Telematics and Informatics 31 (2014) 16–26

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Telematics and Informatics

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tele

Usage of video sharing websites: Drivers and barriers

Jiyoung Cha ⇑
Film and Video Studies Program, College of Visual and Performing Arts, George Mason University, 4400 University Drive, MS 3E6, Fairfax, VA 22030, United States

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Using a technology acceptance model (TAM) and uses and gratification theory (U&G) as
Received 4 August 2011 primary theories, this exploratory study investigates what factors promote or hinder the
Received in revised form 4 October 2011 use of video sharing websites. Theoretically, this study attempts to examine the integration
Accepted 21 January 2012
of TAM and U&G with other perceptions of video sharing sites and consumer characteris-
Available online 4 February 2012
tics. Practically, the investigation provides video sharing websites with insights into the
appeal of their sites to audiences. In addition, this study may help offline video media
Keywords:
counter the threats from the drastic growth of video sharing websites. The findings con-
Video sharing
Online video
cludes that those males who use the Internet for emotional pleasure and excitement, per-
Technology acceptance model ceive video sharing websites to have greater usefulness, ease of use, substitutability, and
Uses and gratifications content variety are more frequently using video sharing websites. With respect to service
evaluation factors, content variety appears to mitigate the negative effects of content qual-
ity, loading speed, screen size, display resolution, and audio quality on video sharing
websites.
Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Thanks to the increasing penetration of broadband Internet connections, more and more people are watching videos via
the Web. According to ComScore (2011), 81.9% of US Internet users watched online videos in April 2011. According to a
survey conducted in 2010, approximately 40% of American households with broadband Internet access use the Internet to
watch television programs and movies (Parks Associates, 2010). While the Web is increasingly utilized to watch television
programs or movies created by media companies, it is also becoming a useful platform for amateurs to share the videos they
produce with other Internet users.
Video sharing websites are a driving force behind this rise of the Web as an alternative platform for viewing video
content. ComScore Media Metrix (2006) pointed out the gaining popularity of video sharing websites as one of the marked
changes in its monthly analysis of US consumer activities in 2006. The most popular US video sharing website, YouTube, was
ranked third with respect to website traffic in the United States, following Google and Facebook, as of June 2011
(Quantcast, 2011a). Other video sharing websites, such as Vevo, Dailymotion, allow people to upload and watch videos
through streaming technologies; these sites are also growing (ComScore, 2011).
Advertisers respond quickly to the exponential growth of video sharing websites. The top 25 companies that spent the
most on advertising over the last five years also significantly cut their spending in traditional media, according to Advertising
Age and TNS Media Intelligence (Story, 2007). Instead, advertisers increasingly invest their money in commercials online.
Nike is just one of the representative examples that describes the shift of ad trends. Nowadays, Nike shows many of their
ads only on the Internet. In 2005, Nike posted an ad that stars the Brazilian soccer player Ronaldinho online instead of on
TV. The company said that more than 17 million viewers watched the ad on YouTube (Story, 2007).

⇑ Tel.: +1 703 993 3165; fax: +1 703 993 3175.

E-mail address: jcha2@gmu.edu

0736-5853/$ - see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.tele.2012.01.003
 J. Cha / Telematics and Informatics 31 (2014) 16–26 17

While advertisers embrace video sharing websites, other media firms such as television networks and film studios are
substantially concerned about the violation of copyrights on video sharing websites. In March 2007, Viacom sued YouTube
and its parent company, Google, for more than $1 billion, saying the companies are infringing on Viacom’s copyrights be-
cause almost 160,000 unauthorized video clips are available for viewing on YouTube. Several media firms including CBS
Corp., Dailymotion, Fox Entertainment Group, Microsoft Corp., MySpace, NBC Universal, Veoh Networks Inc., Viacom Inc.
and The Walt Disney Co. emphasize the importance of protecting copyrights. They argue that filtering technologies that rec-
ognize content under copyright protection should be effective (Dauman, 2007). In response, YouTube eventually launched
video identification technology that filters videos under copyright protections when one uploads videos (Auchard, 2007),
and a video verification program that helps copyright holders locate and remove video content that meets the copyright
infringement criteria (YouTube, 2011).
Despite the notable growth and impact of video sharing websites on the media landscape, there is no research on the
reasons behind the growing popularity of video sharing websites. Using a technology acceptance model (TAM) as well as
uses and gratification (U&G) theory as primary theories, this study investigates what factors promote people to use video
sharing websites and hinder the visits of video sharing websites. Theoretically, the present study attempts to examine
the integration of TAM and U&G with other perceptions of video sharing sites and consumer characteristics. Practically,
the investigation provides video sharing websites with insights into the appeal of their sites to audiences. In addition, this
study may help offline video media counter the threats from the drastic growth of video sharing websites.

