ESci132 Module 1.2

28 ESci 132 – Mechanics of Deformable Bodies
Assessment
Answer the following questions below on the space provided.
_____________ 1. Mechanics of deformable bodies focuses on what kinds of

forces?
_____________ 2. These forces are caused by direct contact of another body
_____________ 3. Surface forces that were developed at the supports

between bodies.
_____________ 4. The best way to show all known and unknown forces that
act on a body.
_____________ 5. Force that acts parallel to a cross-section.
_____________ 6. A reactions that tends to twist a body.
_____________ 7. An force that is only acted upon a point on the body.
Lesson 1.2: Stress
Lesson Summary
In this lesson, we will learn the concept of stress and know its importance in
studying mechanics of deformable bodies.
Learning Outcomes
1. Understand the concept of stress; and,

2. Solve problems about normal and shear stress.
Discussion
Stress
As you can recall earlier, the force and moment acting at a specific point, point
𝑂, represents the resultant effects of the distribution of loading that acts on the
sectioned area. Determining how this distribution behaves on the cross-section
is the main reason why we study mechanics of materials. But we should first
learn the concept of stress.
Page 28 of 76
Vision: A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Mission: Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge TP-IMD-02
V0 07-15-2020
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
No.CET.ESC SLG20-14
For instructional purposes only • 1st Semester SY 2020-2021 29
Figure 5. Analysis of the internal forces in the body
Before we go to the concepts, let us make an assumption that all materials that
we will consider are continuous cohesive materials, which basically means
that the materials have no voids, and they are connected together without
breaks, cracks or separations. Now, consider a sectioned area (Figure 5a), and
we are taking a very small area from it and call it Δ𝐴. This small area Δ𝐴 is
acted upon by a force Δ𝐹, and this force can be resolved into its components
which are 𝐹𝑥 , 𝐹𝑦 , and 𝐹𝑧 . If we further reduce the area of Δ𝐴, Δ𝐹 also will
decrease, and once we divide Δ𝐹 by Δ𝐴, we can actually obtain the stress of
the cross-section. Stress describes the intensity of the internal force acting on
a specific plane or area.
Normal Stress. It is the intensity of a force acting normal (perpendicular) to the

area 𝛥𝐴. It has a symbol sigma (𝜎). To determine the normal stress,
If the normal force tends to pull Δ𝐴, it is tensile stress, whereas if it pushes
Δ𝐴, it is compressive stress.
Shear Stress. The intensity of a force parallel (tangent) to Δ𝐴. It has a symbol
tau (𝜏). To determine shear stress,
The subscript notation 𝑧 represents the axis perpendicular to the area Δ𝐴,
and x and y indicate the axes along which each shear stress acts.
Page 29 of 76
V0 07-15-2020
No.CET.ESC SLG20-14
Figure 5. Analysis of the internal forces in the body (cont.)
General State of Stress. If the body is further sectioned by planes parallel to

the x–z plane (Figure 5b), and the y–z plane (Figure 5c), we can then “cut out”
a cubic volume element of material that represents the state of stress acting
around a chosen point in the body. This state of stress is then characterized by
three components acting on each face of the element (Figure 5d).
Units
Since stress represents a force per unit area, in the International Standard or
SI system, the magnitudes of both normal and shear stress are specified in
the basic units of newtons per square meter (𝑁/𝑚2). This combination of units
is called Pascal (1 𝑃𝑎 = 1 𝑁/𝑚2 ), but since a pascal is very small, prefixes are
often used in engineering to represent larger, more realistic values of stress
(e.g., kPa or MPa). In the English System of units, engineers usually express
stress in pounds per square inch (psi) or kilopounds per square inch (ksi),
where 1 kilopound (kip) = 1000 lb.
Average Normal Stress in an Axially Loaded Bar

