Grade 09

'S
Science Chapter Notes
JU
BY
 CONTENTS
S.No. Chapter Page Number
1 Motion 1
2 Force and Laws of 18
Motion

'S
3 Gravitation 30
4 Work and Energy 40
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5 Sound 50
6 Matter in Our 59
BY

Surroundings
7 Is Matter around Us 72
Pure?
8 Atoms and 88
Molecules
9 Structure of the 103
Atom
10 The Fundamental 121
Unit of Life
11 Tissues 140
12 Improvement in 161
food resources
Class Notes

'S
JU
BY

Motion
Class 9 1
 1. Understanding motion
• Rest and motion
• Distance & displacement
• Speed & Velocity
• Acceleration

'S
2. Visualizing motion
JU
• Distance-time graph

Motion • Velocity-time graph

BY

3. Equations of motion
• First equation
• Second equation

• Third equation

4. Motion in 2D
• Uniform Circular Motion

2
 MIND MAP

Acceleration

Speed Velocity

Rest Uniform motion

Distance Displacement

Motion Non-Uniform
Intro
'S motion
JU
Circular

Displacement-time
Graphs

graph
MOTION
BY

Velocity-time
graph
Speed is 2πr
constant v=
T
Equations

1
v = u + at s = ut + at 2 v2 = u2 + 2as
2

#Learn with BYJUS 3

 1. Understanding Motion

1.1 Rest and Motion

Rest

• Rest is when position of

an object doesn’t change
w.r.t the observer

'S Motion
JU
• Motion is when position of
an object changes w.r.t the
observer
BY

Frame of • State of motion or rest

reference depends on the observer

Outside view Inside view

• Passengers are in motion • Passengers are at rest

4
 1.2 Distance and Displacement

Distance
'S Displacement
JU
• The complete length of • Displacement is the
the path between any shortest/minimum
two points is called length between any two
BY

distance points

AB + BC + CD + DE + EF AF

• Distance has magnitude • Displacement has both

but no direction magnitude and direction

Scalar quantity Vector quantity

• Distance can be only • Displacement can be

positive positive, negative, zero

5
 1.3 Speed and Velocity

Speed

• Speed is the rate of change of

distance.

• SI unit: m/s

Total distance
• Average Speed = 'S Total time
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• Scalar quantity – Only magnitude
BY

Velocity

• Velocity is rate of change of

displacement

• SI unit: m/s

Total displacement
• Average Velocity =
Total time

• Vector quantity – Both magnitude and direction

6
1.4 Uniform and Non-uniform motion

Uniform Motion

0 A B
0m 2sec 5m 2sec 10 m

• When object travels equal distances in

equal intervals of time

• Speed is constant
'S
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BY

Non-uniform Motion

0 A B
0m 2sec 3m 2sec 10 m

• When object travels unequal distances in

equal intervals of time

• Speed is changing

7
 1.5 Acceleration

Acceleration

'S
JU
• Acceleration is rate of change of velocity
BY

• SI unit: 𝒎𝒔−𝟐
Change in velocity
• Acceleration =
Time

a = v-u
t

Positive Acceleration Negative Acceleration

• Increase in velocity • Decrease in velocity

with time with time
8
 2. Visualizing Motion

2.1 Slope of a Graph

𝒚𝟐

𝒚1 𝑦2 − 𝑦1
Slope =
𝑥2 − 𝑥1

𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐
X
'S
JU
Distance – Time Graph
BY

𝒅2 𝑑2 − 𝑑1
Slope =
𝑡2 − 𝑡1
𝒅𝟏
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Slope =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
t
𝒕𝟏 𝒕𝟐

Slope (m) of the distance – time graph gives speed.

9
 2.2 Displacement-Time Graph

Slope is positive:
Velocity is constant
and increasing
Displacement

Slope is zero:
Velocity is zero
(m)

Slope is negative:
Velocity is constant
and decreasing.
0 Time (s)

NOTE:
'S
JU
Slope of distance-time graph can never be
negative. During motion, distance covered will
either be constant or will increase but it never
BY

decreases.

The slope of the displacement – time graph

represents ________ of an object.

The slope of the displacement – time graph

represents velocity of an object since velocity
is change in displacement per unit time.

10
 2.3. Velocity-Time Graph

9 Zero slope
8
7
Velocity (m/s)

Negative
6 slope
5
4
3
2
'S
JU
Positive
1 slope
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
BY

Time (s)

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (Δv)

Slope = 2
= 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑚/𝑠 )
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (Δt)

Slope is zero ➔ zero acceleration

Slope is negative ➔ Negative acceleration

Slope is positive ➔ Positive acceleration

11
2.4. Area under Velocity-Time Graph

v
Velocity (ms-1)

Area

'S
JU
o Time (s) t
BY

• Area under v-t graph gives

displacement
Displacement
• Velocity(v)=
time

Displacement(s)= (v) X (t)

12
 3. Equations of Motion

3.1 First Equation of Motion

v 𝑣 Final velocity
Velocity (ms-1)

𝑢 Initial velocity

u
'S 𝑎 Acceleration
JU
t Time taken
0
Time (s) t
BY

Slope of v-t graph gives us acceleration a

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
Slope (𝑎) =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
𝑣 −𝑢
𝑎=
𝑡

v = u + at
13
 3.2 Second Equation of Motion

B 𝑣 Final velocity
v
Velocity (ms-1)

𝑢 Initial velocity
𝑎 Acceleration
𝟏 𝟐
𝒂𝒕
u 𝟐 s Displacement
C
A

O
𝒖𝒕

tD
'S t Time taken
JU
Time (s)
BY

1
Area (s) = 𝑂𝐷 × 𝐷𝐶 + 2
× 𝐵𝐶 × 𝐴𝐶
𝟏
Area (s) = 𝒖 × 𝒕 + 𝟐
× (𝒗 − 𝒖) × 𝒕

We know v = u + at or, v - u = at

By substituting v-u = at,

1
we get, s = ut + at²
2

14
 3.3 Third Equation of Motion

B 𝑣 Final velocity
v
Velocity (ms-1)

𝑢 Initial velocity
𝑎 Acceleration

u C
s Displacement
A
'S t Time taken
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O Time (s) tD
BY

s = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑧𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑂𝐴𝐵𝐷

1
s= 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 (𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡)
2
1
s= 𝑣 + 𝑢 (𝑡)
2

We know v = u+at or t = (v-u)/t

1 (𝑣−𝑢)
s= 𝑣+𝑢 2as = 𝑣2 − 𝑢2
2 𝑎

v² = u² + 2as
15
 4. Motion in 2D

4.1 Uniform Circular Motion

● Speed is constant
r
● Velocity changes

'S
JU
v
BY

● Uniform Circular motion is

an accelerated motion.

● Velocity is directed
tangentially at all points.

2πr
Speed = v =
T

16
 Formula Sheet

SPEED
1

Total distance
Average Speed =
Total time

2 VELOCITY

'S
Average Velocity =
Total displacement
JU
Total time

3
BY

ACCELERATION

Change in velocity
Acceleration =
Time

EQUATIONS OF MOTION

1
v = u + at s = ut + at 2
2

v2 = u2 + 2as

17
 Chapter Notes

'S
JU
BY

Force and Laws of Motion

Class IX
 2
BY 1

JU
'S

19
 MIND MAP

Inertia of rest Inertia of motion Inertia of direction

Resistance to state of Inertia

rest or uniform motion

State of rest or motion remains unaltered

until an external force acts on it

Contact forces
1st law
Non-contact forces Net unbalanced force

'S acting on a body:

JU
Types of Forces
Force and ∆p
2nd law
Fnet =
∆t
Laws of
Effects of Force Motion For constant mass:
BY

F = ma
Net force
= m(v-u)/t

Fnet ≠ 0
3rd law
Fnet = 0

Balanced Un-balanced F1 = −F2

Force Force
Conservation of
Every action has equal
momentum
and opposite reaction

m 1 u1 + m 2 u2 = m 1 v1 + m 2 v2

Momentum before collision =

Momentum after collision

20
 •
•
BY
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'S

21
 •

• 'S
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BY

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 'S
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BY

•
•

•
•

23
 •

•
BY

•
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 BY

•
•

•
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'S

25
 •

•
•

'S
JU
BY

∆p
Fnet =
∆t

m ∆v
Fnet =
∆t

Fnet = ma

26
 •
•
BY
JU
'S

27
 'S
JU
F5 F6
BY

F2
A B F3
F4 F1

28
1 MOMENTUM p = mv

∆p
Fnet =
∆t
SECOND LAW
2
OF MOTION

'S Fnet = ma
JU
3 J = mv – mu = m Δv
BY

IMPULSE

J = Fxt

4
THIRD LAW
OF MOTION
F1 = −F2

CONSERVATION OF
MOMENTUM

29
Class
ChapterNotes
Notes

'S
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BY

30
 BY
JU
'S

31
 ‘

'S
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BY

ρ – ×
32
 BY

•
•
JU
'S
×

33
 
BY
JU
'S

34
 BY
JU
'S

35
•
•
•

•
•
'S
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BY

ρ –

36
 ρ
×
BY
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'S

37
 ρ
ρ
BY
JU
'S

38
 BY
JU

ρ
'S
×

39
Chapter Notes

'S
Work & Energy
JU
BY

Class 9
 Contents

1. Work done by constant force

• Scientific Conception of Work
• Positive, Negative and Zero Work
• Work Done by Force of Gravity

2. Energy
'S
JU
• Kinetic Energy
BY

• Work-Energy Theorem
• Potential Energy & Types
• Conservation of Mechanical Energy
• Conservation of Energy

3. Power
• Introduction to Power
• Commercial Unit of Power

41
 MIND MAP

Scientific
meaning of work
Positive Work

Work done = F × s Zero Work

Negative Work

Work Capacity to do work Work-Energy

'S Theorem
JU
Energy

Work & 1
Work done =
Energy 2
m v 2 − u2
BY

1
Kinetic Energy mv2
Mechanical 2
Power Energy
Potential Energy mgh

Conservation Without Conservation of

Rate of of energy mechanical energy
doing work friction

Commercial unit of
W electrical energy
P= kWh
t

#Learn with BYJUS 42

 1. Work done by Constant Force

1.1 Scientific Conception of Work

● Work done in moving a body is equal to the product of force exerted

on the body and the displacement moved by the body in the direction
of force

Work done = F × s
SI unit = 1 N × 1 m = 1 J
s
F = Force applied
'S
s = Displacement in the direction of force
JU
● ●

1.2 Positive, Negative Work

BY

Positive work (by Boy): Negative work (by Friction):

F and s act in the F and s act in the
same direction. opposite directions.
W=Fxs W = -F x s
43
1.3 Zero Work

● Work done is said to be zero when:

Net force (F) = 0 Displacement (s) = 0 F ⊥ s

1.4 Work done by Force of Gravity

'S
JU
● If an object of mass m is raised through a height h, the work done on
the object is equal to mgh
Work done by gravity can be positive or negative depending on the
BY

●
direction of displacement of the body

mg H mg

W=Fs W=Fs
= −𝑚𝑔(H) = −𝑚𝑔(-H)
= -mgH = mgH

44
 2. Energy

• Energy is defined as the capacity to do work.

