects. At this time, the chip formation
mechanism was enhanced by the low-temperature-induced adiabatic
shear deformation behavior. In summary, Fig. 14 shows the two mech­
anisms of chip formation.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Analysis of the effect of cooling conditions on the degree of chip
serration
Serrated chip morphology is a crucial indicator for describing chip
formation and serves as a vital reference for guiding process parameter
optimization, tool design, and material selection. From the perspective
of improving machining efficiency, a higher serration level makes chips
easier to clear, contributing to a reduction in specific cutting energy.
However, excessive serration can intensify tool and workpiece vibra­
tions, hindering the improvement in surface quality. However, a lower
serration implies that the chips are more prone to entanglement and
adhesion, leading to potential surface scratches. Therefore, under­
standing and controlling the serration of chips is paramount for guiding
cutting optimization.
In the field of machining, some scholars consider the appearance of
serrated chips to indicate that the material has entered the high-speed
machining phase (Chen et al., 2021). Generally, the formula for calcu­
lating chip serration is represented by Eq. (20). Fig. 15 (a) shows a
schematic diagram of the calculations.
H− h
Gs = (20)
H
where H is the height at the top of the chip tooth, and h is the height of
the root of the chip tooth.
To investigate the influence of cooling conditions on the serration
level of chips, we observed the microscopic morphology of chips
collected after corrosion using an ultra-field microscope. The results are
shown in Fig. 15 (b). As can be seen from the graph, the level of serration
J. Li et al.
Fig. 14. Schematic diagram of chip formation mechanism under different cooling methods. Under external supply cooling conditions, when the cutting speed is high,
the coupled effect of low temperature and high strain rate leads to brittle tensile fracture of the free surface of the chip, which transforms the chip formation
mechanism into a combination of brittle cracking and adiabatic shear.
Fig. 15. Analysis of the degree of serration of chips. (a) Schematic diagram for
calculating the degree of serration of chips. (b) Degree of serration of chips
under different cooling conditions. The error bars represent the range of error
between the experimental value obtained from repeated tests and the mean
value, and their length is determined by the standard deviation.
12
Journal of Materials Processing Tech. 327 (2024) 118377
was higher for external supply cooling, approximately 15.75% higher
than that for internal supply cooling through the tool for the same cut­
ting parameters. Additionally, according to relevant literature, titanium
alloys generally exhibit a ribbon-like chip morphology at lower cutting
speeds. However, in this experiment, regardless of the cooling condi­
tions, the chips assumed a serrated shape at extremely low speeds. This
result demonstrates that both liquid-nitrogen cooling methods promote
serration. Furthermore, a comparison of the impact of cutting parame­
ters on the serration level of chips revealed that the serration level be­
comes more pronounced with an increase in cutting speed. This is
mainly attributed to the intensified adiabatic shear effect. Similar results
were obtained in the studies by Ye (Ye et al., 2013) and Molinari
(Molinari et al., 2002).
4.2. Analysis of the effect of cooling mode on the deformation field of
chips
To explore the underlying reasons for the aforementioned morpho­
logical changes in the chips, combined with the relevant analysis in
Section 3, it is necessary to calculate and analyze the deformation
environment of the chips.
Before the analysis, the reliability of the simulation results was
verified. A section of the chip with a relatively stable sawtooth was
selected for polishing and compared with the sawtooth obtained from
the simulation. The results are shown in the figure below. From Fig. 16,
it can be observed that there is an error between the simulation and
experimental results. However, for both the serration degree and the
quantized length of the chip, the error is controlled within 20%, proving
that the model is usable.
(1) Strain rate analysis.
First, because the region affected by low temperature is relatively
small under the two liquid nitrogen cooling conditions, it is mainly
concentrated in the relevant regions near the tip and free surface and has
little effect on the interior of the workpiece shear band. Therefore, in the
analytical calculation, the initial temperature inside the material was
defined under both conditions at room temperature. The width of the
adiabatic shear band was calculated using Eq. (15), and the results are
presented in Fig. 17. As the cutting speed increased, the width of the
adiabatic shear band decreased, indicating that the shear deformation
J. Li et al. Journal of Materials Processing Tech. 327 (2024) 118377

Fig. 16. Comparison of chips obtained by experiment and simulation. Under

the condition of external supply cooling by liquid nitrogen, the cutting speed
was 120 m/min, and the thickness of undeformed chips was 0.1 mm.