2. Literature review

2.1. Definition of video sharing websites

Even though audiences and news are buzzing about video sharing websites, none of the research defines what video shar-
ing websites are. The term ‘‘video sharing websites’’ is occasionally interchangeably used with other terms such as ‘‘user-
generated content sites’’ or ‘‘webcasters.’’ It appears that what each of these terms refers to is actually different.
Focusing on the creators of content, the boundary of user-generated content (UGC) sites is narrower than that of video
sharing websites in that UGC sites refer to only the sites offering content produced by individual users. PC Magazine refers
to user-generated content as ‘‘wikis and blogs in which content is created by the general public rather than paid profession-
als’’ (PC Magazine, 2007). The term ‘‘user-generated content (UGC) sites’’ is avoided in this study because the focus of this
study is not limited to content produced only by amateurs. Apparently, video sharing websites are primary outlets for ama-
teurs to share their videos with the general public. However, user-generated content is not the only available content on
video sharing websites. Numerous videos originally created by media firms are also available on video sharing websites.
In addition, the focus of this study centers on videos rather than content, which is a broader category than videos, including
texts, videos, static photos, and so forth.
Meanwhile, webcasting is defined as ‘‘the delivery of audio and video content to large groups either locally or globally
distributed over the Internet’’ (Boettcher and Nardick, 2001, p. 52). Webcasters primarily use streaming technologies as
do video sharing websites (Boettcher and Nardick, 2001), so under this definition, it seems very possible for amateurs to
webcast nowadays. However, Overton (2006) pointed out that corporations and larger businesses are the main producers
of webcasts in discussing webcasting in general. Lin (2004), in her study of webcasting adoption, implicitly defines webcast-
ing as streaming of sports, news, and selected programs by broadcast and cable television networks. Given the different
meanings of the terms, video sharing websites over UGC sites and webcasters are used consistently in this research.
In this study, video sharing websites are defined as venues where people are able to both watch and upload videos for
free. Content available on video sharing websites is classified into two categories: (1) videos created by individual Internet
users (i.e., amateurs) and (2) videos originally produced by media firms but uploaded by individuals Internet users or media
firms such as advertisers or media marketers. The technology involved with viewing is confined to streaming technologies.

2.2. Perceived usefulness and ease of use

TAM is a prevalent theory that is employed to explain the intention to use a particular technology (Gefen et al., 2003).
Derived from the theory of reasoned action (TRA), TAM suggests that acceptance and rejection of information communica-
tion technologies are explained by users’ beliefs and attitudes (Yang, 2005). TAM posits that perceived usefulness and per-
ceived ease of use of a particular information technology are the central drivers in the attitudes toward and intentions to
adopt it (Davis, 1989; Davis et al., 1989). Perceived usefulness is defined as ‘‘the degree to which an individual believes that
using a particular system would enhance his/her job performance’’ (p. 320). Perceived ease of use refers to ‘‘the degree to
which an individual believes that using a particular system would be free of physical and mental efforts (Davis, 1989, p. 323).
While TRA focuses on explaining behavioral intention in general from a social psychology perspective, TAM centers spe-
cifically on predicting behavioral intention to use and the actual use of an information technology from information systems
and management perspectives. TRA posits that attitude and subjective norm affect intention. Subjective norm refers to an
individual’s belief that she or he should perform a certain behavior because other people important to the individual expect
the behavior (Fishbein and Aizen, 1975). Adapting the generic behavior model to the specific domain of technology
18 J. Cha / Telematics and Informatics 31 (2014) 16–26

acceptance, TAM replaces TRA’s attitudinal determinants with perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use (Bagozzi et al.,
1992). Also, TAM omits subjective norm because subjective norm does not significantly influence intention over and above
perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use (Davis, 1989). Building upon the robustness of TAM, researchers expanded
the model to TAM2, adding the impacts of three interrelated social forces on individuals’ adoption of a new technology
(Venkatesh and Davis, 2000). TAM2 incorporated subjective norm, voluntariness, and image with the original TAM. TAM2
takes into account the influence of social forces on the adoption decision. However, the three constructs in TAM2 act as
moderating factors of perceived usefulness, or antecedents affecting perceived usefulness of a technology, not as direct
determinants of the technology use. The united theory of acceptance and technology use (UTAUT), a variation of TAM,
proposes social influences as direct determinants of technology adoption, but none of the social influence constructs are
found significant in influencing technology use in voluntary contexts where individuals are not mandated to use the
technology (Venkatesh et al., 2003).
Numerous empirical studies in different technologies and settings proved the parsimoniousness, theoretical soundness,
and robustness of TAM in predicting technology acceptance behaviors (Gefen et al., 2003; van der Heijden, 2003). In the con-
text of the Internet, TAM is primarily employed to explain the adoption consumers’ attitudes of or adoption intentions of
e-commerce (Järveläinen, 2007). Recent studies have applied TAM to examine acceptance of various Internet-based technol-
ogies, such as email (Gefen and Straub, 1997), Web (Chen et al., 2002; Fenech, 1998; Lederer et al., 2000), virtual store (Chen
et al., 2002; Gefen et al., 2003; O’Cass and Fenech, 2003), and electronic commerce (Cheng et al., 2006; Chu and Lu, 2007;
Kamis and Stohr, 2006; Selim, 2003). Specifically, Gefen and Straub (2000) applied TAM to the use of websites and confirmed
that perceived usefulness and ease of use are salient factors that affect consumers’ adoption and continuous use of particular
websites. Given the aim of the present study to identify direct determinants of video sharing site use, and the robust roles of
perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use in explaining a technology use in prior studies, the following hypotheses are
suggested:

H1. Perceived usefulness is positively associated with the use of video sharing websites.
H2. Perceived ease of use is positively associated with the use of video sharing websites.

2.3. Motives for using the Internet

Thanks to its parsimoniousness and robustness, TAM has been a widely accepted way to explain adoption of various infor-
mation communication technologies. On the flip side, TAM is too parsimonious to predict the adoption rate of a certain
technology. Therefore, researchers have used TAM in conjunction with other theories. Although TAM has been tested in both
organizational and individual settings (e.g., Schepers and Wetzels, 2007; Verkasalo et al., 2010; Yang, 2005), it was originally
developed for testing in workplace settings (Choudrie and Dwivedi, 2005; López-Nicolás et al., 2008; Venkatesh et al., 2003).
Thus, TAM alone does not adequately address intrinsic motivations affecting consumer media use (Al-Omoush and Shaqrah,
2010; Huang, 2008; Luo et al., 2006). To better capture intrinsic and extrinsic motivations for using media and to add more
consumer characteristics, previous studies suggested that TAM should be combined with U&G theory (Al-Omoush and
Shaqrah, 2010; Huang, 2008; King and He, 2006; Schepers and Wetzels, 2007; Stafford et al., 2004). The integration of
U&G theory with TAM has been increasingly observed in the recent literature (Al-Omoush and Shaqrah, 2010; Cha,
2010a; Huang, 2008; Luo et al., 2006).
U&G theory is a widely used theoretical framework to explain adoption and use of a new medium (Atkin et al., 1998; Lin,
1996; Morris and Ogan, 1996). Uses and gratifications theory posits that individuals are active audiences of media, because
they select and use a medium to gratify their needs (Blumler and Katz, 1974). Many studies employed U&G theory to identify
motives as the predictors of the behavioral use or adoption interests of a particular medium such as the Internet, television,
and online chatting rooms (Leung, 2001; Lin, 2004; Papacharissi and Rubin, 2000). Others utilized U&G theory to understand
the consumption of a specific content such as news or reality TV shows (Diddi and LaRose, 2006; Papacharissi and
Mendelson, 2007). Since the introduction of the Internet, several studies have indicated that U&G theory was successfully
applied to the Internet and Internet-related communications (Ferguson and Perse, 2000; Flaherty et al., 1998; Leung,
2001; Lin, 2006; Morris and Ogan, 1996; Papacharissi and Rubin, 2000).
Papacharissi and Rubin (2000) identified interpersonal utility, passing time, information seeking, convenience, and enter-
tainment as five motives for using the Internet. More recently, Yang and Kang (2006) added habit and escapism motives to
the motives of the entertainment, social interaction and information suggested by Papacharissi and Rubin (2000).
Papacharissi and Rubin (2000) found that convenience and interpersonal utility motivations predict the duration of overall
Internet use and amount of Internet exposure, respectively.
While Papacharissi and Rubin (2000), and Yang and Kang (2006) specified the motives for using the Internet in detail,
others categorize gratifications for Internet use into two broad categories. Philaretou et al. (2005) suggested that utilitarian
and experiential values explain Internet behaviors. Utilitarian Internet users consider the Internet as a means to accomplish
their tasks (Assael, 1998; Barbin et al., 1994; Hoffman and Novak, 1996; Wolfinbarger and Gilly, 2001). In contrast, experi-
ential users visit websites for psychological, physiological, and emotional pleasure and excitement (Novak et al., 2003, 2000).
Utilitarian or experiential motives in computer-mediated environments are characterized along the following dimensions:
intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation, ritualistic versus instrumental orientation, enduring versus situational involvement,
hedonic versus utilitarian benefits, non-directed versus directed search, and navigational versus goal-directed choice
 J. Cha / Telematics and Informatics 31 (2014) 16–26 19

(Hoffman and Novak, 1996; Jain, 2003). Researchers consistently found that relaxation and entertainment are the primary
motives for watching television (Rubin, 1981, 1984). Enjoyment, pleasure, and escape are the most salient motives for
watching movies frequently (Austin, 1986). Given the dominant experiential motives for video consumption, it is presumed
that people who use the Internet for experiential motives are more likely to use video sharing websites. On the other hand, it
is proposed that utilitarian motives for Internet use have a negative association with video sharing site use.