We will now determine the average stress distribution acting over the cross-
sectional area of an axially loaded bar. Always take note when dealing with
Page 30 of 76
V0 07-15-2020
No.CET.ESC SLG20-14
normal stresses, one must always choose a cross-section that is perpendicular

to the longitudinal axis. When a load 𝑷 is applied to the bar through the centroid
of its cross-sectional area, then the bar will deform uniformly throughout the
central region on its length (Figure 6a). But for the analysis to be a lot easier, it
is safe to assume that the material is homogeneous and isotropic, that is, the
same physical and mechanical properties throughout its volume.
Figure 6. Axially loaded members
Average Normal Stress Distribution
If we pass a section through the bar, and separate it into two parts, then the
equations of equilibrium require that the resultant normal force 𝑵 at the section
to be equal to 𝑷 (Figure 6b). And because the material undergoes a uniform
deformation, it is necessary that the cross-section be subjected to a constant
normal stress distribution.
As a result, each small area Δ𝐴 on the cross-section is subjected to a force

Δ𝑁 = 𝜎Δ𝐴 (Figure 6c), and the sum of these Δ𝑁 acting over the entire cross-
sectional area must be equivalent to the internal resultant force 𝑷 at the section.
If we let Δ𝐴 approach into an infinitesimal area 𝑑𝐴, then Δ𝑁 also approaches
𝑑𝑁, then to calculate the normal stress of the entire area, integration is needed,
Where,
𝜎 - average normal stress at any point on the cross-sectional area
𝑁 - internal resultant normal force, which acts through the centroid of the
cross-sectional area. 𝑵 is determined using the method of sections
and the equations of equilibrium, where for this case 𝑁 = 𝑃.
Page 31 of 76
V0 07-15-2020
No.CET.ESC SLG20-14
𝐴 - cross-sectional area of the bar where 𝜎 is determined
Maximum Average Normal Stress
For our analysis, both the internal force 𝑵 and the cross-sectional area 𝐴 were
constant along the longitudinal axis of the bar, and as a result, the normal stress
𝜎 = 𝑁/𝐴 is also constant throughout the bar’s length. However, in some
moments, the bar may be subjected to several external axial loads, or a change
in its cross-sectional area may occur. As a result, the normal stress within the
bar may be different from one section to the next, and, if the maximum average
normal stress is to be determined, then it becomes important to find the location
where the ratio 𝑁/𝐴 is a maximum. Once the internal loading throughout the
bar is known, the maximum ratio 𝑁/𝐴 can then be identified.
Example
Example 1.4
The bar in Figure 1-4a has a constant width of 35 𝑚𝑚 and a thickness of 10

mm. Determine the maximum average normal stress in the bar when it is
subjected to the loading shown,
Figure 1-4. A beam subjected to axial forces
Solution
Internal Loading
By inspection, the internal axial forces in regions AB, BC, and CD are all
constant yet have different magnitudes. Using the method of sections, these
loadings are shown on the free-body diagrams of the left segments shown in
Figure 1-4b. The normal force diagram, which represents these results
Page 32 of 76
V0 07-15-2020
No.CET.ESC SLG20-14
graphically, is shown in Figure 1-4c. The largest loading is in region BC, where
𝑁𝐵𝐶 = 30 𝑘𝑁. Since the cross-sectional area of the bar is constant, the largest
average normal stress also occurs within this region of the bar.
Average Normal Stress

Applying the normal stress equation,
The stress distribution acting on an arbitrary cross section of the bar within
region BC is shown in Figure 1-4d.
Example 1.5
The cylinder shown in Figure 1-5a is made of steel having a specific weight of
𝛾𝑠𝑡 = 490 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 3 . Determine the average compressive stress acting at points A
and B.
Figure 1-5. A cylinder subjected to compressive forces
Solution
Internal Loadings
A free-body diagram of the top segment of the cylinder is shown in Figure 1-
5b. The weight of this segment is determined from 𝑊𝑠𝑡 = 𝛾𝑠𝑡 𝑉𝑠𝑡 . Thus the
internal axial force N at the section is
Average Compressive Stress