• Work done is the only way to transfer energy.
• SI unit of energy is joule (J).

2.1 Kinetic Energy

• Kinetic energy is defined as energy

possessed by virtue of the motion of a body.

KE =
1
2
mv2 'S v m
JU
• The kinetic energy of a moving body is measured by the amount of
BY

work it can do before coming to rest

2.2 Work-Energy Theorem

• The total work done by the sum of all the forces acting on a particle
is equal to the change in the kinetic energy of that particle.

u v

Work done
1 Change in
= m v 2 − u2 =
2 kinetic energy

45
 2.3 Potential Energy
• The energy of a body due to its position or change in shape is known
as potential energy

Elastic Potential Energy Gravitational Potential Energy

• The energy stored by stretching

'S
• The energy stored due to the
JU
or compressing an elastic virtue of position (here, height
object by an external force above the ground)
BY

Work donegravity = –∆Ugravity

= –mg(h2 – h1)

• Any level can be considered as the reference (U = 0).

H
h

U = –mgh U=0 U = mgH

46
2.4 Mechanical Energy
• Total mechanical energy of a system is the sum of kinetic and
potential energies possessed by the object.

Etotal = KE + PE

Conservation of Mechanical Energy

• In a system with conservative forces, mechanical energy is always

conserved

'S
JU
Ei = Ef
KEi + PEi = KEf + PEf
BY

2.5 Conservation of Energy

• Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed, it changes from one
form of energy into another form of energy.

47
 3. Power
• Power is the rate of doing work or rate of transfer of energy.
• SI unit: watt (W) or joule/sec (J/s)

W
P=
t

3.1 Commercial Unit of Electrical Energy

•
'S
The commercial unit of electrical energy is kilowatt-hour (kWh).
JU
BY

1kWh = 1000 W × 60 × 60 s
1kWh = 3.6 × 106 J

Special Note:

A force, like gravity, for which the potential energy is defined and can
be restored as kinetic energy is termed as a conservative force.

48
 Forrmula Sheet

1 Work Done W=Fs

2 Kinetic Energy KE=

𝟏
mv2
𝟐

3
'S
Work-Energy Theorem
JU
𝟏
W= m ( v 2– u 2)
𝟐
BY

4
Potential Energy

U=mgH

5 Work done by gravity

W gravity= - Δ U

6
Power
𝑾
P= =Fv
𝒕

49
Class
ChapterNotes
Notes

'S
JU
BY

Sound

Class 9
50
 Contents

1) Introduction to mechanical waves

• Transverse wave
• Longitudinal wave

2) Sound as a wave

'S
• Propagation of sound
• Characteristics of a sound wave
JU
3) Reflection of sound waves
BY

• Echo
• Reverberation
• Uses of multiple reflections of sound

4) Human Ear
• Structure of human ear

5) Range of Hearing
• Classification
• Applications of Ultrasound
51
 MIND MAP

n = 1/T Speed(v) = nλ

Time period(T) Frequency(n) Wavelength(λ) Amplitude(A)

Characteristics of a
sound wave

Propagation
Longitudinal
Wave

'S Reflection
Echo
Wave

JU
Mechanical Sound Reverberation
Wave
BY

Applications of
Transverse Multiple reflections
Wave
Human Ear

Megaphone Stethoscope

Range of Hearing
< 20 Hz 20 Hz – 20 kHz > 20 kHz

Infrasonic sound Audible sound Ultrasonic sound

Ultrasonic crack Breaking kidney Sound Navigation And

detection stones Ranging (SONAR)

#Learn with BYJUS 52

 1. Introduction to Waves

Wave:

• A wave is a disturbance in a medium

which moves from one point to another
and carries energy without a net
movement of particles.

1.1 Mechanical Wave

• A mechanical wave is a wave that is an oscillation of matter

and is responsible for the transfer of energy through a medium.
'S
Types
JU
a. Longitudinal Wave b. Transverse Wave
BY

Direction of the wave

X Y X Y

• Particles vibrates in a • Particles vibrates in a

direction parallel to the direction perpendicular to
direction of motion of the the direction of motion of
wave. the wave.

• Contains compressions • Contains crests and

and rarefactions. troughs.

53
 2. Sound as a wave

2.1 Propagation of Sound

• Sound is produced by vibrating objects.

• Sound requires a medium to be propagated.
• Sound travels longitudinally in liquids and gases.
• In air, sound propagates in the form of
compressions and rarefactions.

Compression Rarefaction

• Region of high pressure

and high density. 'S • Region of low pressure
and low density.
JU
Source of
Sound Density
BY

variation
C R C R C R C R

Source of
Sound Pressure
Variation
C R C R C R C R

P Crest
Density or
Avg density or pressure
pressure
Q
Trough
Distance

Special Note:

• Sound waves are longitudinal waves in fluids.

• Through solids, sound can travel both as
longitudinal and transverse waves.
54
 2.2 Characteristics of Sound

a. Time period b. Frequency

• Number of oscillations per

• Time taken to complete one second.
oscillation. • n =
1

• SI Unit - second (s) T𝑖𝑚𝑒 P𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑

• SI Unit - hertz (Hz)

Displacement

Time

Displacement
Time

Time period
(T)
'S
JU
c. Pitch
BY

• Pitch is the shrillness or acuteness of sound.

• Pitch depends on frequency.

High-pitch Low-pitch

Time Time

• Higher frequency – Higher • Lower frequency – Lower

pitch pitch
55
 d. Wavelength

wavelength (λ)
• The distance between two

Density or Pressure
successive crests or troughs distance
(or) successive compressions
and rarefactions is called as
wavelength (λ).

e. Amplitude

• It is the maximum
Wave Disturbance
displacement or distance Density or Pressure
Amplitude(A)
moved by a particle from its
mean position on either side. 'S
JU
• It is the Distance between distance
mean position and crest or
trough.
BY

f. Speed of sound

• Sound travels through different media with different speeds.

• It depends on the properties of the medium: pressure, density
and temperature
• Speed of sound:

Solids > Liquids > Gases

• Speed of the sound wave is the product of the wavelength and

the frequency of the waveform.
Medium Speed
• Speed = wavelength x frequency Air 344 m/s
Water 1530 m/s
v=fxλ
Iron 5130 m/s
56
 3. Reflection of Sound

• Sound Reflects Just Like Light:

1. The incident wave, reflected
wave, and the normal at the
point of incidence lie in the
same plane.

2. The angle of incidence and

angle of reflection are
equal.

3.1 Echo

Reflected wave (echo)

'S • Repetition of sound due
to reflection of sound
JU
Object waves.

• Time interval between

Sound the original sound and
BY

source
the reflected sound is at
Original wave least 0.1 s.

3.2 Reverberation

• Created by the
superposition of echoes.

• It is the Persistence of Reverberated

sound
sound because of multiple
reflections
Direct sound
• Reflected sound reaches
the listener in less than 0.1 s
after the direct sound.
57
 5. Range of Hearing

5.1 Classification

Infrasonic sound Audible sound Ultrasonic sound

Below 20 Hz 'S
20 Hz – 20 kHz Above 20 kHz
JU
5.2 Applications of Ultrasound in Everyday Life
BY

Ultrasonic crack detection Breaking kidney stones

• 2d = v x t

Ultrasonography Sound Navigation And

Ranging (SONAR) 58
Chapter Notes

Matter in Our
'S
Surroundings
JU
GRADE 09
BY

59
 Topics to Be Covered

1. Physical Nature of
Matter

1.1 Introduction to matter

2. Characteristics of 1.2 Composition of Matter
Particles of Matter

2.1 Have interparticle spaces

2.2 Are in continuous motion
2.3 Have interparticle force
of attraction 'S
3. States of Matter
JU
3.1 Solid state
3.2 Liquid state
BY

3.3 Gaseous state

4. Interconversion of
state of matter

4.1 Effect of change in

temperature
5. Evaporation
4.2 Effect of change in
pressure
5.1 Introduction to
evaporation
5.2 Factors affecting
evaporation
5.3 Evaporation causes
cooling
60
 MIND MAP

Matter in our
Surroundings

Characteristics
of particle of
'S States of
Matter
JU
Matter
BY

Have interparticle
space Interconversion
Are in Continuous
motion Solid State

Have interparticle
force of attraction Liquid State

Effect of Temperature Gaseous State

Effect of Pressure

Evaporation
61
 1. Physical Nature of Matter

1.1 Introduction to matter

Matter is defined as any substance that has

mass and volume; can be perceived by senses.