H3. Utilitarian motives behind Internet use are negatively associated with the use of video sharing websites.
H4. Experiential motives behind Internet use are positively associated with the use of video sharing websites.

2.4. Substitutability

Whether a new medium changes the consumption of existing media has been a persistent question over the past decades.
Researchers have attempted to investigate the displacement effect of television (Belson, 1961; Mendelsohn, 1964; Williams,
1986), cable television (Kaplan, 1978; Sparkes, 1983), VCR (Harvey and Rothe, 1985; Henke and Donohu, 1989) and
computer-related communications technologies (Finholt and Sproull, 1990; Robinson et al., 1997). Interestingly, the findings
of the research that examined whether traditional media and non-media activities are displaced by new technologies are
contradictory.
On one hand, some researchers found that the emergence of television caused people to spend less time with other media
such as radio and even non-media activities (Weiss, 1968; Robinson, 1981). In the context of computer-mediated technol-
ogies, James et al. (1995) suggested that the use of computer bulletin boards reduce time spent with television viewing, book
reading, telephone talking, and letter writing. More recently, Kayany and Yelsma (2000) pointed out that online media have
displacement effects on telephone use, newspaper reading, and domestic conversations. On the other hand, other studies
found a complementary relationship between a new medium and traditional media. Interestingly, Robinson et al. (1997) dis-
covered that computer-mediated communications increase the use of print media. Grotta and Newsom (1982) showed that
the use of cable television rather boosts television consumption. The lingering question regarding media substitution mech-
anism suggests that the audience may abandon the old medium and replace it with the new based on the new medium’s
relative functional desirability compared to the old medium (Lin, 1994).
Some of the research assumed that audiences have limited time for media and non-media activities. Thus, the addition of
a new medium causes the audiences to spend less time on the existing media or to disregard the new medium. This is based
on a zero–sum relationship for the amount of time invested for each of the media (Kayany and Yelsma, 2000). However, the
assumption may not be always true. Rather, an important construct in research on displacement effect may be whether the
new medium is functionally similar to the old medium and more functionally desirable as well. Lin (1994) argued that
audiences displace an old medium by a new medium when they view the new medium as more functionally desirable than
the old one. In that case, the new and old media should essentially be functionally similar to some degree. If the old and new
media do not possess functional similarity, but are compatible, then there are possibilities that those two media will
complement one another. For instance, VCRs complement with television because VCRs and television have different roles
in audiences’ viewing. Thus, the relationship between VCR and television is closer to complementary. However, if the focus is
on the real time viewing, it can be seen that VCRs displace real time viewing on television (Lin, 2001).
The emergence of the Internet has enabled consumers to have online viewing as another option in having access to the
videos originally delivered via offline video media. Interestingly, previous studies failed to show the displacement effect of
the Internet on traditional media. Industry reports (Jessell, 1995; Snider, 1997) showed that the adoption of online media did
not decrease the time spent with other media. Shapiro (1998) noted that frequent online users are more likely to be frequent
television viewers. Note that those studies did not see whether audiences perceive the Internet as functionally similar or
desirable to the traditional media they examined before they addressed the displacement effect.
In that regard, the present study addresses how perceived substitutability of video sharing websites for offline video med-
ia is associated with the actual use of video sharing websites. In fact, Lin (2004) examined how substitutability of offline con-
tent by online content predicts the interest of webcasting adoption. The finding indicated that magazine content substitution
of webcasting influences the adoption interest of shopping/recreation webcasting adoption. Considering that video sharing
websites are functionally similar to offline video media such as television, DVD players, and movie theaters to some degree
and that some of the content produced by media firms is available on video sharing sites, the following hypothesis is argued:

H5. Perceived substitutability of video sharing sites for other offline video media is positively associated with the use of
video sharing websites.