Fig. 18. Comparative validation of strain rates. Based on Eqs. (8), (9), (12),
(13) and (14), the strain rates inside the chip obtained at different cutting
speeds are calculated. The error bars represent the range of error between the
strain rate values obtained at different time points during the simulation and
the mean value, and their length is determined by the standard deviation.

parameters, strains, strain rates, and other parameters into Eq. (10), the
actual temperature in the shear zone can be obtained for specific pa­
rameters. Considering that the experimental setup could not directly
measure the temperature distribution in the shear zone, we used a
simulation to validate the accuracy of the proposed temperature model.
After completing the simulation, the temperature distribution in the
shear zone was extracted using the built-in features of ABAQUS. The
results are shown in Fig. 19. From Fig. 19, it can be observed that under
the condition of external supply cooling with liquid nitrogen, the free
surface of the chip remained in an ultralow-temperature environment,
whereas the cutting edge was in a high-temperature state. Conversely,
under the conditions of internal supply cooling through the tool, the
temperature of the free surface was relatively high and the temperature
Fig. 17. Width of adiabatic shear band. The width of the shear band obtained
of the cutting edge was relatively low.
by analyzing Eq. (15). The shear band width decreases with increasing cut­
To further explore the temperature environment of the chip, the
ting speed.
cutting temperatures at points A, B, and C were obtained, as shown in
Fig. 20 (a), and their averages were calculated. Subsequently, these
within the unit area became more intense, and consequently, the
values were compared with the results obtained from the analytical
serration of the chips became more pronounced. Liu (Liu et al., 2018)
calculations. The comparison results are shown in Fig. 20(b) and Fig. 20
also noted that the width of the shear band decreased with increasing
(c), respectively. From Fig. 20, it can be observed that, on the one hand,
cutting speed. Moreover, based on a transmission electron microscopy
the cooling method with liquid nitrogen affects the distribution of cut­
analysis, as the width of the shear band decreased, the grains inside the
ting temperatures, and the distribution pattern aligns with the predicted
band transformed from columnar to equiaxed, which further facilitated
one. Specifically, under external supply cooling, the temperature of the
the formation of serrated chips.
free surface was low, whereas, under internal supply cooling through the
Based on the results shown in Fig. 17, by further combining Eqs. (8),
tool, the temperature at the cutting edge was low. The numerical error in
(9), (12), (13), and (14), the strain rates inside the chips under different
the obtained temperature did not exceed 25%, and the changing trend
cutting speeds can be calculated. The results were compared with the
remained consistent. The main reason for this error is that frictional
simulation data, as shown in Fig. 18, with an error of less than 20%. The
heating may alter the temperature in the cutting area, which was not
figure shows that the cooling conditions have a minor impact on the
considered in this study. However, with an increase in the cutting speed,
strain rate, which is closely related to the cutting speed. As the cutting
the heat in the shear zone increases. This is because with an increase in
speed increased, the strain rate also increased rapidly. The reason for the
cutting speed, the heat generated by plastic deformation increases, but
discrepancy between the simulation and actual results is two-fold. First,
the heat dissipation time is significantly shortened, ultimately causing
in actual machining, the temperature inside the shear band is not con­
the cutting temperature to increase continuously. The high consistency
stant, and the cooling effects lead to fluctuations in the strain rate in
between the simulation and analytical results confirmed the accuracy of
some areas. Second, the sampling position of the strain rate can affect
the temperature prediction model proposed in Section 2.
the accuracy of the numerical value.
Considering the comprehensive analysis of the temperature and
(2) Analysis of the cutting temperature
strain-rate fields, under the condition of external supply cooling with
In cryogenic machining, changes in the temperature field become
liquid nitrogen, cooling is mainly applied to the free surface, which re­
more complex owing to variations in the supply of liquid nitrogen. In the
mains at an extremely low temperature. This can easily lead to cracking
previous chapters, we established a temperature field modeling method
on the free surface if coupled with the high strain rates induced by
for different liquid-nitrogen supply methods. By substituting the cutting