1.2 Composition of Matter

'S
JU
Tiny
particles
BY

Experimental study:

10 ml 10 ml 10 ml 10 ml

The solution of potassium permanganate is kept

on diluting with water, colour becomes lighter. One
crystal of potassium permanganate has millions
of tiny particles which keep on dividing
themselves into smaller and smaller particles. It
concludes that matter is made up of tiny particles.
62
 2. Characteristics of Matter
of Particles

2.1 Have interparticle spaces

Spaces between two adjacent particles in a

matter is known as interparticle spaces.

Sugar
particle

Water
particle

'S Interparticle
space
JU
Spaces between water
particles are occupied
by sugar particles.
BY

Sugar

2.2 Are in continuous motion

Particles of matter are in continuous motion as

they have kinetic energy.

As the temperature rises, kinetic energy of

particles also increases which result in an increase
in the motion of particles.

63
 2. Characteristics of Matter
of Particles

2.3 Have interparticle force of attraction

Particles of matter have force acting between

them which keep particles together. This force is
known as interparticle force of attraction.

'S
JU
Box
BY

Diffusion
The intermixing of particles of two different types
of matter on their own is known as diffusion.

Water
particle
Tea
particle

As the temperature increases, the rate of diffusion

becomes faster due to an increase in the kinetic
energy of particles.
64
 3. States of Matter

3.1 Solid state

● Definite shape
● Definite volume
● Mostly incompressible
● Rigid

3.2 Liquid state

'S
JU
● Indefinite shape
BY

● Definite volume
● Mostly incompressible
● Have fluidity

3.3 Gaseous state

● Indefinite shape
● Indefinite volume
● Easily compressible
● Have fluidity

65
 4. Interconversion of States
of Matter

4.1 Effect of change in temperature

Interconversion of states of matter can be done

by either decreasing or increasing the
temperature.

'S
Increase temperature
Sublimation
JU
Decrease temperature
Solid Deposition Gas
BY

Liquid

Increase in temperature, increases the

interparticle space and kinetic energy
of particle.

66
 4. Interconversion of States
of Matter

4.2 Effect of change in pressure

Interconversion of states of matter can also be
done by either decreasing or increasing the
pressure.

Increase in pressure

Decrease in pressure

'S
JU
BY

Increase in pressure, decreases

the interparticle space.

67
 5. Evaporation

5.1 Introduction to evaporation

The process of converting a liquid into a gas at

any temperature below its boiling point is called
evaporation.

It is a surface phenomenon.

'S
JU
BY

Evaporation is a surface phenomena

while boiling is a bulk phenomena.

68
 5. Evaporation

5.2 Factors affecting evaporation

Temperature

An increase in temperature
increases the rate of
evaporation because more
liquid particles will gain
'S
sufficient kinetic energy to
break free from the force of
JU
attraction of the particles
and evaporate.
BY

Humidity

Increased humidity in the

atmosphere would decrease
the rate of evaporation as
there would be a lot of water
content already present in the
air making the air around
saturated.

69
 5. Evaporation

5.2 Factors affecting evaporation

Wind speed

If there is an increase in wind

speed, the particles of water
'S
vapour will move away from
the air, which will increase the
JU
rate of evaporation.
BY

Surface area

When we increase the surface

area, i.e. if we spread the
clothes to let them dry, the
evaporation is faster. This is
because simply there is a
greater surface area for the
liquid particles to escape from.

70
 5. Evaporation

5.3 Evaporation causes cooling

'S
JU
Cooled water in an earthen pot
BY

Evaporation causes cooling because the particles

of liquid absorb energy from the surroundings to
regain the energy lost during evaporation. This
absorption of energy from the surroundings
makes the surroundings cold.

71
Chapter Notes
Is Matter around Us Pure?
'S
JU
Grade 09
BY

72
 Topics to Be Covered

1. Pure Substances
1.1 Elements
1.2 Compounds

2. Mixtures 'S
JU
2.1 Homogeneous
2.1.1 Solutions
2.2 Heterogeneous
BY

2.2.1 Suspensions
2.2.2 Colloids

2. Changes

4.1 Physical
4.2 Chemical

73
 MIND MAP

Is Matter
around Us
Pure?

Matter
Changes

Physical
'S
JU
Chemical Pure
Substances
BY

Homogeneous
Mixtures Elements
Compounds

Heterogeneous
Mixtures Metals

Metalloids

Solution Non-metals
Suspension
Colloids

74
 1. Pure Substances

A form of matter having an invariant chemical

composition and properties that are constant
throughout the sample.

Types of Pure Substances

1.1 Elements
'S 1.2 Compounds
JU
• Pure fundamental • Substances composed
substances. of two or more elements.

• They cannot be broken • They can be broken

BY

down further by down further by

chemical reactions. chemical reactions.

• Example: Iron, sulphur, • Example: Iron sulphide,

and more. water, and more

Iron Iron sulphide

75
 1. Pure Substances

Classification of Elements

Metals Metalloids Non-metals

Eg: Aluminium
'S
Eg: Silicon Eg: Sulphur
JU
• Non-lustrous
• Lustrous Have • Non-
• Malleable intermediate malleable
BY

• Ductile properties • Non-ductile

• Sonorous between those of • Non-sonorous
• Hard metals and non- • Soft
• Good metals. • Poor
conductor conductor

Exceptions

Mercury
Sodium Liquid at room Iodine Graphite
Soft temperature Lustrous Conductivity

76
 2. Mixtures

Mixtures are formed by physical combination of

two or more pure substances.
A mixture has a variable composition.
The constituents can be separated easily by
physical methods.

Examples:

'S
JU
Salt
Water
Salt water Vegetable salad
BY

Types of Mixtures

Homogeneous Heterogeneous

• Such mixtures will have • Such mixtures will have

uniform composition. non-uniform
composition.

77
 2. Mixtures

2.1 Homogeneous Mixtures

Homogeneous mixtures will have a uniform

distribution of components.
Components of homogeneous mixture cannot
be distinguished.

2.1.1 Solution

'S
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or
more components in which the constituents
JU
are not visible to the naked eye (due to very
small particle size, which is less than 1 nm).
BY

Copper sulphate
Copper sulphate Water solution

• The components of a solution include the solute

(minor quantity) and the solvent (major quantity).

• The solute particles cannot be separated from the

mixture by the process of filtration, and they won’t
settle down also.

78
 2. Mixtures

Tyndall effect: It is the phenomenon by which

the path of the light becomes visible in a
mixture due to scattering of light by the
particles.
Due to small particle size, solutions do not
show Tyndall effect

Types of Solution

Saturated
'S Unsaturated
JU
At any particular
temperature, a solution If the amount of solute
contained in a solution is
BY

that has dissolved as

much solute as it is less than the saturation
capable of dissolving, is level, it is called an
said to be a saturated unsaturated solution.
solution.

Supersaturated

A supersaturated solution is
one in which more solute is
dissolved than is necessary
to make a saturated
solution.

79
 2. Mixtures

Concentration of a Solution

Concentration of a solution is the amount of

solute present in a given amount of solution.

'S
JU
Dilute Concentrated
BY

Depending upon the amount of solute present in a

solution, we can refer it as a dilute or concentrated
solution.

Dilution: The process of decreasing

the concentration of a solute in a
solution that is usually done by
adding more solvent in it.

80
 2. Mixtures

Ways of Expressing the Concentration of a

Solution

1
Mass by mass Mass of solute
percentage of a
solution
=
'S
Mass of solution
× 100
JU
2
BY

Mass by volume Mass of solute

= × 100
percentage of a
solution Volume of solution

3
Volume by Volume of solute
volume = × 100
percentage of a Volume of solution
solution

81
 2. Mixtures

2.2 Heterogeneous Mixtures

2.2.1 Suspension

A suspension is defined as a heterogeneous

mixture in which the solid particles are solids
are dispersed in liquids.
The particles of suspension:
• Are easily visible and distinguishable.
'S
• Can be separated by filtration.
JU
• Settle down when left undisturbed.
BY

Suspensions in our daily life

Sand in water Tea leaves in water Chalk powder in

water

82
 2. Mixtures

2.2.2 Colloids

Colloids: A heterogeneous mixture in which the

particles are uniformly spread throughout the
solution. Hence it appears to be homogeneous.

The particles of colloids:

• Is too small to be individually seen by naked
eyes.
'S
• Are big enough to scatter a beam of light
passing through it and make its path
JU
visible.
• Will not settle down when left undisturbed.
BY

Colloids in our everyday life

Milk Ice cream Paint

83
 Components of a Colloid

Solid Solid

Liquid Dispersed Dispersion Liquid

Colloid
phase medium

Gas Gas

'S
Classification of Colloids
JU
According to the state (solid, liquid, or gas) of the
dispersing medium and the dispersed phase,
colloids are classified into different types.
BY

Solid Gas Solid Gas

Sol Liquid Foam Solid Foam
Solid
sol
Liquid
Liquid Gel
Emulsion
Solid Dispersion
medium
Gas
Aerosol
Dispersed phase

Aerosol Liquid

84
 Comparison

Solution Colloid Suspension

Particle
Less than Between More than
size 1 nm 1-1000 nm 1000 nm

'S
JU
Tyndall
Effect
BY

85
 3. Changes

3.1 Physical Change

A physical change is a change in which the

physical properties such as size, state, shape,
appearance, and more of a substance alters
without changing its chemical nature.

Mostly, physical changes tend to be reversible.

'S
JU
BY

Melting ice Tearing a paper

Interconversion of states of matter is a physical

change:

Melting

Freezing
86
 3. Changes

3.2 Chemical Change

A chemical change is a change that brings

change in the chemical properties, and we get
new substances.

A chemical change is frequently harder to

reverse than a physical change.

'S
JU
BY

Burning of Rotting Formation of

wood of an apple curd

During burning of a candle, both physical

and chemical changes take place.