2.5. Service evaluation factors

Atkin (2002) asserted that the technology’s tangible features (e.g., transmission speed, storage capacity, audiovisual qual-
ity, transferability) determine substitutability of a new medium for an old medium. In fact, research suggests that service
evaluation factors are intimately related to the adoption of a new technology. Anil et al. (2003) identified lack of content,
high usage cost, difficulty in establishing connection, high cost of Internet-ready handsets, screen limitation, slow loading
20 J. Cha / Telematics and Informatics 31 (2014) 16–26

speed, difficulty inputting data, no standard means of payment, concerns about security, and concerns about privacy as
deterrents in adopting value-added services on mobile phone.
Content on video sharing websites can be classified into two broad categories – (1) videos that are created by individual
users and (2) videos that are originally produced by media companies but uploaded by individual users or media companies.
Considering the two types of video content, video sharing sites apparently diversify content. Additionally, many of the videos
on the sites are originally produced by international entities. In contrast, audiences of traditional video media are not likely
able to have access to as great a variety videos. Thus, it is logical to view the content variety as an advantage of video sharing
websites. However, the content variety of video sharing websites may have tradeoff for overall content quality, loading
speed, screen size, display resolution, audio quality. Applying the theories to video sharing websites, the present study
focuses on the impact of video sharing websites’ tangible features on the use of the sites. The following hypothesis is
maintained:

H6. Perceived service evaluation factors (i.e., overall content quality, content variety, loading speed, screen size, display
resolution, and audio quality) are positively associated with the use of video sharing websites.

2.6. Gender

Previous studies found that males have more experience and favorable attitudes toward computers than females
(Durndell and Thomson, 1997; Whitely, 1997). In the nascent age of the Internet, this phenomenon was attributed to gender
discrepancy with respect to Internet use. However, the gender gap in Internet consumption critically decreased in the United
States in recent years. According to E-Marketer (2009), 51.8% of women and 48.2% of men were Internet users as of 2009.
Nevertheless, research still supports the male gender as a prevalent position regarding the adoption of a particular
computer-mediated technology. Men are more likely than women to be avid users of computer video games (Hartmann
and Klimmt, 2006). Recent studies showed that males are also more likely to adopt e-commerce and e-learning than females
(Doolin et al., 2005; Ong and Lai, 2006). Based on the greater propensity of males to adopt Internet-based technologies, as
found in aforementioned studies, the following hypothesis is postulated:

H7. The male gender is positively associated with the use of video sharing websites.

3. Method

3.1. Sample and procedures

The data to investigate the hypotheses were gathered through a survey. The survey was carried out using a sample of 284
college students enrolled in three large introductory communication courses at a large southeastern university. College stu-
dents were chosen as a sample for this study because people ages 18–24 are more likely to use video sharing websites, as
compared to the overall Internet-using population (NB, 2008). Also, college students are early adopters and heavy users of
the Internet compared to the general population (Jones et al., 2009; Jones, 2002; Nie et al., 2005). The sample was composed
of 36.3% male and 63.7% female; 2.1% of the students were first-year, 30.3% sophomore, 35.9% junior, and 31.7% senior. The
mean age of the participants was 20.51 years old (SD = 2.15). A majority of the respondents have experienced video sharing
websites. 93.7% of the participants (n = 266) said that they have used video sharing websites. Only 6.3% have never used
video sharing websites. With respect to the frequency of using video sharing websites, 37.3% of the participants said that

Table 1
Descriptive statistics.

Constructs M SD
Use of video sharing websites 4.44 1.28
Watching videos produced by individual users 4.16 1.28
Watching videos produced by media firms 4.29 1.33
Perceived usefulness 4.56 1.22
Perceived ease of use 5.90 .92
Utilitarian motive 5.59 1.10
Experiential motive 5.92 .91
Perceived substitutability 3.44 1.71
Overall content quality 5.17 1.01
Content variety 6.41 .93
Loading speed 5.38 1.13
Screen size 4.31 1.45
Display resolution 4.03 1.34
Audio quality 4.61 1.26
 J. Cha / Telematics and Informatics 31 (2014) 16–26 21

Table 2
Predictors of the use of video sharing websites.

Type Constructs B S.E. b

Perceptions of video sharing websites Perceived usefulness .353 .067 .297***
Perceived ease of use .384 .092 .253***
Perceived substitutability .105 .044 .122**
Overall content quality .012 .079 .009
Content variety .135 .077 .099*
Loading speed .052 .073 .040
Screen size .012 .067 .012
Display resolution .067 .081 .061
Audio quality .003 .073 .002
Consumer characteristics Utilitarian motives for using the Internet .153 .070 .115**
Experiential motives for using the Internet .184 .088 .116***
Male gender .289 .157 .096*
R2 = .360
Adjusted R2 = .331
F = 12.684*** (12, 271)
*
p < .05 (one-tailed test).
**
p < .01 (one-tailed test).
***
p < .001 (one-tailed test).

they use video sharing websites sometimes. 22.5% and 10.2% use the sites often or very often, respectively. And 7.4% of the
participants answered that they use video sharing websites all the time.