13
J. Li et al.
Fig. 19. Simulation results of cutting temperature. (a) Simulation plot of cutting temperature for different cooling conditions and cutting speeds. (b) Distribution of
cutting temperature under different conditions. Extraction of the temperature inside the shear zone of Fig. (a) yields Fig. (b).
cutting. Chip formation under these conditions may involve adiabatic
shearing and periodic cracking. The temperature at the cutting edge was
relatively low under the condition of internal supply cooling through the
tool. As analyzed in the previous sections, when the critical strain rate is
reached, the adiabatic shear effect becomes more sensitive with
decreasing temperature. To some extent, this promoted chip serration.
However, the effect of serration was not as significant as that of
cracking.
4.3. Analysis of the microstructure inside chips
To validate these inferences further, we observed the microstructure
of the chips. First, experimental observations revealed that under any
liquid-nitrogen cooling cutting conditions, adiabatic shear bands could
be observed in the AC segment, as shown in Fig. 21. The presence of
ASBs indicates the adiabatic shear deformation of the chips during
cryogenic cutting. In materials science, it is believed that when the strain
rate of material deformation exceeds a certain threshold, materials are
prone to thermal plastic instability, which leads to adiabatic shear
deformation. Therefore, in machining, this theory is more suitable for
describing the chip deformation process. In other words, at the moment
of contact between the tool and material, the material in the cutting zone
undergoes significant plastic deformation owing to the compressive
action of the tooltip. At extremely high strain rates, localized adiabatic
shear occurs, forming regularly distributed adiabatic shear bands on the
chips and ultimately resulting in the observed periodic serrated
morphology.
To further analyze the formation of chips, we employed scanning
electron microscopy (SEM) for the direct observation of the unembed­
ded chips. A schematic of these observations is shown in Fig. 2. The
microstructures of the chips were observed from different angles, and
the results are summarized in Figs. 22 and 23.
Fig. 22 shows the microstructure of the chip under the external
supply cooling conditions. From the longitudinal profile in Fig. 22(a), it
can be observed that at lower cutting speeds, the free surface of the chip
is relatively smooth, with some folds when enlarged, and there are still
obvious dimples on the chip separation surface. Combined with the
transverse profile, no brittle fracture occurred on the surface, indicating
that the material had not reached the tensile fracture limit at low strain
rates. Combined with the adiabatic shear band observed in Fig. 21, the
chip formation mechanism at this point was dominated by the adiabatic
shear. However, as the cutting speed increases, the chip formation
mechanism changes. As shown in the longitudinal section of Fig. 22(b),
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Journal of Materials Processing Tech. 327 (2024) 118377
numerous cracks appeared on the free surface of the chip, and no
obvious dents were observed on the detached surface of the chip.
Combined with the transverse profile, it was found that the adiabatic
shear phenomenon coexisted with cracks that appeared on the top of the
chip and gradually converged to the shear zone after the cracks
extended, indicating that the material at the free surface reached the
fracture limit and brittle fracture occurred. However, according to the
SEM image in Fig. 21, adiabatic shear deformation still occurs at the
bottom of the chip. Based on the aforementioned analysis, owing to the
favorable low-temperature mechanical properties of the Ti-6Al-4 V
alloy, low temperatures only reduce its plastic deformation ability
without inducing a ductile-to-brittle transition. When the cutting speed
was low, the free surface exhibited plastic behavior without brittle
cracking. However, at higher cutting speeds, the combined effect of high
strain rates and low temperatures led to the formation of tensile cracks
on the free surface, which extended toward the bottom of the chip.
Additionally, because of the plastic deformation caused by material
plasticity and friction effects, extremely high cutting temperatures are
generated, and the thermal softening effect leads to plastic deformation
at the bottom of the chip, independent of the cutting speed.
Fig. 23 shows the microstructure of the chips under the condition of
internal supply cooling through the tool. Regardless of the cutting speed,
the free surface of the chip remained smooth without crack distribution.
Upon examining the cross-section, there were signs of ductile tearing at
the bottom of the chip, accompanied by numerous ductile dimples.
Combined with the phenomenon shown in Fig. 21, it is considered that
in internal supply cooling through the tool, cooling occurs on the contact
surface of the tool and chip and does not affect the free surface of the
chip. Therefore, cracks did not appear on the free surface of the chips.
Additionally, adiabatic shear plastic deformation remains the primary
cause of chip formation owing to the high-temperature thermal soft­
ening effect.
The microscopic structural changes discussed in this section align
with the assumptions made in Section 3 and are consistent with the
temperature analysis presented in Section 4.2. Therefore, by synthesiz­
ing the results, the mechanism of chip formation under different cooling
conditions can be inferred.
4.4. Analysis of chip formation mechanisms
Based on the analysis of theoretical and experimental phenomena,
we compared the effects of two different liquid nitrogen supply methods
on chip formation. From the modeling and simulation perspectives, the
J. Li et al. Journal of Materials Processing Tech. 327 (2024) 118377