The cross-sectional area at the section is 𝐴 = 𝜋(0.75 𝑓𝑡)2 , and so the average
compressive stress becomes
Page 33 of 76
V0 07-15-2020
No.CET.ESC SLG20-14
The stress shown on the volume element of material in Figure 1-5c is

representative of the conditions at either point A or B. Notice that this stress
acts upward on the bottom or shaded face of the element since this face forms
part of the bottom surface area of the section, and on this surface, the resultant
force N is pushing upward.
Average Shear Stress
Figure 7. A metal bar subjected to shear stress
Shear stress has been defined as the stress component that acts in the plane
of the sectioned area. To show how this stress can develop, consider the effect
of applying a force 𝑭 to the bar shown in Figure 7a. If 𝑭 is large enough, it can
cause the material of the bar to deform and fail along the planes identified by
AB and CD. A free-body diagram of the unsupported center segment of the
bar, Figure 7b, indicates that the shear force 𝑽 = 𝐹/2 must be applied at each
section to hold the segment in equilibrium. The average shear stress
distributed over each sectioned area that develops this shear force is defined
by,
Where,
𝝉𝒂𝒗𝒆 - average shear stress at the section, which is assumed to be the same
at each point on the section
𝑽 - internal resultant shear force on the section determined from the

equations of equilibrium
𝑨 - area of the section
The distribution of average shear stress acting over the sections is shown in
Figure 7c. Notice that 𝝉𝑎𝑣𝑔 is in the same direction as 𝑽, since the shear stress
must create associated forces, all of which contribute to the internal resultant
force 𝑽.
Always take note that using this equation is only an approximation. A more
detailed shear stress distribution will be discussed in the later chapters and it
Page 34 of 76
V0 07-15-2020
No.CET.ESC SLG20-14
will show shear stresses that have much larger values than what is predicted
with this equation. Although this may be the case, the application of this
equation is generally acceptable for many problems involving the design or
analysis of small elements.
Shear Stress Equilibrium
Figure 8. A body subjected to shear stress
Let us consider the block in Figure 8a, which has been sectioned and is
subjected to the internal shear force 𝑽. A volume element (with dimensions Δ𝑥,
Δ𝑦, and Δ𝑧) taken at a point located on its surface will be subjected to a direct
shear stress 𝝉𝑧𝑦 , as shown in Figure 8b. However, force and moment
equilibrium of this element also requires shear stress to be developed on three
other sides of the element. To show this, it is first necessary to draw the free-
body diagram of the element, Figure 8c. Then force equilibrium in the y-
direction requires,
Page 35 of 76
V0 07-15-2020
No.CET.ESC SLG20-14
In a similar manner, force equilibrium in the z direction yields 𝝉𝑦𝑧 = 𝝉′𝑦𝑧 .
When taking the moments about the x-axis, we have,
In other words,
Therefore, all four shear stresses must have equal magnitude and be directed
either toward or away from each other at opposite edges of the element. This
is referred to as the complementary property of shear, and the element, in
this case, is subjected to pure shear.
Example
Example 1.6
Page 36 of 76
V0 07-15-2020
No.CET.ESC SLG20-14
Figure 1-6. Shear stresses exerted in the pins of the beam
Determine the average shear stress in the 20-mm-diameter pin at A and the
30-mm-diameter pin at B that support the beam in Figure 1-6a.
Solution
Internal Loadings
The forces on the pins can be obtained by considering the equilibrium of the
beam, Figure 1-6b.
Thus, the resultant force acting on pin A is
The pin at A is supported by two fixed “leaves”, and so the free-body diagram
of the center segment of the pin shown in Figure 1-6c has two shearing
surfaces between the beam and each leaf. Since the force of the beam
(21.36 𝑘𝑁) acting on the pin is supported by shear force on each of two
surfaces, it is called double shear. Thus,
In Figure 1-6a, note that pin B is subjected to single shear, which occurs on the
section between the cable and beam, Figure 1-6d. For this pin segment,
Example 1.7
If the wood joint in Figure 1-7a has a thickness of 150 mm, determine the
average shear stress along shear planes a–a and b–b of the connected
Page 37 of 76
V0 07-15-2020
No.CET.ESC SLG20-14
member. For each plane, represent the state of stress on an element of the
material.
Figure 1-7. A wood joint subjected to shear stress
Solution
Internal Loadings
Referring to the free-body diagram of the member in Figure 1-7b,
Now consider the equilibrium of segments cut across shear planes a–a and b–
b, shown in Figure 1-7c and 1-7d.
The state of stress on elements located on sections a–a and b–b is shown in
Figures 1-7c and 1-7d, respectively.
Example 1.8
The inclined member in Figure 1-8a is subjected to a compressive force of 600