3.2. Measurement

Appendix 1 provides in detail all the measurement items for the constructs. The use of video sharing websites was mea-
sured via the ongoing frequency of using video sharing websites on a 7-point scale (7 = all the time, 1 = never). To represent
perceived usefulness and ease of use, three items for each of the constructs were employed from Davis (1989) and Davis et al.
(1989). Participants were asked to indicate their level of agreement with each statement on a 7-point Likert-type scale
(7 = strongly agree, 1 = strongly disagree). For substitutability, three items were adapted from Lin (2004). The participants
were asked how much they agree with the three statements that video sharing websites can be a substitute for television,
movie theaters, and DVD players, respectively, on a 7-point Likert-type scale (7 = strongly agree, 1 = strongly disagree). To
measure service evaluation factors, the respondents were asked to rate each of the six service evaluation factors – overall
content quality, content variety, loading speed, screen size, display resolution, and audio quality - using 7-point semantic
differential scales. Five items adopted from Davis (1989) were used to measure utilitarian and experiential Internet motives
on a 7-point Likert-type scale (7 = strongly agree, 1 = strongly disagree). To assess construct validity of the measures, explor-
atory factor analysis with varimax rotation was performed. As seen in Appendix 2, all of the measurement items converged
well from theoretically-supported constructs. To ensure reliability of constructs, the Chronbach’s alpha values for measure-
ment items were examined. The Chronbach’s alpha values for the constructs ranged from .83 to .88 (see Appendix 1). The
constructs had no problems with reliability. The measurement items for each construct were averaged to create summated
scales. Table 1 shows the means and standard deviations for major constructs.

4. Results

The hypotheses were tested through a multiple regression; Table 2 presents the results. The proposed conceptual model
did not have a multicollinearity problem. Variance inflation factor (VIF) values ranged from 1.10 to 2.28. Overall, the pro-
posed model to predict the use of video sharing websites was significant, explaining 36% of the total variance (F = 12.68,
p < .001). Specifically focusing on each of the constructs as a predictor, hypotheses 1 and 2 proposed that the perceived use-
fulness and ease of use are positively associated with the use of video sharing websites. Both hypotheses were supported
(b = .297, p < .001; b = .253, p < .001, respectively). Hypothesis 3 posited that utilitarian motives for using the Internet are
negatively associated with the consumption of video sharing websites. The hypothesis was supported (b = .115, p < .01).
Hypothesis 4 proposed that experiential motives for using the Internet are positively associated with the use of video sharing
websites. The hypothesis was also supported (b = .116, p < .001). Hypothesis 5 postulated that the greater perceived substi-
tutability of video sharing websites for offline video media leads to the more frequent use of video sharing websites. The
hypothesis was supported (b = .122, p < .01). Hypothesis 6 argued the positive association between service evaluation factors
and the use of video sharing websites. The hypothesis was partly supported, but perceived content variety was the only one
that has a statistically significant positive association with the use of video sharing websites (b = .099, p < .05). The remain-
ders of the service evaluation factors – perceived overall content quality, loading speed, screen size, display resolution, and
22 J. Cha / Telematics and Informatics 31 (2014) 16–26

audio quality – were not statistically significant in predicting the use of video sharing websites. Hypothesis 7 postulated that
males are more likely to use video sharing websites than females. The results supported the hypothesis (b = .289, p < .05).