Burning wick (Chemical change)

Melting wax (Physical change)

87
Chapter Notes

Atoms and
'S
Molecules
JU
GRADE 09
BY

88
 Topics to Be Covered

1. Atom

1.1 Introduction to atom

1.2 Element
1.3 Representation 2. Molecule
of elements
1.4 Atomic mass 2.1 Introduction to
molecule
2.2 Atomicity
3. Molecular Mass and
Formula Unit Mass
3.1 Molecular mass 'S 4. Laws of
Chemical Combination
JU
3.2 Formula unit mass
4.1 Law of conservation
of mass
4.2 Law of constant
5. Dalton’s
BY

proportions
Atomic Theory
5.1 Postulates of Dalton’s
atomic theory
6. Ion

6.1 Introduction to ion

7. Writing
Chemical Formulae 6.2 Valency

7.1 Rules to write a

chemical formula 8. Mole Concept
7.2 Formula of simple
compounds 8.1 Mole
8.2 Relationship between
mass, mole and
Avogadro’s number
89
 Mind Map

Writing
Chemical
Representation formulae
of elements
Atomic mass

Molecule
Atom

'S Atomicity
JU
Atoms and Molecular mass
Molecules
BY

Ion
Mole
Concept

Valency
Avogadro’s number
Formula unit mass Laws of
Chemical Molar mass
Combination
Important formulae

Law of conservation of mass

Law of constant proportions

Dalton’s atomic theory

90
 1. Atom

1.1 Introduction to Atom

An atom is the smallest particle of matter and is

considered as its building block.

Atoms

'S
Everything around us is made up of atoms.
JU
Atomic radius is measured in nanometres.
1 m = 109 nm
BY

1.2 Element

The simplest substance made up of one kind of atom

that cannot be further broken down by chemical
processes is known as an element.

E.g., Oxygen, nitrogen, silver, gold, hydrogen, etc.

91
 1. Atom

1.3 Representation of Elements

Dalton was the first Hydrogen Carbon

scientist to propose
symbols for elements. Oxygen Sulphur

Rules of Berzelius system:

The symbols of the most common elements are
Rule 1:
'S
generally denoted by the first letter of its
English name, written in uppercase.
JU
E.g., Hydrogen- H

If the first letter of two elements are the same, then

Rule 2: the first two letters are used for the symbols, where
BY

the first letter is in uppercase and the second one is

in lowercase.
E.g., Helium- He

If the first two letters of two elements are the

Rule 3: same, then the next prominent letter is used.

E.g., Chlorine- Cl
For elements whose names are derived from their
Rule 4: Latin or Greek origin, above rules are followed but
with their Latin and Greek name.
E.g., Natrium- Na

Nowadays, International Union of Pure and Applied

Chemistry approves the names of elements.

92
 1. Atom

1.4 Atomic Mass

In 1961, the carbon-12 atom was chosen as the standard

reference for measuring atomic masses for a universally
accepted atomic mass unit.

One atomic mass unit (amu or u) is defined as the

mass unit equal to one-twelfth (1/12th) of the mass of
one carbon-12 atom.

'S
Atomic masses of a few elements:
JU
Atomic mass
Elements
(amu or u)
Hydrogen (H) 1
BY

Carbon (C) 12

Nitrogen (N) 14

Oxygen (O) 16

Magnesium (Mg) 24

Calcium (Ca) 40

Sodium (Na) 23

93
 2. Molecule

2.1 Introduction to Molecule

• A molecule is a group of two or more atoms that are

chemically bonded together and have an independent
existence.
• It is defined as the smallest particle of an element or a
compound that shows all the properties of that
substance.
H

Atoms
'S
JU
Molecules of elements Molecules of compounds
BY

(Made up of same (Made up of different

kind of atoms) kind of atoms)

2.2 Atomicity

The total number of atoms that constitute a molecule

is known as its atomicity.

P P
O P
Ar N N
P
Argon Nitrogen Ozone Phosphorus

Monoatomic Diatomic Triatomic Polyatomic

94
 3. Molecular Mass and
Formula Unit Mass

3.1 Molecular Mass

The sum of the atomic masses of all the atoms in a

molecule is called molecular mass.

O
O + 2 H = H H

16 u 2×1u 'S 18 u
JU
BY

3.2 Formula Unit Mass

The sum of atomic masses of all atoms in a formula

unit of a compound is called formula unit mass.

Na + Cl = Na
+
Cl
-

23 u 35.5 u 58.5 u

95
 4. Laws of Chemical
Combination

4.1 Law of Conservation of Mass

Law of conservation of mass states that mass can neither

be created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.

Total mass of
the reactants = Total mass of
the products
'S
JU
4.2 Law of Constant Proportions
BY

Law of constant proportions states that in a chemical

substance, the elements are always present in definite
proportions by mass.

E.g.,

O C O

Mass of one carbon atom 12 u 12 3

= = =
Mass of two oxygen atoms 2 × 16 u 32 8

96
 5. Dalton’s Atomic Theory

5.1 Postulates of Dalton’s Atomic Theory

According to Dalton’s atomic theory, all matter, whether

an element, a compound or a mixture is composed of
small particles called atoms.

The postulates are as follows:

(i) All matter is made of very tiny particles called atoms,

'S
which participate in chemical reactions.
JU
(ii) Atoms are indivisible particles, which cannot be
created or destroyed in a chemical reaction.

(iii) Atoms of a given element are identical in mass and

BY

chemical properties.

(iv) Atoms of different elements have different masses

and chemical properties.

(v) Atoms combine in the ratio of small whole numbers to

form compounds.

(vi) The relative number and kinds of atoms are constant

in a given compound.

97
 6. Ion

6.1 Introduction to Ion

Compounds composed of metals and non-metals contain

charged species. The charged species are known as ions.

A single atom carrying a charge is known as a

2+ -
monoatomic ion. E.g., Mg , Br
A group of atoms carrying a charge is known as a
+ -
polyatomic ion. E.g., NH4 , NO3

'S
An ion can be negatively or positively charged:
JU
The positively charged ion is called a cation.
Cation + 2+
E.g., NH4 , Mg

The negatively charged ion is called an anion.

BY

Anion - -
E.g., Br , NO3

6.2 Valency

The combining capacity of an atom/ion of an element

to form a compound is called valency.

Sodium ion Oxide ion Aluminium ion

Na
+
O2- Al
3+

Valency: 1 Valency: 2 Valency: 3

98
 7. Writing Chemical
Formulae

7.1 Rules to Write a Chemical Formula

The valencies or charges on the ions

Rule 1
must balance.

O2-

K+ K+

'S
Potassium oxide
K2O
JU
When a compound consists of a metal
Rule 2 and a non-metal, the name or symbol of
the metal is written first.
BY

-
Na+ Cl

Sodium chloride
NaCl
For polyatomic ions, the formula of ion is
enclosed in a bracket and the number of ions
Rule 3
written outside the bracket. If the number of
polyatomic ions is 1, the bracket is not required.

Mg2+
-
OH- OH- Na+ OH

Magnesium hydroxide Sodium hydroxide

Mg(OH)2 NaOH
99
 7. Writing Chemical
Formulae

7.2 Formula of Simple Compounds

While writing the chemical formulae for compounds, we

write the constituent elements and their valencies. Then we
must crossover the valencies of the combining atoms.

Sodium nitrate

Symbol: Na NO3

Valency:
'S 1 1
JU
Formula: NaNO3
BY

Calcium oxide

Symbol: Ca O

Valency: 2 2

Formula: CaO

The valencies of the elements are the same, so we

may arrive at the formula Ca2O2 . But upon
simplifying, the formula becomes CaO.

100
 8. Mole Concept

8.1 Mole

One mole of any species (atoms, molecules, ions or

particles) contains a fixed number of particles which
23
is 6.022 × 10 .

This number is called Avogadro’s constant or Avogadro’s

number (represented by NA).

'S
1 mole of atoms = 6.022 × 10
23
atoms
JU
23
1 mole of molecules = 6.022 × 10 molecules
23
1 mole of ions = 6.022 × 10 ions
BY

The mass of 1 mole of a substance is equal to its atomic or

molecular mass in grams.

The molar mass of atoms is also known as gram atomic

mass.

For example, the atomic mass of hydrogen = 1 u.

So, the gram atomic mass of hydrogen = 1 g.

101
 8. Mole Concept

8.2 Relationship between Mass, Mole

and Avogadro’s Number

Given mass
Number of moles =
Molar mass
m
⇒ n =
M
'S
JU
Given number of particles
Number of moles =
Avogadro’s number
BY

N
⇒ n =
NA

Mass = Molar mass × Number of moles

⇒ m= M × n

102
Chapter Notes

Structure of
'S
the Atom
JU
GRADE 09
BY

103
 Topics to Be Covered

1. Sub-Atomic
Particles

1.1 Electron
1.2 Proton 2. Structure
1.3 Neutron of an Atom
2.1 Thomson’s Model of
an Atom
2.2 Rutherford’s Gold
Foil Experiment
3. Distribution of
Electrons in Different
Shells
'S2.3 Rutherford’s Atomic
Model
JU
2.4 Bohr’s Model of
3.1 Bohr-Bury Scheme an Atom
3.2 Electronic
BY

Configuration 4. Valency

4.1 Valence Electrons

4.2 Introduction to
Valency
5. Atomic Number
and Mass Number 4.3 Calculation of
Valency
5.1 Atomic Number
5.2 Mass Number 6. Isotopes
and Isobars
5.3 Notation of an Atom
6.1 Introduction to
Isotopes
6.2 Introduction to
Isobars
104
 Mind Map

Electron
Isotopes
Proton
and
Isobars
Neutron

Sub-Atomic
Particles
Atomic

'S Number and

Mass Number
JU
Structure
of the Atom
BY

Bohr-Bury
Scheme Atomic
Models

Thomson’s Model
Electronic
Configuration Rutherford’s Model

Bohr’s Model
Valency

105
 1. Sub-Atomic Particles

1.1 Electron (e-)

• Discovered by J.J. Thomson.

• Has a charge of -1.
• Its mass is considered to be negligible as compared to
the mass of the atom.

1.2 Proton (p+)

• 'S
Discovery of canal rays by E. Goldstein in a gas
discharge led to the discovery of protons.
JU
• Has a charge of +1.
• Its mass is considered as one unit.
BY

1.3 Neutron (n)

• Discovered by J. Chadwick in 1932.

