ADVANCED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

QUESTION AND ANSWERS

Q.1. Discuss the nature of social conflict
ANS: Social conflict or group conflict involves opposing parties exerting social power to achieve
incompatible goals.
1. Social conflict happens when groups disagree and try to control things by using social power.
2. It's like a deliberate fight between groups where each side wants to do what they want, even
if the other side disagrees.
3. The main focus in social conflict is on getting and keeping social power.
4. Having more power helps a group to achieve its goals, making one group stronger and the
other weaker.
5. For example, the Gurjar movement in Rajasthan was stopped by the powerful Meenas who
had a lot of influence in politics, bureaucracy, and the economy.
6. Social conflict also involves some people getting what they want while others don't, creating
unhappiness.
7. Sometimes, strong social movements, like the one led by Mahatma Gandhi for the Harijan
community, are needed to break this cycle of unhappiness and bring about fair treatment.
8. In social conflicts, different people have different interests, leading to a struggle where each
person tries to benefit, sometimes at the expense of others.
9. Social conflicts are not always straightforward fights; they often mix cooperation and
competition, making them complex.

Q2. Elaborate the methods of conflict resolution

ANS: Some methods of conflict resolution are
1. Mutually beneficial goal: Social psychologists use different approaches to solve social
conflicts. One effective method is to create mutually beneficial goals. Such goals
prompt the warring parties to work in close cooperation and help reduce feelings of
group struggle.
2. Compromise: Reaching a compromise between conflicting parties helps reduce
struggle Compromise occurs when neither party gains nor loses anything, leading to
a gradual reduction in conflict.
3. Developing special norms: Conflict between two opposing groups can be lessened by
establishing specific norms. In a game, for instance, the issue of who takes the first
turn can be resolved by deferring to the umpire, eliminating the point of contention
and the cause of conflict. Psychologists suggest that certain social conditions, where
both parties can influence each other, allow for effective intervention through the
development of special norms.This technique has proven successful in various
situations involving different communities, as it helps manage conflicts and struggles
by creating agreed-upon rules.
4. Prosocial behavior: : By prosocial behaviour we mean behavior that creates some kind of
positive social influence among others. Studies reveal that when members of a community
engage in some kind of prosocial behaviour toward members of other community it has
direct impact on their perception and opinion about them and results significantly in the
reduction of feelings of conflict and struggle
5. Use of scientific approaches:
a. Win-Lose Approach:
 i. In this approach, one group uses various methods to ensure their victory
over the opponent.
ii. It assumes that conflict is inevitable, and one party's gain means the other's
loss.
iii. Success can be achieved through socially acceptable means like using
democratic power or, to some extent, by using tactics like threats or unlawful
activities.
iv. The end goal is prioritized over the means employed.
b. Lose-Lose Approach:
i. Named so because neither party in the conflict gains much, and they fail to
achieve their desired outcomes.
ii. Underlying assumptions include settling for something rather than nothing,
avoiding struggle to save resources, and reconciling when groups give up
initial conflict.
iii. This approach results in a quick problem resolution, but individual values
and motives are not considered.
c. Win-Win Approach:
i. Considered ideal for reducing struggle between groups.
ii. Involves both parties cooperating to find a mutually beneficial solution to
the conflict.
iii. Assumes that struggle is a mutual problem that can be solved amicably.
iv. Emphasizes understanding the difficulties of both parties rather than
focusing on achieving victory.
v. Requires skill in human relations for successful application.

Q3. Explain the characteristics, causes and effects of conflict

Ans:
Causes of Conflict According to Freud and some other psychologists, the innate instinct for
aggression in man is the main cause of conflicts. Generally it arises from a clash of interest within
groups and societies and between groups and societies.
The significant causes are:
1. Individual difference – It is true that, we, the human being, are not alike by nature,
attributes, interests, personalities etc. These differences may lead to conflict among the
human being.
2. Cultural differences – The culture of a group differs from the culture of the other group. The
cultural differences among the groups sometimes cause tension and lead to conflict
3. Differences of opinion regarding interest – In fact, the interests of different people or
groups occasionally clash. For example we can say that interests of the employers and
employees vary in many respect which may ultimately leads to conflict among them.
4. Social change – Social changes occur off and on in each and every society. Conflict is an
expression of social disequilibrium. Social change is the cultural log which leads to conflict.