5. Discussion and conclusion

Not only do the findings of this study present the factors affecting the frequency of using video sharing websites, but they
also imply how offline video media cope with the threats generated from video sharing websites. The present study found
that those males who use the Internet for psychological, physiological, emotional pleasure and excitement, and who perceive
video sharing websites to have greater usefulness, ease of use, substitutability, and content variety are more frequent users
of video sharing websites. In contrast, the more individuals use the Internet to accomplish specific goals, the less frequently
they use video sharing sites. The perceived overall content quality, loading speed, screen size, display resolution, and audio
quality of video sharing sites did not predict the frequency of using video sharing websites.
Perceived usefulness and ease of use were salient factors that influenced the frequent use of video sharing websites. As
predicted, the association of perceived usefulness and ease of use with the use of video sharing websites were positive. These
two constructs had the strongest influences in predicting the frequent use of video sharing sites. Between these two,
perceived usefulness had a larger impact than perceived ease of use; however both of them had direct influences on the ac-
tual usage of video sharing websites.
It is, however, noteworthy that some of the previous studies suggested that perceived ease of use has rather indirect influ-
ences on the intention to adopt a particular technology as an antecedent of perceived usefulness (Davis, 1989; Davis et al.,
1989; Venkatesh and Morris, 2000). In that regard, there is a need to think about the unique characteristics of video sharing
websites, which are somewhat different from offline video media such as television or DVD players. While offline video med-
ia allowed people to merely watch the provided television programs, movies, or commercials, video sharing websites allow
people to search, watch, store, and upload content they wanted. The role of audiences on offline video media such as tele-
vision, DVD players, and movies are relatively passive, whereas audiences on video sharing websites are comparatively ac-
tive. Those activities on video sharing websites can be time consuming and laborious to some users. Järveläinen (2007)
suggested that the effect of perceived ease of use is direct and central in accepting a technology that requires more time
and labor. In that vein, the perceived ease of use had a direct and central effect on the actual use of video sharing websites.
Also, the findings of this study indicated that the more that people perceive video sharing websites to be substitutes for
offline video media, the more frequently they use video sharing websites. The key of the finding is that the present study
confirmed the positive association between substitutability of video sharing websites for other offline video media and
the actual behavioral use of video sharing websites. This can be further incorporated with the finding from Cha (2010b),
who distinguished video sharing sites from television network-affiliated websites in categorizing online video services.
Cha (2010b) found that the time spent using video sharing sites reduces the time spent using television. Taking the finding
further, the current study suggests that video sharing sites can pose a threat to the usage of traditional video platforms as
more people begin to perceive video sharing sites as a substitute for offline video media platforms – particularly television,
movie theaters, and DVD players. However, the descriptive statistics indicate that the perceived substitutability between
video sharing sites and these offline video platforms is relatively low compared to the other perceptions of video sharing
sites, including all the TAM constructs (i.e., perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use) and service evaluation factors
(e.g., overall content quality, content variety, screen size, etc.).
Interestingly, service evaluation factors did not show significant effects on the consumption of video sharing websites
except for the content variety factor. A possible explanation behind this finding is that content variety may mitigate the
impacts of the other service evaluation factors as deterrents for using video sharing websites. Indeed, college students gave
the highest evaluation for content variety (M = 6.41) on video sharing websites but they contrastingly gave relatively low
evaluations for display resolution (M = 4.03), screen size (M = 4.31), and audio quality (M = 4.61). As a matter of fact, Lin
(2001) asserted that superior content is one of the functional desirabilities. Given that greater functional desirability leads
to the adoption of a new medium, content variety on video sharing websites plays a critical role in reducing other weak-
nesses of video sharing websites that deter people from using video sharing websites. Moreover, content variety and quality
seem to outweigh the other service evaluation factors in the context of media serving a certain type of content. Focusing on
music services on mobile phones, Vlachos et al. (2003) found that respondents locate more importance to the variety of
contents and quality of contents than to price in adopting a music service via mobile phone. The discoveries from the present
and prior studies imply that content variety would be one of the strongest advantages of video sharing websites.
Content variety presumably is a critical reason why ethnic minorities in the US are more likely than the general US Inter-
net population to use video sharing sites. According to Quantcast, African Americans, Asians, and Hispanics in the US are
much more likely than the general US Internet population to use video sharing sites, such as YouTube and Daily Motion
(Quantcast, 2011b,c). The emergence of multichannel video programming distributers (MVPD), including cable and satellite
system operators, do provide multiple channels and diversified video content. However, television still has a limited amount
of video content specifically tailored to ethnic minorities. Prime time television show casts still have fewer ethnic minorities
than Caucasians (Mastro and Greenberg, 2000; Monk-Turner et al., 2010). Therefore, the greater variety of videos on video
sharing sites specifically designed for ethnic minorities and from foreign countries presumably attracts ethnic minorities to
the video sharing sites. To sustain a competitive strategy in competing with television firms, video sharing sites can utilize
 J. Cha / Telematics and Informatics 31 (2014) 16–26 23