• It is neutral as it does not contain any charge
• The mass of a neutron is nearly equal to the mass of
a proton.

The mass of a proton is approximately

2000 times the mass of an electron.

Neutrons are present in the nucleus of all

atoms, except hydrogen.
106
 2. Structure of an Atom

2.1 Thomson’s Model of an Atom

• Thomson proposed the model of an atom that was

similar to a Christmas pudding.

Thomson proposed that:

• An atom consists of a positively charged sphere and
the electrons are embedded in it.
•
'S
The negative and positive charges are equal in
magnitude. So, the atom as a whole is electrically
neutral.
JU
+
BY

-
- Positive
- + - sphere
+ +
- - + - +
+
-
+ - +
- - Electron
+ - + +
-

Fig. Thomson’s model of an atom

107
 2. Structure of an Atom

2.2 Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment

• Rutherford performed an alpha (α) particle

scattering experiment to know the arrangement of
electrons within an atom.

• In his experiment, fast-moving α-particles were

bombarded on a thin gold foil.

• α-particles are the doubly-charged helium ions,

having a mass of 4 u. 'S
JU
• He expected that the α-particles would be deflected
by the sub-atomic particles in the gold atoms. Since
the α-particles were much heavier than the protons,
he did not expect to see large deflections.
BY

Detector

Gold foil

Alpha
beam
source

Fig. Rutherford's Gold Foil Experiment

108
 2. Structure of an Atom

Observations of Gold Foil Experiment

• Most of the α-particles went across the gold foil

without any deflection.
• Few α-particles underwent deflections by small angles.
• 1 in 12,000 α-particles got deflected by almost 180°.

Gold atom

Alpha
particles
'S
JU
Fig. Scattering of α-particles by a gold foil
BY

Conclusions of Gold Foil Experiment

• Most of the α-particles passed through the gold foil

undeflected, indicating that most of the space inside
the atom is empty.

• Few α-particles underwent slight deflections from

their path, indicating that the positive charge of the
atom occupies very little space.

• A very small fraction of α-particles were deflected by

180°, indicating that all the positive charge and mass
of the gold atom were concentrated in a very small
volume within the atom.
109
 2. Structure of an Atom

2.3 Rutherford’s Atomic Model

• Atom consists of a dense positively charged centre

called nucleus. Nearly all the mass of an atom resides
in the nucleus.
• Electrons revolve around the nucleus in circular paths.
• The size of the nucleus is very small as compared to
the size of the atom.

'S Electron
JU
Nucleus
BY

Fig. Rutherford’s atomic model

Drawbacks of Rutherford’s Atomic Model

The electrons in the circular orbit would lose energy due to

acceleration and finally fall into the nucleus.

If this were so, an atom would have been highly unstable,

and matter would not exist. But atoms are quite stable

Hence, Rutherford failed to explain the stability of atoms.

110
 2. Structure of an Atom

2.4 Bohr’s Model of an Atom

• Electrons revolve around the nucleus in discrete

orbits. These orbits or shells are known as energy
levels.

• While revolving in discrete orbits, the electrons

do not radiate energy.

• 'S
Orbits or shells are represented by the letters K, L, M,
N, … or the numbers, n=1, 2, 3, 4, ….
JU
BY

N-shell (n=4)
M-shell (n=3)
L-shell (n=2)
K-shell (n=1)
+ Nucleus

Fig. Energy levels in an atom

111
 3. Distribution of Electrons
in Different Shells

3.1 Bohr-Bury Scheme

The following rules are followed for writing the number of

electrons in different energy levels or shells:

• The maximum number of electrons present in an

2
orbit is given by the formula 2n , where ‘n’ is the
orbit number or energy level index, 1, 2, 3,….

Shell (n)
'S
Maximum number of
2
electrons (2n )
JU
2
K (n = 1) 2x1 =2
BY

2
L (n = 2) 2x2 =8
2
M (n = 3) 2 x 3 = 18
2
N (n = 4) 2 x 4 = 32

• The maximum number of electrons that can be

accommodated in the outermost orbit is 8.

• Electrons are not accommodated in a given shell

unless the inner shells are filled. That is, the shells
are filled in a step-wise manner.

112
 3. Distribution of Electrons
in Different Shells

3.2 Electronic Configuration

The distribution of electrons in different shells is known

as the electronic configuration of an element.

Atomic Electronic
Elements
number configuration

Hydrogen (H) 'S

1 1
JU
Carbon (C) 6 2, 4

Nitrogen (N) 7 2, 5
BY

Oxygen (O) 8 2, 6

Sodium (Na) 11 2, 8, 1

Magnesium (Mg) 12 2, 8, 2

113
 4. Valency

4.1 Valence Electrons

• The electrons present in the outermost shell

(valence shell) of an atom are known as the valence
electrons.
• An atom with 8 valence electrons is said to possess
an octet.

'S
Valence shell

Valence electron
JU
BY

Argon
(2, 8, 8) Number of valence electrons = 8

4.2 Introduction to Valency

• Valency is the combining capacity of an atom of an

element.

• The number of electrons gained, lost or shared by an

atom to complete the octet in its outermost shell, gives
the valency of that atom.

114
 4. Valency

4.3 Calculation of Valency

If an atom contains 4 or less than 4 valence electrons, then

Valency = Number of valence electrons

'S
Na
JU
Valency of sodium = 1
BY

If an atom contains more than 4 valence electrons, then

Valency = 8 - Number of valence electrons

Cl

Valency of chlorine = 8-7 = 1

115
 5. Atomic Number
and Mass Number

5.1 Atomic Number (Z)

• The atomic number is defined as the total number of

protons present in the nucleus of an atom.

• All atoms of an element have the same atomic number.

'S
JU
5.2 Mass Number (A)
BY

• The mass number is defined as the sum of the total

number of protons and neutrons present in the
nucleus of an atom.

• Protons and neutrons reside in the nucleus of an

atom. Hence, they are collectively known as nucleons.

116
 5. Atomic Number
and Mass Number

5.3 Notation for an Atom

• In the notation for an atom, the atomic number,

mass number, and symbol of the element are to be
written as:

Mass number

'S A
JU
Symbol of
element
Z
BY

Atomic number

14
• For example, nitrogen is written as 7 N.

117
 6. Isotopes and Isobars

6.1 Introduction to Isotopes

• Isotopes are the atoms of the same element, which have

the same atomic number but different mass numbers.
For example,

Protium Deuterium Tritium

1 2 3
H H H
1 1
'S 1
JU
• The chemical properties of isotopes are same, but their
physical properties are different.
BY

Average Atomic Mass of Isotopes

• If an element occurs in different isotopic forms, then

we need to know the percentage of each isotopic
form in nature and then the average atomic mass is
calculated.

(M1P1 + M2P2 + M3P3 +….)

Average atomic mass =
100

M1 and M2 = Atomic mass of isotopes 1 and 2

P1 and P2 = Percentage abundance of isotopes 1 and 2

118
 6. Isotopes and Isobars

Applications of Isotopes

Isotope of uranium

Used as fuel in nuclear

reactors.

'S
JU
Isotope of cobalt
BY

Used in the treatment

of cancer.

Isotope of iodine

Used in the treatment

of goitre.

119
 6. Isotopes and Isobars

6.2 Introduction to Isobars

• Isobars are the atoms of different elements, which

have different atomic numbers but same mass
numbers.

For example,

Calcium Argon

40
Ca
'S 40
Ar
JU
20 18
BY

120
 'S
Chapter Notes
JU
The Fundamental Unit
of Life
BY

Class 09

121
 Topics to be
Covered

Introduction to Cell
1.1 Definition
1.2 Basic Characteristics of Cell
1.3 Cell Discovery
1.4 Cell Theory

Microscopes
2.1 Simple Microscope
'S
2.2 Compound Microscope
2.3 Parts of Compound Microscope
JU
Types of Cells
3.1 Prokaryotic Cell
BY

3.2 Eukaryotic Cell

Cells of Different Sizes and

Shapes

5 Basic Components of a
Eukaryotic Cell
5.1 Nucleus
5.2 Cytoplasm
5.3 Cell Membrane

122
 Topics to be
Covered

6 Cell Membrane
6.1 Structure and Function
6.2 Permeability
6.3 Types of Transport: Active and
Passive

7 Cell Wall
7.1 Cell Wall in Plant Cell

8
'S
7.2 Cell Wall in other Organisms

Cells in Different Solutions

JU
8.1 Hypotonic Solution
8.2 Hypertonic Solution
BY

8.3 Isotonic Solution

9 Cell Organelles
9.1 Endoplasmic Reticulum
9.2 Golgi Body
9.3 Mitochondria
9.4 Chloroplast
9.5 Vacuole
9.6 Ribosome
9.7 Lysosome

10 Cell Division
10.1 Mitosis
10.2 Meiosis
123
 Mind Map

Nucleus
Prokaryotic Eukaryotic Cell
Cytoplasm
Cell Cell Membrane

Cell
Types of Cells Components

'S
JU
Cell:
The
Fundament
BY

al Unit of
Life

Cell Organelles Cell Division

Mitosis Meiosis

124
 1. Introduction

1.1 Definition

A cell is defined as the smallest, basic unit of life that is

responsible for all of life's processes.
Cells are the structural, functional, and biological units of
all living beings.

1.2 Basic Characteristics of Cell

'S
JU
BY

A Typical Animal Cell

• Stores hereditary information

• Capable of reproducing
• Acquires and utilises energy
• Site of various bio-chemical reactions
• Able to respond to stimuli

125
1.3 Cell Discovery

• Examined a thin slice of cork and

observed tiny compartments which
he called "cells"

• Cork is obtained from the bark of a

tree and contains dead plant cells.
Robert Hooke

• A Dutch lens maker who improved

'S
the design of microscopes.
JU
• Observed the first living
cells and called them "animalcules"
Anton Van
BY

Leeuwenhoek

1.4 Cell Theory

• The cell theory was given by Schleiden and Schwann,

which was later modified by Rudolf Virchow.

