Reflex arc

DRG DRG (2)

(1)
(3)

(5)
(4)

(Autonomic reflex arc) (Somatic reflex arc)

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 Nucleus

Collection of nerve cell bodies in the CNS

Ganglion (ganglia)

Collection of nerve cell bodies outside the CNS

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 The afferent neurons
- Sensory nerves transmit impulses from stimulated
receptors to CNS
- Their soma located in the dorsal root ganglia (DRG)
- Functions: divergence or convergence

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 The Interneurons

“ They are highly excitable neurons located between the

afferent and efferent neurons".

The efferent neurons

- They are motor neurons that supply the skeletal

muscles

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 Properties of reflex Action
1- Forward direction: only one direction from afferent to
efferent neurons

2- Localization: (locality of response depends on site of

stimulation)
q lateral painful stimulation of limbà flexion & adduction
q medial painful stimulation à flexion and abduction

3- Central delay: it is the time needed for transmission of

an impulse through a synapse.
- The greater the number of synapses in the reflex arc, the
longer will be the central delay.
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 Classification of Reflexes

1- Local axon reflexes

2- Conditioned reflexes
3- Unconditioned reflexes

1- Local axon reflexes:

- Not true reflexes because they do not reach the CNS,
they have no centers but have mother cells.
- It carried out by one neuron

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2- Conditioned reflexes:
- They are acquired reflexes developed by learning and
training
- They need intact cerebral cortex
- e. g. Pavlov’s Experiment

Pavlov’s Experiment:
This exp. proved that conditioned reflexes are not inherent
reflex but they are acquired by learning and training and
need intact cerebral cortex.

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3- Unconditioned reflexes
§ They are inherent or inborn reflexes
§ They do not need the cerebral cortex
§ They are called according to location of their centers
a) Hypothalamic Reflexesà regulate body temperature
b) Midbrain reflexes à as pupillary light reflex.
c) Medullary reflexes à as those regulating heart rate.
d) Spinal cord reflexes à as flexion reflex

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 Synapses
-It is the site of contact between neurons.
-It is a junction a portion of a presynaptic cell terminates
on a portion of a post synaptic cell

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 Types of synapse

1- Chemical synapses:
- Mediate communication between distant cells.
- It is the predominant type in CNS
- The presynaptic terminal contains vesicles called
synaptic vesicles
- Synaptic vesicles are filled with chemicals called
neurotransmitters as Ach or adrenaline

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 Synaptic transmission

- When an action potential in the presynaptic neuron

reaches the end of the axon à causes the release of
the Ach into the synaptic cleft à Ach bind to
specific receptors located on the postsynaptic
membrane à increases permeability to Na+ à
depolarization of postsynaptic membrane à
propagated action potential

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Synaptic cleft:
Is the space
between the
presynaptic axon
terminal and
postsynaptic cell
membrane.

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2- Electrical synapses

- It mediate communication between adjacent cells:

- No synaptic vesicles
- No neurotransmitter
- Its conduction is faster than the chemical synapse.
- Found in cardiac muscle cells and smooth muscle cells

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 Nervous system (NS)

Central NS

Peripheral NS
Brain Spinal cord

1- Cerebral cortex
2- Subcortical area Somatic NS Autonomic NS
(thalamus, hypothalamus (Voluntary) (Involuntary)
& basal ganglia)
3- Cerebellum
4- Brain stem (midbrain,
pons &medulla oblongata) Sympathetic NS Parasympathetic NS
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 The thalamus
- It a gateway to cerebral cortex ‫ﻣﺪﺧﻞ او ﺳﻜﺮﺗﺎرﯾﺔ‬
- Contains nuclei that receives sensory impulses from
the body to relay them to cerebral cortex.
- It is included in pathway of all sensations (except
smell sensation)
- In lower animals (birds & fish) it is the highest
sensory center

‫ = اﻟﻣﮭﺎد = ﺳرﯾر اﻟطﻔل‬thalamus

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 Basal Ganglia (subcortical nuclei)

- Group of large nuclei located in the subcortical area.

- They connect with motor cortex and other brain areas.

Functions:
1) In lower animals (bird & amphibian) are considered
the higher motor centers ; as cerebral cortex is not
developed.

2) In animals with more developed cortex (dog & cat), they

are responsible for automatic movements as feeding &
defense

3) Regulate subconscious gross movements & maintenance

of equilibrium Prof. Dr. Abeer 17
4) They inhibit muscle tone.

5) In man, basal ganglia with cerebral cortex are

associated with performance of skillful voluntary
movements.

Damage of B.G.
1- Parkinson’s disease: increase muscle tone (rigidity
of muscles) & static tremor during rest and disappear
during movement.

2- Chorea: rapid dancing movements during rest and

increased with emotions and stress.
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 Cerebrum
- It consists of 2 cerebral hemispheres connected by
corpus callosum
- Each cerebral hemisphere is formed of :
Ø A peripheral cerebral cortex of grey matter
Ø Central white matter (contains the basal ganglia)

- The cerebral cortex of each

hemisphere is divided into 4
lobes: a) Frontal lobe
b) Parietal lobe
c) Temporal lobe
59 d) Occipital lobe 19
- The surface of each lobe is divided by several depressions
(sulci) into many convolutions (gyri)
- Each gyrus contains one or more numbered areas known
as Brodmann's areas

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 I- Frontal lobe
1- The primary Motor area (area 4)
- Contains highly excitable pyramidal cells (Betz cells)
- Functions:
a) It initiates definite & fine discrete voluntary movements
b) It increase muscle tone
2- Premotor area (area 6)
- It controls coordinated movements involving many muscles
simultaneously
3- Broca's area (area 44 & 45):
- It controls movements of muscles of speech in tongue, lips &
larynx (its damageà the person can not speak whole words)
4- Head rotation areas: (stimulation à head rotation)
5- Area 8 (voluntary eye movements area): 61

Stimulationà deviation of both eyes to the opposite direction

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 II- Parietal lobe
1- Somatic sensory area I
- It is a center for perception of sensations (touch, warm,
cold and pain sensations)

2- Somatic sensory area II

- Unknown function
- It may play a role in the perception of pain

3- Somatic sensory association area

- It is responsible for complex somatic sensation (feeling
of an object as knife)
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 Representation of the body in the motor and sensory
Areas of the Cerebral Cortex
- Each hemisphere receives information from the
opposite direction of the body
- The body is represented in an inverted manner (except
the parts of the face)
- The representation of the different parts of the body
depends on the magnitude of the function of the part
(not on its size)
e.g. the lips and fingers occupy larger areas than the
trunk and legs

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Representation of the body in the motor and sensory
Areas of the Cerebral Cortex

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 III- Occipital lobe
1- The primary visual cortex (area 17)
- It receives fibers from retina of the eye
- It produces visual sensation without knowing the
meaning and value of the objects
- It responsible for fusion of 2 separate images from the 2
retinae

2- Visauo –psychic area (area 18 & 19)

- It responsible for the meaning and value of the seen
objects

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 IV- Temporal lobe

1- The primary auditory cortex (area 41 & 42)

- It produces hearing sensation without knowing the
meaning and value of the sounds

2- The secondary auditory area

Auditary psychic area (area 22)
- It responsible for understanding the meaning of sounds
and spoken words

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