Characteristics of Conflict The characteristics of conflicts are:

1. Although conflict is universal but it’s nature vary from society to society. No society is
characterised exclusively by conflict.
2. Conflict is a conscious action. To achieve the respective goals the members oppose one
another.
3. Conflict leads to social change. It is mainly an expression of disequilibrium.(eg. Voting of
women)
 4. It primarily remains personal activity. Sometimes it acquires greater intensity and involves
many people. At first, it is manifested at the level of a particular group but ultimately it involves
the entire society.
5. Asymmetrical social, political and economic relations coupled with the sense of relative
deprivation as the root cause of social conflict.
6. Sometimes conflict is the life of society and progress emerges from a struggle in which each
individual, class or institution seeks to realise its own idea of good.
7. We the people are organised into groups to seek a common goal, the probability of conflict
increases.
8. All conflicts are not the same.
9. We face conflicts on all levels as we have disagreements with family, friends and co-workers
10. Conflict is an ever-present process in human relations.
11. Unmanaged conflict is a threat to the survival of the group and ultimately tends to make the
group less effective.
12. Conflict can occur within groups (intra-group conflict) and among groups (inter-group conflict)

Effects of Conflict Conflict sometimes creates positive and sometimes creates negative impact. The
effects of conflict are many and manifold. It is varied as well as unpredictable. We can say that the
conflict may have the following effects:
1. Increases tension within or between the groups
2. Disrupt normal activities
3. Weaken group activities
4. Harmful to individuals
5. Help to restructure the group
6. Help to form new groups
7. Gives positive result
8. Improves decision-making process
9. Increase bitterness
10. Increase alienation
11. Become violent
12. Help to gain recognition
13. Increase unity and cohesion
14. Strengthen group boundaries
15. Help to form new group.
Thus, we can say that conflict has both positive and negative effects. It is true that conflict
happens in any set-up and it creates impact on group members.

Q3. Discuss the characteristics of competition

Ans: Characteristics of Competition The characteristics of competition are:
 Competition is impersonal struggle. Park and Burgess defined competition as “interaction
without social contact.” We can say it is inter-individual struggle that is impersonal. It is
usually not directed against any individual or group in particular.
 Competition is universal. There is no society which is devoid of competition. Not only this,
degree of competition may vary from society to society. It is very common for society as well
as culture.
 Competition is considered as conducive to progress. Competition provides the individuals
better opportunities to satisfy their desires for new experiences and recognitions.
 Both associative and non-associative dimensions of social processes indicate competition.
 Competition is mainly an unconscious activity but personal competition or rivalry is a
conscious activity.
  Competition may create emotional disturbances.
 Competition is an innate tendency.
 Competition is a social phenomenon.
 Degree of competition is determined by social values and social structure.

Q4. Nature and types of competition

Ans: Types of Cooperation:
 Direct Cooperation:
o Involves individuals doing together what they can also do separately.
o Examples include playing together or worshiping together.
 Indirect Cooperation:
o Individuals work toward a common end, each with specialized functions.
o More prevalent in modern society due to technological changes requiring specialized
skills.
 Primary Cooperation:
o Reflects an identity of interest between individuals and the group.
o Found in primary groups like families and peer groups where face-to-face relations
are crucial.
 Secondary Cooperation:
o Typically observed in secondary groups such as government, industry, church, and
trade unions.
 Tertiary Cooperation:
o Involves interaction between various groups to address a specific situation.
o Individuals or groups, usually competitors, come together for a particular purpose.
o Characterized by opportunistic attitudes among cooperating parties.