• The three postulates of cell theory are:

✓ All living organisms are composed of one or more
cells.
✓ Cell is the basic structural and functional unit of living
organisms.
✓ All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
126
 2. Microscopes
A microscope is an instrument that magnifies small objects,
thus revealing details too small to be seen by the naked eye.

2.1 Simple Microscope 2.2 Compound Microscope

A single lens 'SMultiple lenses

JU
Total magnification is Total magnification is product
limited to one lens of objective lens and eyepiece
BY

Used to magnify the size Used to magnify and

of small objects study micro-organisms

2.3 Parts of a Compound Microscope

Eyepiece

Adjustment Knob

Objective Lens

Glass Slide

Mirror/ Light
Source 127
 3. Types of Cells

Regardless of the complexity as well as type of organism,

cells are mainly divided into two categories.

Mentioned below are the distinctions between the 2 major

types of cells -

3.1 Prokaryotic 3.2 Eukaryotic

Cell Cell

Absent Present and

Nucleus
'S
Instead, they
have a nucleoid
surrounded by
a nuclear
JU
region in the cell membrane
BY

Size ranges from Size ranges from

Cell Size 0.2 μm - 2.0 μm 10 μm – 100 μm in
in diameter. diameter.

Ribosomes Present Present

Membrane-
bound cell Absent Present
organelles
Bacteria Plant
Examples
and Archaea and Animal cell

128
 4. Cells of Different Sizes and Shapes

Cells of Different Sizes

Blue Whale’s Neuron

25 –30 m

Amoeba Mycoplasma Ostrich’s Egg

0.01- 0.1 mm
'S
0.0002 mm 130-170 mm
JU
Cells of Different Shapes
BY

Shape of a cell depends on the function of the cell.

Neuron Red Blood Cell Muscle Cell

Branched- To Biconcave Discs- Spindle Shaped-

connect with To maximise the To align properly
other neurons oxygen carrying & to contract &
capacity relax with ease

129
5. Basic Components of a Eukaryotic Cell

5.1 Nucleus
• Contains the hereditary material of
the cell, the DNA which is organised
as chromosomes
• Controls growth and metabolic
activities of the cell
• Surrounded by the nuclear envelope
that separates the DNA from the rest
of the cell

5.2 Cytoplasm
'S
• Thick, jelly-like substance present
inside the cell membrane and
JU
external to the nuclear membrane
• Mainly composed of water, salts,
proteins and suspended cell
BY

organelles
• Site for most of the bio-chemical
reactions

5.3 Cell membrane

• Flexible, living and selectively

permeable membrane
• Outermost layer of the animal cells
• Present in both plant and animal cell

130
 6. Cell Membrane

Phospholipid Bilayer

'S
Transport Protein
JU
6.1 Structure and Functions
BY

Structure:
• The cell membrane is made up of lipids and proteins.
• Phospholipids are the main component of the cell
membrane, and they are arranged in 2 layers called
the phospholipid bilayer.
• The lipid bilayer is embedded with proteins that help
in transport of certain substances.

Functions:
• Encloses the components of the cell and protects it
• Monitors what goes in and out of the cell

131
6.2 Permeability

Selectively Freely
Impermeable
Permeable Permeable

'S
JU
Selected
No Particles All Particles
Particles
BY

There are 3 types of membranes: impermeable, selectively

permeable and freely permeable.

• Impermeable membrane:
No particles can move across the membrane.

• Selectively permeable membrane:

Only selected molecules are allowed to cross the
membrane.

• Freely permeable membrane:

All the molecules are allowed to pass through it without
any resistance.

132
6.3 Types of Transport

Based on energy requirements, transportation of

molecules in living systems can be of two following types:

Active Transport Passive Transport

Movement of molecules Movement of molecules

across the membrane
against their
concentration gradient
'Sacross the membrane
down their concentration
gradient without the use
JU
by using cellular energy of energy.
in the form of ATP.
BY

Carrier proteins are Carrier proteins are not

required. required.

Large molecules and Molecules like oxygen and

ions need active carbon dioxide can pass
transport to cross through the membrane by
the membrane. passive transport.

Example- Uptake of Example- Diffusion of

minerals and ions by plant gases in alveoli
roots

133
 7. Cell Wall

7.1 Cell Wall in Plant Cell

• The outermost layer in

plant cells

• Responsible for
maintaining the rigid
structure and providing
mechanical strength to the
plant cell

Cell Wall 'S

• Composed of cellulose
JU
7.2 Cell Wall in other Organisms
BY

Fungi Algae Bacteria

Chitin Cellulose Peptidoglycan

134
 8. Cell in Different Solutions

8.1 Hypotonic Solution

• If the medium surrounding the

cell has a higher water
concentration than the cell,
meaning that the outside solution
is very dilute, the cell will gain
water by osmosis.

8.2 Hypertonic Solution 'S

JU
• If the medium has a lower
concentration of water than the
cell, meaning it is a very
BY

concentrated solution, the cell will

lose water by osmosis.

8.3 Isotonic Solution

• If the medium has exactly same

water concentration as the cell,
there will be no net movement of
water across the cell membrane.

135
 9. Cell Organelles

An organelle is a subcellular structure that has one or more

specific jobs to perform in the cell, much like an organ does
in the body.

9.1 Endoplasmic Reticulum 9.2 Golgi Body

'S
JU
• Transportation system of • Consists of smooth
BY

eukaryotic cell flattened membrane-

RER bound, sac-like
• Ribosomes attached to structures called
its membrane. cisternae
• Synthesis proteins and • Packages materials
enzymes synthesised in the cell
SER and transports it
• Ribosomes are not • Involved in the
attached to its formation of
membrane. lysosomes
• Synthesises lipids and
steroids

136
 9.3 Mitochondria 9.4 Chloroplast

Structure: Structure:

• Double-membrane
organelle found in
eukaryotic cell
'S
• Double-membrane
organelle found in all
higher plants
JU
• Contains smooth outer • Contains grana which
membrane and an inner are stacks of disc-
BY

membrane with shaped structures

infoldings called cristae known as thylakoids

• Has its own DNA and • Stroma is

ribosomes to make the homogenous
proteins matrix which contains
grana, various enzymes,
DNA, and ribosomes.

Function: Function:
• Helps to generate energy • Site of
in the form of ATP photosynthesis in
plants

137
 9.5 Vacuole
Plant Cell Animal Cell

Vacuole

• Membrane-bound cell organelle present in the

cytoplasm and filled with a watery fluid containing
various substances
'S
• In plant cells, vacuoles store food, water and excretory
products. As vacuoles are full of the cell sap, they
JU
provide turgidity and rigidity to the cell.
• Animal cells contain one or more vacuoles, and their
size is relatively smaller as compared to the plant cell
vacuole.
BY

9.6 Ribosome 9.7 Lysosome

• Site of protein synthesis • Contains hydrolytic

• In prokaryotic cell
ribosomes are found in
the cytoplasm.
• In eukaryotic cell
ribosomes are found as
particles attached to
RER and suspended in
the cytoplasm.
enzymes that break
down complex molecules
into simpler ones
• Performs digestion of
foreign bodies, breaks
down a damaged
organelle and disposes
off toxic wastes out of the
cell
138
 10. Cell Division

10.1 Mitosis

2n • Mitosis occurs in
Parent
somatic cells
Cell • Only one nuclear
division occurs
• Results in two
diploid daughter
2n Daughter 2n cells
Cells
• Chromosome
'S number remains
same
JU
10.2 Meiosis
BY

Parent
2n Cell • Meiosis occurs in
1st
germ cells
Nuclear
Division
• Two nuclear
divisions occur
2n 2n
2nd • Results in four
Nuclear haploid daughter
Division cells
• Chromosome
number
is reduced to half
n n n n
Daughter Cells
139
 'S
Chapter Notes
JU
Tissues
BY

Grade 9

140
 Topics to be
Covered

Tissue
1.1 Definition
1.2 Levels of Organisation
1.3 Plant vs Animal Tissues

Plant Tissue
'S
2.1 Classification of Plant tissues
2.2 Meristematic vs Permanent
JU
Tissues

Meristematic Tissue
BY

3.1 Characteristics
3.2 Types of Meristematic Tissue

Permanent Tissue
4.1 Characteristics
4.2 Simple Permanent Tissue
4.3 Complex Permanent Tissue

Animal Tissue
5.1 Classification of Animal Tissue

141
 Topics to be
Covered

Epithelial Tissue
6.1 Simple Squamous
6.2 Stratified Squamous
6.3 Columnar
6.4 Ciliated Columnar
6.5 Cuboidal
6.6 Glandular

'S
Connective Tissue
7.1 Blood
JU
7.2 Bone
7.3 Ligament
7.4 Tendon
BY

7.5 Cartilage
7.6 Areolar
7.7 Adipose

Muscular Tissue

Nervous Tissue
9.1 Neuron
9.2 Nerve fibre

142
 Mind Map

▪ Intercalary
▪ Simple
▪ Lateral
▪ Complex
▪ Apical

Meristematic tissue Permanent tissue

Plant tissues

'S
Tissues
JU
Animal Tissues
BY

Epithelial Muscular Connective Nervous

▪ Skeletal ▪ Neuron
▪ Simple ▪ Blood
Squamous ▪ Smooth
▪ Bone
▪ Stratified ▪ Cardiac
Squamous ▪ Ligament
▪ Columnar ▪ Adipose
▪ Ciliated
Columnar ▪ Tendon
▪ Cuboidal ▪ Cartilage
▪ Glandular
▪ Areolar

143
 1. Tissues

1.1 Definition
A group of cells that are similar in structure and work
together to achieve a particular function forms a tissue.