Fig. 20. Comparison of theoretical temperature and simulation temperature. (a) Position of temperature acquisition in chip simulation. (b) The cutting speed is
120 m/min. (c) The cutting speed is 300 m/min. The error bars represent the range of error between the cutting temperature values obtained at different time points
during the simulation and the mean value, and their length is determined by the standard deviation.

traditional adiabatic shear theory cannot explain the chip formation
mechanism in the cryogenic machining of titanium alloys. In cryogenic
machining, the machined material undergoes deformation at high strain
rates and constantly experiences intense cooling from the liquid nitro­
gen. Therefore, the chip formation mechanism in cryogenic machining is
expected to differ from that of machining. The chip formation mecha­
nism in cryogenic machining is summarized in Fig. 24.
Mode 1 shows the chip formation process with internal supply
cooling through the tool. Under these conditions, no surface cracks were
observed from the low-speed stage to the high-speed stage. However, an
obvious adiabatic shear band appeared, indicating that the formation of
serrated chips was mainly dominated by adiabatic shear. According to
the figure, the process of forming a serrated chip under the conditions of
internal supply cooling through the tool can be summarized in three
stages. Initially, the tool contacts the workpiece material at an extremely
high speed, exerting a positive compressive force on the material.
Combined with strain hardening due to the high strain rate, a hardened
zone formed near the chip contact surface. Simultaneously, the friction
of the tool and intense plastic deformation of the material rapidly
increased the temperature at the tooltip, generating a considerable
amount of cutting heat. Under the combined effects of thermal softening
and strain strengthening, an adiabatic shear zone was formed, extending
from the tooltip to the free surface. Second, as the tool moves further,
the formed chip continues to climb under the push of the leading tool
face, intensifying the shear slip within the chip. At this stage, the tool’s
compression and friction load on the already-formed shear zone further
affected the degree of serration. Finally, the chip flows rapidly along the
leading edge, causing intense plastic deformation at the bottom of the
chip under strong friction. The chip was formed after completing these
three steps.
In addition, observations of the microscopic morphology revealed
that under external supply cooling conditions with liquid nitrogen, no
cracks were observed on the free surface when the cutting speed was
low. Therefore, the chip formation pattern remained, as illustrated in
mode 1. Mode 2 represents another pattern: under external supply
cooling conditions with liquid nitrogen, adiabatic shear deformation