lb. Determine the average compressive stress along with the smooth areas of
Page 38 of 76
V0 07-15-2020
No.CET.ESC SLG20-14
contact at AB and BC, and the average shear stress along with the horizontal
plane DB.
Figure 1-8. A member subjected to both compressive and shear stress
Solution
Internal Loadings
The free-body diagram of the inclined member is shown in Figure 1-8b. The
compressive forces acting on the areas of contact are
Also, from the free-body diagram of the segment ABD, Figure 1-8c, the shear
force acting on the sectioned horizontal plane DB is
Average Stress
The average compressive stresses along the vertical and horizontal planes of
the inclined member are
Page 39 of 76
V0 07-15-2020
No.CET.ESC SLG20-14
These stress distributions are shown in Figure 1-8d. The average shear stress
acting on the horizontal plane defined by DB is
This stress is shown uniformly distributed over the sectioned area and on an
element of material in Figure 1-8e.
Allowable Stress Design

To ensure the safety of a structural or mechanical member, it is necessary to
restrict the applied load to one that is less than the load the member can fully
support. There are many reasons for doing this.
● The intended measurements of a structure or machine may not be

exact, due to errors in fabrication or in the assembly of its component
parts.
● Unknown vibrations, impact, or accidental loadings can occur that may
not be accounted for in the design.
● Atmospheric corrosion, decay, or weathering tend to cause materials to
deteriorate during service.
● Some materials, such as wood, concrete, or fiber-reinforced
composites, can show high variability in mechanical properties.
One method of specifying the allowable load for a member is to use a number
called the factor of safety (F.S.). It is a ratio of the failure load 𝑭𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙 to the
allowable load 𝑭𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 ,
Here 𝑭𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙 is found from experimental testing of the material.
If the load applied to the member is linearly related to the stress developed
within the member, as in the case of 𝜎 = 𝑁/𝐴 and 𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑉/𝐴, then we can
also express the factor of safety as a ratio of the failure stress 𝜎𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙 (or 𝜏𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙 ) to
the allowable stress 𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 (or 𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 ). Here the area 𝐴 will cancel, and so,
Page 40 of 76
V0 07-15-2020
No.CET.ESC SLG20-14
Example
Example 1.9
The control arm is subjected to the loading shown in Figure 1-9a. Determine to
the nearest 1/4 in. the required diameters of the steel pins at A and C if the
factor of safety for shear is 𝐹. 𝑆. = 1.5 and the failure shear stress is 𝜏𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙 =
12 𝑘𝑠𝑖.
Figure 1-9. A control arm subjected to loadings
Solution
Pin Forces
A free-body diagram of the arm is shown in Figure 1-9b. For equilibrium we
have
The pin at C resists the resultant force at C, which is
Page 41 of 76
V0 07-15-2020
No.CET.ESC SLG20-14
Allowable Shear Stress

We have,
Pin A
This pin is subjected to single shear, Figure 1-9c, so that
Pin C
Since this pin is subjected to double shear, a shear force of 3.041 kip acts over
its cross-sectional area between the arm and each supporting leaf of the pin,
Figure 1-9d. We have
Example 1.10
Figure 1-10. A suspender bar supported at the end of a disk
The suspender rod is supported at its end by a fixed-connected circular disk as