1.2 Levels of Organisation

A cell is the basic unit of life

'S
A tissue is a group of cells
JU
BY

A group of tissues come together to

form an organ

Organs combine to form organ system

Different organ systems coordinate to

perform various life processes and
forms an organism

144
 1.3 Plant vs Animal Tissues
Plant Tissue Animal Tissue

Dead supportive Living supportive

tissues are more tissues are more
abundant as compared abundant as compared
to living tissues. to dead tissues.

Growth tissues are not Growth tissues are

uniformly located, and uniform and allow
some cells divide limited growth only.
continuously. 'S
JU
Plants are stationary Tissue organization is
hence no muscular different as animals are
tissue are present. mobile and need
BY

muscular tissue.

Meristematic Tissue Epithelial Tissue

145
 2. Plant Tissue

2.1. Classification of Plant Tissue

'S
JU
BY

146
2.2 Meristematic Tissue vs Permanent Tissue

Meristematic Tissue Permanent Tissue

Localised and Present throughout the

undifferentiated plant and differentiated

Cells grow and divide Cells do not divide

regularly

Performs various
Promotes growth of
functions like
the plant
protection, support,
'S
and conduction
JU
3. Meristematic Tissue
BY

3.1 Characteristics

• Actively dividing cells

• Have dense cytoplasm and thin cellulose walls
• Have prominent nucleus and lack vacuole
• Few cells take up a specific role and lose the
ability to divide to form permanent tissue

147
Differentiation
Process of taking up a permanent shape, size, and
function

3.2 Types of Meristematic Tissues

Apical
• Present at
shoot and root tips
'S
JU
• Increases length
BY

Intercalary
• Present at base
of leaves or
internodes
• Elongates
internodes

Lateral
• Present at lateral
side
• Increases girth of
the stem

Location of meristematic
tissue in plant body
148
 4. Permanent Tissue

4.1 Characteristics

Permanent tissues are formed from meristematic tissue

cells that have lost their ability to divide.

4.2 Simple Permanent Tissue

• This tissue is made of one type of cell.
• It is divided into protective and supportive tissues.

4.2 (A) Protective Tissue 'S

JU
• It consists of cells with thick walls.
• Epidermis is the protective tissue that undergoes
BY

changes in older plants to form cork.

Types of Protective Tissue - Epidermis

• Outer continuous layer without
intercellular spaces
• Forms the cuticle layer
• Contains stomata for
exchange of gases
• Function - Aids in gaseous
exchange, protects the plant
from water loss, mechanical
injury, and parasitic invasion Epidermis
149
Types of Protective Tissue - Cork
• Secondary meristem replaces
the epidermis to form
cork/bark as plants grow
older.
• Cork contains dead cells and
has suberin in their walls that
makes them impervious to Cork
gases and water.

4.2 (B) Types of Supportive Tissue

• 'S
Unspecialised cells with thin cell
walls and large intercellular
JU
spaces
• Present in soft parts of the plant
and in the outer cortical region
BY

of roots and stems of plants

• Generally, stores food Parenchyma

• Living, elongated cells with

irregular thickened corners with
very few intercellular spaces.
• Usually found in stalks of leaves
or flowers
• Provides mechanical support Collenchyma
and flexibility to the plants

150
• Dead, elongated cells with
evenly thickened, lignified walls
and no intercellular spaces
• Present in hard parts of the plant
(Ex. covering of seeds and nuts)
• Provides strength and
toughness to plant parts Sclerenchyma

4.2 (C) Specialised Parenchyma Cells

• Parenchyma cells containing

chloroplast 'S
JU
• Takes part in photosynthesis
Chlorenchyma
BY

• Parenchyma cells with air spaces

between them
• Present in aquatic plants
• Provide buoyancy
Aerenchyma

• Parenchyma cells that help in

the storage of food and water

• Act as food and water reservoir

Storage parenchyma
151
4.3 Complex Permanent Tissue
• Also called conducting or vascular tissue, made up of
more than one type of cells
• Present in stems, roots, and leaves
• Two types – Xylem and Phloem

Types of Conducting Tissue - Xylem

• Complex permanent tissue with thick-walled cells

• Present in the stem, roots and leaves
• Provides upward movement of water and dissolved
'S
minerals from roots to different parts of plants
JU
Components of Xylem
BY

Xylem
Parenchyma:
Xylem Fibre:
Consists of
Separated by
living
thin cross
parenchyma
walls and has
cells
dead cells
associated
with xylem
Tracheid:
Consists of
elongated Xylem Vessel:
cells with flat Tubular
and tapering structure
ends, dead which consists
cells of dead cells

152
Types of Conducting Tissue - Phloem

• Complex permanent tissue which is composed mostly of

living cells

• Provides passage for food from leaf to different parts

Components of Phloem

'S Phloem
parenchyma:
JU
Sieve tube: Consists of
Tubular living
cells arranged parenchyma
end to end cells
BY

associated
with phloem

Companion
cell:
Phloem fibre: Living cell
Elongated, closely linked
tapering and with sieve
dead cells with elements
thickened cell
walls

Sieve cell:
Type of sieve element that performs conduction of food

153
 5. Animal Tissue

5.1 Classification of Animal Tissue

Animal Tissues

Epithelial Muscular Connective Nervous

Tissue Tissue Tissue Tissue

Simple Skeletal Neuron

Squamous Blood
Muscle

Stratified
Squamous
Smooth
Muscle
'S Bone
JU
Columnar Cardiac Ligament
Muscle
BY

Ciliated Tendon
Columnar

Cuboidal Cartilage

Glandular Areolar

Adipose

154
 6. Epithelial Tissue

• Epithelium covers the outer body, most organs, and

cavities within the body.
• Cells of epithelial tissue lie on a thin membrane called
the basement membrane.

6.1 Simple Squamous

• Flat cells
• Forms the lining of alveoli, and blood vessels
• Facilitates the transportation of various substances
across membranes
'S
JU
BY

6.2 Stratified Squamous

• Flat cells, arranged in a pattern of layers
• Present in the skin
• Protects from wear and tear

155
6.3 Columnar 6.4 Ciliated Columnar

• Pillar-like cells • Columnar cells have hair-

• Present in the lining of the
small intestine
• Helps in absorption and
secretion
like projections called cilia
• Present in the respiratory
tract
• Facilitates the movement
of mucus

'S
JU
6.5 Cuboidal 6.6 Glandular

• Cube-shaped cells • Epithelial cells

BY

acquire additional
• Forms the lining of kidney
specialisation as
tubules and ducts of
gland cells
glands
• Gland cells secrete
• Provides mechanical
substances at the
support
epithelial surface
• Epithelial tissue folds
inward to form
a multicellular gland

156
 7. Connective Tissue

• The cells of connective tissue are loosely spaced and

embedded in an intercellular matrix.
• The matrix may be jelly-like, fluid, dense or rigid.

7.1 Blood
• Has a fluid matrix called plasma,
in which RBCs, WBCs, and
platelets are suspended
• Transport gases, digested food,
hormones, and waste materials
to different parts of the body

7.2 Bone
'S
JU
• Has a hard matrix composed of
calcium and phosphorus compounds
BY

• Strong and non-flexible

• Forms the framework that supports
the body, anchors the muscles and
supports the main organs of the body

7.3 Ligament

• Contains very little matrix

• Connects bones with bones
• Highly elastic and has considerable
strength

157
7.4 Tendon

• Connects muscles to bones

• Fibrous and less flexible but has
great strength

7.5 Cartilage
• Has a solid matrix composed of
proteins and sugars
• Found in ear, nose, trachea,
and joints
• Smoothens bone surfaces at joints
and provides flexibility 'S
JU
7.6 Areolar
BY

• Found between the skin and

muscles, around blood vessels and
nerves, and in the bone marrow
• Fills the space inside the organs,
supports internal organs and helps
in repair of tissues

7.7 Adipose
• Found below the skin and
between internal organs
• Tissue cells filled with fat globules
• Acts as an insulator (controls
body temperature) 158
 8. Muscular Tissue

• Muscular tissue consists of elongated cells and is

responsible for the movement in our body.
• It contains contractile proteins which contract and
relax to cause movement.

Types of Muscle Tissue

Skeletal Smooth Cardiac
Muscle Muscle Muscle
Long, cylindrical, Spindle-shaped
Cylindrical and
and unbranched
cells
'S
and unbranched
cells
branched cells
JU
Multinucleate and Uninucleate and Uninucleate and
striated non-striated striated
BY

Involuntary Involuntary
Voluntary muscle
muscle muscles

Found in iris,
Found in limbs uterus, alimentary Found in the heart
canal, bronchi

159
 9. Nervous
Tissue

• Cells of the nervous tissue are highly specialised for

being stimulated and then transmitting the stimulus
within the body.
• The brain, spinal cord and nerves are all composed of
the nervous tissue

9.1 Neuron
Dendrite:
Cell Body:
Receives informat
Contains nucleus
ion from other
and cytoplasm
'S neurons
JU
Axon:
BY

Relays
Axon Terminal:
information from
Passes
cell body to axon
information to
terminal
other neurons

9.2 Nerve Fibre

Connective tissues bind neurons which form nerve
fibres, and nerve fibres bundle up to form a nerve.
160
 'S
Chapter Notes
JU
Improvement in
food resources
BY

Grade 9
 Topics to be
Covered

Crops
1.1 Uses of crops
1.2 Types of crops

Crop Variety Improvement

2.1 Hybridisation
2.2 Genetic Modification
2.3 Factors that determine the
use of crop variety
'S
improvement methods
JU
Crop Production Management
3.1 Nutrient Management
3.2 Cropping Pattern
BY

3.3 Irrigation Techniques

Crops Protection Management

Animal husbandry
5.1 Cattle farming
5.2 Poultry farming
5.3 Fish farming
5.4 Bee-keeping
162
 Mind Map

Cattle farming Bee-keeping

Poultry farming Fish farming

Animal husbandry

'S
Improvement in food resources
JU
Crop and its management
BY

Crop variety Crop production

improvement improvement

Crop protection
management

▪ Hybridisation ▪ Nutrient
▪ Genetic management
modification ▪ Cropping
▪ Crop variety pattern
improvement ▪ Irrigation
factors techniques

163
 Improvement in food resources

1. Crops
A plant such as a grain, vegetable, or fruit grown in large
amounts on farmland and harvested for the purpose of
sustenance.