15
J. Li et al.
Fig. 21. SEM image of a serrated chip after corrosion. When viewed after etching with Kroll’s reagent, the location drawn by the yellow line is the adiabatic shear
zone of the chip.
occurs at the tooltip at higher cutting speeds. Simultaneously, owing to
the coupling of the low temperature and high strain rate, a ductile-to-
brittle transition occurs on the free surface of the chip, leading to
cracking. The extension of the adiabatic shear deformation at the tooltip
synchronizes with the extension of the brittle cracks on the free surface,
resulting in serrated chip formation.
Based on the analysis presented in this section, it is evident that
cryogenic machining can increase the serration of chips, making them
more conducive to fragmentation and removal. Experiments have also
found that under conditions of internal supply cooling through the tool,
the serration of chips is relatively low. Therefore, it was necessary to
examine these findings. First, both liquid-nitrogen supply methods result
in a more pronounced serration of chips compared with dry cutting,
which facilitates chip breakage. When chip serration is more pro­
nounced, the contact length between the tool and chip is reduced,
thereby lowering the frictional heat and, to some extent, inhibiting tool
wear (Bermingham et al., 2011). Yılmaz et al (Yılmaz et al., 2018). also
noted that when materials encounter difficulties in chip breaking,
entangled chips can affect continuous processing, leading to decreased
efficiency and posing safety risks to operators. Wang’s (Wang et al.,
2015) research indicated that when materials undergo a transition from
ductile to brittle behavior, brittle chips can reduce cutting energy con­
sumption. However, when the degree of chip serration is excessively
high, it can negatively impact the tool life and surface quality. Guo (Guo
et al., 2021) and Yu (Yu et al., 2020) suggested that excessive chip
serration can cause fluctuations in cutting forces, affecting tool vibra­
tion, and leading to a decline in machining quality. Zhang et al (Zhang
et al., 2021). also emphasized that while removing material brittleness
may increase efficiency, plastic removal is key to ensuring quality. Based
on the above analysis, we conclude that both liquid-nitrogen cooling
16
Journal of Materials Processing Tech. 327 (2024) 118377
methods have advantages in terms of improved machining efficiency
and reduced cutting energy consumption compared to dry machining.
However, the method of internal supply cooling through the tool sup­
presses the degree of serration of the chips compared to external supply
cooling; therefore, this method is more advantageous for ensuring cut­
ting stability and improving machining quality.
5. Conclusion
In this study, the chip formation mechanism of cryogenic machining
was investigated based on stress triaxiality, and the influence law of the
liquid nitrogen supply mode on the chip morphology was explored,
which fills the gap in the material removal mechanism through internal
supply cooling through the tool. This study focused on the stress dis­
tribution in the main shear zone, based on which the chip fracture
problem in the first deformation zone was defined as a material-damage
challenge under the mixed action of tensile/compressive stress. At the
same time, computational models of the temperature field and strain
rate field applicable to different liquid nitrogen cooling modes are
established through comparative analysis, and the mechanism of chip
formation under liquid nitrogen cooling conditions is revealed by
combining it with an analysis of the influence of loading conditions on
the deformation state of the material. The main conclusions are as
follows.
1. In cryogenic machining, the formation of chips is not controlled by a
single stress component, with tensile stress acting on the location
near the free surface of the chip, and compressive stress acting on the
area near the chip contact surface of the tool. From the perspective of
chip formation, when the temperature decreases or the strain rate
J. Li et al. Journal of Materials Processing Tech. 327 (2024) 118377

Fig. 22. Microstructure of Ti-6Al-4 V under liquid nitrogen external supply cooling conditions. (a) The cutting speed is 120 m/min. (b) The cutting speed is 300 m/
min. As the cutting speed increases, the free surface is subjected to the coupling effect of low temperature and high strain rate, brittle tensile fracture occurs and
cracks appear.