shown in Figure 1-10a. If the rod passes through a 40-mm-diameter hole,
determine the minimum required diameter of the rod and the minimum
thickness of the disk needed to support the 20-kN load. The allowable normal
stress for the rod is 𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 60 𝑀𝑃𝑎, and the allowable shear stress for the
disk is 𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 35 𝑀𝑃𝑎.
Page 42 of 76
V0 07-15-2020
No.CET.ESC SLG20-14
Solution
Diameter of Rod
By inspection, the axial force in the rod is 20 kN. Thus the required cross-
sectional area of the rod is
so that
Thickness of Disk
As shown on the free-body diagram in Figure 1-10b, the material at the
sectioned area of the disk must resist shear stress to prevent movement of the
disk through the hole. If this shear stress is assumed to be uniformly distributed
over the sectioned area, then, since 𝑉 = 20 𝑘𝑁, we have
Assessment
Answer the following questions below on the space provided.
_____________ 1. It is the intensity of a force that is acting in a specific area

of a body.
_____________ 2. An idealization that assumes that a material has the same

physical and mechanical properties throughout its volume.
_____________ 3. A normal force which has the tendency to pull the area on
a cross-section of a body
_____________ 4. The general formula for the average shear stress.
_____________ 5. A property which all four shear stresses on an element must

have equal magnitudes and be directed either towards or
away from each other at the opposite edges of the
element.
Page 43 of 76
V0 07-15-2020
No.CET.ESC SLG20-14

ESci132 Module 1.2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

ESci132 Module 1.2

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

ESci132 Module 1.2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

28 ESci 132 – Mechanics of Deformable Bodies

_____________ 1. Mechanics of deformable bodies focuses on what kinds of

_____________ 2. These forces are caused by direct contact of another body

_____________ 3. Surface forces that were developed at the supports

_____________ 5. Force that acts parallel to a cross-section.

_____________ 6. A reactions that tends to twist a body.

_____________ 7. An force that is only acted upon a point on the body.

Lesson 1.2: Stress

1. Understand the concept of stress; and,

Figure 5. Analysis of the internal forces in the body

Normal Stress. It is the intensity of a force acting normal (perpendicular) to the

Figure 5. Analysis of the internal forces in the body (cont.)

General State of Stress. If the body is further sectioned by planes parallel to

Average Normal Stress in an Axially Loaded Bar

normal stresses, one must always choose a cross-section that is perpendicular

Figure 6. Axially loaded members

Average Normal Stress Distribution

As a result, each small area Δ𝐴 on the cross-section is subjected to a force

𝜎 - average normal stress at any point on the cross-sectional area

𝐴 - cross-sectional area of the bar where 𝜎 is determined

Maximum Average Normal Stress

The bar in Figure 1-4a has a constant width of 35 𝑚𝑚 and a thickness of 10

Figure 1-4. A beam subjected to axial forces

Average Normal Stress

Figure 1-5. A cylinder subjected to compressive forces

Average Compressive Stress

The stress shown on the volume element of material in Figure 1-5c is

Average Shear Stress

Figure 7. A metal bar subjected to shear stress

𝑽 - internal resultant shear force on the section determined from the

𝑨 - area of the section

Shear Stress Equilibrium

Figure 8. A body subjected to shear stress

In a similar manner, force equilibrium in the z direction yields 𝝉𝑦𝑧 = 𝝉′𝑦𝑧 .

When taking the moments about the x-axis, we have,

Figure 1-6. Shear stresses exerted in the pins of the beam

Thus, the resultant force acting on pin A is

Average Shear Stress

Figure 1-7. A wood joint subjected to shear stress

Average Shear Stress

The inclined member in Figure 1-8a is subjected to a compressive force of 600

Figure 1-8. A member subjected to both compressive and shear stress

Allowable Stress Design

● The intended measurements of a structure or machine may not be

Here 𝑭𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙 is found from experimental testing of the material.

Figure 1-9. A control arm subjected to loadings

The pin at C resists the resultant force at C, which is

Allowable Shear Stress

Figure 1-10. A suspender bar supported at the end of a disk

The suspender rod is supported at its end by a fixed-connected circular disk as

_____________ 1. It is the intensity of a force that is acting in a specific area

_____________ 2. An idealization that assumes that a material has the same

_____________ 4. The general formula for the average shear stress.

_____________ 5. A property which all four shear stresses on an element must

You might also like