focus on providing video content specific to different customer segments. To attract these minority audiences, it is critical for
television firms to ensure content variety and offer diverse package options that meet the desires of ethnic minorities.
The findings also pointed out that experiential motives for using the Internet are positively associated with the use of
video sharing websites. On the other hand, there is a negative influence of utilitarian Internet motive on the use of video
sharing websites. The combined findings indicate that video sharing sites tend to be utilized to gratify psychological, phys-
iological, and emotional pleasure and excitement, rather than accomplishing specific tasks of users. Researchers consistently
found that relaxation and entertainment are the primary motives for watching television (Rubin, 1981, 1984). Regarding spe-
cific content genres, experiential motives are associated with watching drama, comedy, and sporting events on television.
Although information seeking is associated with watching news on television (Rubin, 1981; Rubin et al., 1985), entertain-
ment still is a pivotal factor for watching news on television, as compared to reading newspapers and news magazines.
While information seeking and entertainment were found to be the two most salient motives for Internet use in general
(Papacharissi and Rubin, 2000), the present study indicates that the salient motives for using video sharing sites are closer to
the ones for television rather than the ones for the Internet. Video sharing sites aggregate video content just as television
service providers offer multiple channels as a package. Given that similarity, consumers appear to use video sharing sites
for emotional pleasure rather than for a specific purpose, just as they do with television. The result of this study confirms
prior studies, maintaining that determinants of a system or a medium use differ according to individual services of the
medium (Bouwman et al., 2008; Verkasalo et al., 2010).
New video platforms, such as the Internet and mobile phones, gave rise to the terms ‘‘lean-back’’ and ‘‘lean-forward’’ in
categorizing audiences. This study suggests that frequent users of video sharing sites are more likely to lean back, just like
frequent television users. It is easy to classify audiences as being either lean back or lean forward based on the frequency of
using a type of video platform (e.g., the Internet, mobile phones, television). However, this study maintains that the classi-
fication between lean-back and lean-forward audiences may depend on individual vehicles (e.g., video sharing sites, televi-
sion network sites) – even within a video platform (e.g., the Internet).
It is notable that a particular television network site, such as NBC.com, does not provide as great a variety of video content
as video sharing sites. With this in mind, television network sites could offer more lean-forward audience experiences, such
as searching for specific video content and gaining knowledge of the video content. Since television network sites differs
from video sharing sites in providing video content, this may cause utilitarian motives to have a positive relationship with
the frequent use of television network websites to view video content. Future studies can examine motivational differences
between the use of television network sites and video sharing sites, and can further examine how similar or different those
two types of online video venues are when compared to television.
With the nature of an exploratory study, this study acts as a starting point for addressing issues pertaining to the growth
of video sharing websites. As mentioned previously, the data for the study was gathered through a convenient student
sample. People ages 18–24 are more likely to use video sharing websites compared to overall Internet population (NB,
2008), and college students are early adopters and heavy users of the Internet compared to the general population (Jones
et al., 2009; Jones, 2002; Nie et al., 2005). Nevertheless, a sample from a single university cautions the generalizability of
the findings. Future studies can examine how factors affecting the use of video sharing websites are different between a
group of individuals who actively upload content and another group of individuals who passively watch videos uploaded
by other people. Other studies can also investigate how the factors are similar or different between viewers of content
generated by individuals and of content originally produced by media firms.

Appendix 1

Construct measures and reliability.

Construct Measurement item

Perceived usefulness
(Cronbach’s a = .83)
Perceived ease of use
(Cronbach’s a = .84)
Substitutability (Cronbach’s
a = .88)
Utilitarian motive (Cronbach’s
a = .88)
1. Video sharing websites are (would be) useful for me
2. Video sharing websites (would) make me more efficient
3. Video sharing websites (would) make my life easier
1. Video sharing websites are (would be) easy to use
2. Learning to use video sharing websites is (would be) easy for me
3. It is (would be) easy to get video sharing websites to do what I want to do
1. Video sharing websites can be a substitute for television
2. Video sharing websites can be a substitute for movie theaters
3. Video sharing websites can be a substitute for DVD players
1. I use the Internet to improve my work performance
2. I use the Internet because the Internet is useful for my work
3. I use the Internet to enhance my effectiveness in my work

(continued on next page)

24 J. Cha / Telematics and Informatics 31 (2014) 16–26

Appendix 1 (continued)
Construct Measurement item
4. I use the Internet because the Internet provides me with information that would
lead to better decisions
5. I use the Internet to increase my work productivity
Experiential motive (Cronbach’s 1. I use the Internet because it is enjoyable
a = .86) 2. I use the Internet because it amuses me
3. I use the Internet because the actual process of using the Internet is entertaining
4. I use the Internet because using the Internet is fun
5. I use the Internet because I find using the Internet to be interesting

Appendix 2

Exploratory factor analysis.

Measurement item Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4 Factor 5

Experiential motive 1 .82 .13 .26 .04 .02
Experiential motive 2 .85 .07 .21 .01 .05
Experiential motive 3 .68 .14 .05 .06 .26
Experiential motive 4 .90 .12 .08 .06 .12
Experiential motive 5 .84 .14 .10 .01 .09
Utilitarian motive 1 .11 .83 .02 .07 .11
Utilitarian motive 2 .15 .80 .04 .03 .01
Utilitarian motive 3 .06 .89 .06 .05 .06
Utilitarian motive 4 .15 .70 .13 .01 .01
Utilitarian motive 5 .08 .87 .01 .01 .06
Perceived ease of use 1 .24 .03 .85 .06 .11
Perceived ease of use 2 .14 .11 .90 .05 .07
Perceived ease of use 3 .09 .06 .82 .08 .15
Substitutability 1 .06 .08 .13 .84 .11
Substitutability 2 .03 .01 .02 .92 .08
Substitutability 3 .02 .04 .02 .91 .08
Perceived usefulness 1 .29 .04 .25 .08 .71
Perceived usefulness 2 .07 .13 .05 .09 .89
Perceived usefulness 3 .08 .10 .10 .14 .88
Eigenvalue 5.59 2.77 2.49 1.80 1.61
% of variance explained 19.04 18.41 12.87 12.82 11.86

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