17
J. Li et al. Journal of Materials Processing Tech. 327 (2024) 118377

Fig. 23. Microstructure of Ti-6Al-4 V under internal supply cooling conditions through the tool. (a) The cutting speed is 120 m/min. (b) The cutting speed is 300 m/
min. The change in cutting speed has very little effect on the free surface, which is extremely smooth.

18
J. Li et al. Journal of Materials Processing Tech. 327 (2024) 118377

Fig. 24. Formation process of chips in cryogenic machining. When the cutting speed is low, the chip formation mechanism under both liquid nitrogen supply
methods is Mode 1. When the cutting speed is higher, the chip formation mechanism with liquid nitrogen external supply cooling changes to Mode 2.

increases, under the action of tensile stresses, brittle fracture, and
crack initiation on the free surface of the chip are promoted, and
under the action of compressive stresses, the plastic deformation of
the adiabatic shear is promoted.
2. Differences in the way liquid nitrogen is supplied affect the tem­
perature field distribution during the cutting process. Under external
supply cooling conditions, the liquid nitrogen applied to the work­
piece resulted in a lower free-surface temperature of the chip, which
made the chip more susceptible to brittle fracture. In contrast, under
conditions of internal supply cooling through the tool, liquid nitro­
gen can be cooled precisely to the tip region, and the temperature at
the tool-chip interface is much lower when the chip is more sus­
ceptible to shear slip and maintains plastic removal of the chip.
3. The results of the cutting experiments showed that the method of
internal supply cooling through the tool reduced chip serration by
15.75% compared to conventional external supply cooling. This
reduction in serration is advantageous in terms of the stability of the
cutting process and improved machining quality.
4. In conventional external-supply cooling cutting, the continuous
impact of liquid nitrogen leaves the workpiece at a low temperature.
When the cutting speed is high, the coupling effect of low tempera­
ture and high strain rate often leads to the tough-brittle transition of
the material. Under tensile stress, the free surface of a chip is prone to
brittle cracking, leading to chip formation dominated by periodic
cracking and adiabatic shear effects. Removal of the material
through a mixed tough-brittle fracture form produces more pro­
nounced serrated chips, which exacerbates cutting vibrations and is
not conducive to ensuring machining quality.
5. Under the condition of internal supply cooling through the tool,
liquid nitrogen precisely cools the tool through the internal channels,
which protects the tool while simultaneously reducing the cryogenic
stimulation of the workpiece by liquid nitrogen. When the cutting
speed is high, which is affected by the coupling effect of the low
temperature and high strain rate, the material in the tool-chip con­
tact area undergoes strong adiabatic shear plastic deformation,
forming chips dominated by the adiabatic shear effect. The plastic
removal of chips has a positive significance for maintaining cutting
stability and improving machining quality.
In this study, the chip formation process was investigated based on a
combination of simulation modeling and experiments, revealing the
influence of the liquid-nitrogen supply mode on the chip formation
mechanism, which provides a theoretical reference for the industrial
application of cryogenic machining. In future research, on the one hand,
it is necessary to explore the effect of liquid nitrogen cooling on the tool
wear mechanism to further promote the process optimization of tita­
nium alloys, on the other hand, it is necessary to research the low-
temperature dynamic mechanical properties of the material, and to
further deepen the chip formation mechanism based on the dynamic
fracture mechanism of the material.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Jie Zhang: Software. Shaowei Jiang: Investigation. Jianming Li:
Writing – original draft. Yueshuai Zuo: Validation. Haibo Liu: Writing
– review & editing. Yang Wang: Methodology. Yongqing Wang:
Formal analysis.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declared that they have no conflicts of interest to this
work. We declare that we do not have any commercial or associative
interest that represents a conflict of interest in connection with the work
submitted
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support from the
National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. U20B2033), the
Changjiang Scholar Program of Chinese Ministry of Education (No.
Q2021053, T2017030), the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central
Universities (DUT22LAB505).
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