1.1 Uses of crop

• Nutritional Requirements: Crops provide us with

nutrients like, carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins
and minerals.

• Economic Requirements: Harvested crops are sold

'S
on for the purpose of economic sustenance.
JU
1.2 Types of Crops
Rabi Crops Kharif Crops
BY

Grown during winter Grown during rainy

season i.e., from season i.e., from June to
November to April. October.
Ex: wheat,
Ex: paddy, soybean,
pea, linseed, mustard,
cotton, maize, etc.
etc.

Wheat Pea Cotton Rice

164
2. Crop Variety Improvement
• The process of choosing and creating better quality
seeds.
• It is done by two methods.

2.1 Hybridisation
• Crossing between genetically dissimilar plants
• It is further divided into three methods:

a) Inter varietal: Cross between Rice A Rice B

two varieties of the same
species is done. For example, a
cross between two different
varieties of rice (disease-
'S
JU
resistant (rice A) x pest-
resistant (rice B).
BY

b) Inter specific: Cross Tomato Potato

between two different species
of the same genus is done. For
example, a cross between
tomato (Solanum
lycopersicum) and potato
(Solanum tuberosum) is done
to obtain pomato.

c) Inter generic: Cross Cabbage Radish

between two different genera
is done. For example, a cross is
done between radish
(Raphanus) and cabbage
(Brassica) is done to obtain
Brassicoraphanus. Brassicoraphanus 165
2.2 Genetic Modification

• Modification of genes to get desired characteristics

• The steps of genetic modification are:

a) A gene with desired quality is taken. a)

'S
JU
b) This gene is added in a vector DNA
b)
which acts as a carrier.
BY

c) This modified DNA is introduced into

the plant. c)

d) Finally, this genetically modified plant

is propagated to obtain its seeds and d)
further cropping on a large scale.

166
2.3 Factors that determine the use of crop
variety improvement methods

High yield: Increase crop productivity per

acre area.

Increase quality: Different crops require different

quality upgrades.
For ex.: Shelf storage, nutrients, etc.

Biotic and Abiotic Resistance:

'S
Resistance towards living factors (biotic) like pests,
insects, nematodes, etc., and towards non-living
JU
factors (abiotic) like salinity, heat, etc.

Wider adaptability: Crops that can be grown

BY

in different terrain and environment.

Ex: Cabbage growing on plain land and terrain.

Change in maturity duration: Crops with less

maturity duration are more economical.
Ex: One crop can be grown twice in one season.

Desired agronomic characters: Characteristics

contributing to economic benefits attained from
the field of agriculture. Ex: Tallness of fodder
crops for easy cutting

167
3. Crop Production Management
• It includes adopting techniques to ensure better yield.
• Crop production management is done under
three categories: Nutrient management, cropping
pattern and irrigation technique

3.1 Nutrient Management

• Plant get their nutrients from air (carbon and oxygen),

water (hydrogen and oxygen), and soil (a major source
of nutrients).
• Nutrients present in the soil are classified into micro and
macro according to their requirement by the plants for
their growth and development.'S
JU
Macro-nutrients Micro-nutrients
BY

Required in larger Required in small

amounts. amounts.

Nitrogen, Potassium, Copper, Calcium,

Phosphorus, Sulphur, Molybdenum, Zinc, Boron,
Magnesium, Calcium Manganese, Iron

Impact of nutrient deficiency

Loss of Increased
reproductive Stunted growth susceptibility to
ability diseases
168
Fertilisers
• Commercially produced (in factory) plant nutrients
(inorganic salts) supplied to the crops to increase
productivity.
• Fertilisers are nutrient-specific and they are expensive.
• Have negative effects like reduction in soil fertility.

Manure
A natural growth enhancer containing a large amount of
organic matter and supplies minor quantities of nutrients.

'S
JU
Compost

• Organic wastes decomposed by microorganisms

to form simple nutrients.
BY

Vermicompost

• Prepared by earthworms that speed up the composting

process

Green Manure
• Specific plants such as Sunn hemp, guar are grown to
be incorporated into the soil which decomposes to turn
into nutrients that are made available for the main crops.

169
3.2 Cropping pattern

• Indicates the time and arrangement of crops in a

particular land area.
• Can be done in 3 ways:

Mixed cropping

Growing two or more species or

cultivars of the same

'S
species simultaneously in the
same field
JU
Intercropping
BY

Growing two or more crops

with different nutrient
requirements, simultaneously on
the same field in a
definite pattern

Crop Rotation

Growing different kinds of crops

in recurrent succession on
the same land

170
3.3 Irrigation techniques

Tanks

Small-scale reservoirs that supply

water to a nearby field

Wells

Water is taken from groundwater

'S
JU
Dug well: Tube well:
Water is taken from Water is taken from
water-bearing
BY

deeper strata
strata

Canals

Connected to the river and divided into

distributaries to supply river water to the fields.

River-lift system

Directly using rivers as a source of

water without the use of canals

171
4. Crop Protection Management

Protection and storage of the crops during their growing

phase and also after their harvesting.

Pre-production management

Crops destroyed by pests, microbes,

and unwanted plants (weeds) during growth of
crops

'S
Methods to control
JU
• Mechanical removal of the weeds.
• Spraying of pesticides and herbicides.
BY

Post-production management

• It includes the protection of crops from

biotic and abiotic factors post-harvest and
its storage.

Methods to control

• Clean and dry storage of the produce.

• Fumigation using pesticides
• Use of sun for drying the seeds pre-storage.

172
5. Animal husbandry

Animal husbandry is the scientific management of

animal livestock which involves feeding, breeding, and
disease control.

5.1 Cattle farming

Rearing animals like goats, cows, horses, buffaloes, etc., for

milk and labour.
The cattle animals are divided into two categories:

Milch animals Draught animals

Reared for the purpose
'S Reared for the purpose
JU
of milk production. of labour.
Ex: Cows, Buffaloes, Ex: Horses, Donkeys,
Goats, etc. Camels, etc.
BY

Cattle Breeding
Mating animals with desirable quality to produce highly
productive and suitable animals.

Example of cross breeding

Holstein-Friesian Sahiwal Frieswal Cow

High milk yield +

Good quality milk Disease-resistant Disease resistant
173
Requirements of Cattle farming
• Providing proper and clean shelter facilities to cattle for
their health as well as to produce clean milk.
• It includes:
1. Sloping of floors and providing well-ventilated shelters.
2. Regular brushing and bathing of animals to remove dirt
and unwanted hair.
3. Vaccinating the animal to protect them from diseases
and infections.

Cattle feed

Roughage:
• Feeds with a low
density of nutrients, with
'S
JU
crude fiber content.
• Helps in digestion.
Hay Fodder
BY

Concentrate:
• A mixture made up
of protein
supplements.
• Helps increase
the content of fat in Gram Oil-seed cake
milk.

Cattle diseases

External parasites, internal parasites, and

microbes like bacteria cause various
diseases to cattle.
174
5.2 Poultry farming

• The rearing of birds is called poultry.

• It is done to obtain eggs and broilers for consumption
purposes and on this basis, it is divided into:

Layer

Layers are egg-laying poultry

birds which are raised for the
purpose of commercial egg
production. Layer Eggs

'S
JU
Broiler
Breeding of a special variety
of chicken for edible
BY

purposes.
Broiler Meat

Cross breeding in poultry

The aim of cross-breeding is to produce chicken with

desired qualities like tolerance to temperature and low
maintenance.

175
 Poultry feed

• The daily food requirement

for broilers is protein
rich with adequate fat. The level
of vitamins A and K is kept high.
• For egg layers, the daily feed
is kept high
in protein and calcium for
good eggs and strong eggshells. Groundnut Ragi
cake rich in
rich in protein and
'S protein and
fat content
fiber
content
JU
Poultry Care
BY

Temperature Healthy Housing Controlling

maintenance poultry feed hygiene diseases

176
5.3 Fish farming

• The rearing of aquatic organisms like fish, prawn, crab,

squid, and other molluscs commercially in enclosures to
be sold as food.
• Fish farming is also known as aquaculture.

Marine Water
Fishery

Capture fish
farming

'S Freshwater
JU
Fishery
Fish Farming
Marine Water
Fishery
BY

Culture fish
farming

Freshwater
Fishery

Benefits of culture fish farming

Complete
Greater utilisation of
More yield
survival rate food
resources

177
Culture fishes

Marine fishes Inland fishes

Bombay duck Rohu

Pomfret 'S Catla

JU
BY

Salmon Magur

Benefits of fish meat

1. High in protein
2. Easily digestible
3. Rich in vitamin A and D

178
Pisciculture

Rearing of only fishes commercially in enclosures like

tanks or ponds to be sold as food.

Composite fish culture

• It is also called mixed fish farming.

• In this different fishes are rearing at the same place as
per their feeding zone.
'S
JU
BY

179
5.4 Bee-keeping
• The rearing of honeybees for honey and other
commercial products.
• It is also known as apiculture.
• The products obtained are honey, royal jelly, bee wax
etc.

Royal jelly 'S

Honey Bee-wax
JU
Honeybee varieties
BY

Indigenous Breeds Exotic Breed

Apis indica Apis dorsata Apis mellifera

Apis florae
180
 Desired characteristic of bees for
apiculture

Yields a large Stay for longer

Disease
amount period
resistant
of honey in the beehive

'S
Types of Honeybees in a beehive
JU
WORKER
BY

QUEEN DRONE
22-42 Days 2-7 Years 90 Days
Life span Life span Life span

0
mm

1
mm
The WORKER BEES Each hive has only DRONE BEES are male
makes food. They one QUEEN BEE. She bees. They do not
build the hive. They is the only bee who work. They mate with
guard it. They look lays eggs. the queen bee.
after baby bees,
makes bee wax.
181