Q5. Describe crowd behaviour. Discuss the theories of crowd behaviour

Ans: Understanding Crowd Behavior - Leader's Insight:
 Loss of Individuality:
o In the crowd, individuality is lost, leading to the development of a group
consciousness.
o There's a fusion of minds, a shared emotional connection among all participants.
o Common features include appeals and slogans that resonate within the crowd.
 Release of Repressed Drives:
o Crowd behavior is seen as the release of repressed drives.
o Suggestibility, exaltation, lack of self-consciousness, egoistic expansion, and
spontaneity are phenomena explained by this perspective.
o The crowd acts as a temporary collectivity providing an outlet for thwarted impulses.
 Connection with Cultural Conditions:
o The crowd's characteristics are closely connected to the cultural conditions of the
community.
o Understanding types of crowds in community life reveals a link between underlying
cultural traits and crowd manifestations.
 Significance of Crowd Feeling:
o The study of crowd feeling is significant as it unveils the importance of this transient
aggregation.
o Insights into crowd behavior also shed light on broader social phenomena.
In summary, crowd behavior is not fully explained by socio-psychological processes or crowd
techniques, but leaders offer valuable insights. The loss of individuality, the release of repressed
drives, the connection with cultural conditions, and the significance of crowd feeling contribute to a
comprehensive understanding of crowd behavior.
THEORIES OF CROWD BEHAVIOUR
Classical theory - Classical Theory, as proposed by Le Bon, suggests that when individuals gather in a
crowd, their minds merge to form a collective way of thinking. The crowd fosters anonymity and can
evoke strong emotions. In this theory, individuals in a group don't think independently; rather, they
operate through a collective mind that generates its own ideas. Le Bon emphasizes the role of
unconscious motives, suggesting that in a crowd, these motives become more active, influencing
individuals and causing their conscious motivations to recede. This can result in uninhibited behavior,
including actions that individuals might not display in their normal state.
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Convergence theory - Convergence Theory explains that crowd behavior isn't caused by the crowd
itself, but by certain people within it. It suggests that crowds form when individuals with similar
intentions come together, rather than engaging in the same activity. The theory clarifies that the
crowd isn't the source of things like racial hatred or violence. Instead, it emerges when people who
disagree with a specific group gather. People in a crowd usually express beliefs they already have,
and the resulting actions of the group are seen as a logical outcome of widespread sentiments.

Group Mind Theory : The Group Mind Theory, supported by scholars like Lebon, Espinas, Trotter,
Durkheim, Mc.Dougall, and Allport, posits that individuals in a crowd lose their individuality and
adopt a collective consciousness. In this state, actions are emotionally driven, and rationality
diminishes. Lebon, the pioneer of this theory, emphasizes unconscious motives, where the
individual's conscious motivation takes a backseat. Espinas sees group mind as social consciousness,
while Trotter believes in the instinct of gregariousness, causing individuals to accept group
commands without argument.

Durkheim explains group behavior through collective consciousness, formed by exchanging ideas in a
group. Mc.Dougall asserts that every group has its own mind, influencing individuals, and Allport
highlights the impact of social facilitation and inter-stimulation on crowd behavior. In a crowd,
individual differences fade, and learned crowd behavior leads to a reduction of inner restraints,
fostering more expressive actions.

Public and crowd: although sharing some commonalities as collectivities of people, exhibit
significant differences. A key distinction is that members of a crowd have physical contact, whereas
the public is dispersed across various locations. Additionally, the public is a larger group than a
crowd, and the stimulus in a crowd is simultaneous, while in the public, it is diffused. The
suggestibility of a crowd is higher compared to the public, highlighting several differences between
the two.

Q6. Discuss the concept and relevance of group dynamics. Explain the role of communication in
group dynamics
Ans
Concept: Group dynamics, as explained by social psychologists, focuses on understanding how
people interact in groups. Key variables include "group cohesiveness" (unity within the group) and
"group locomotion" (movement towards a goal). Personality, social situations, and the interplay of
psychological effects within individuals shape group dynamics. Cartwright and Zander's assumptions
highlight the inevitability of groups, their powerful impact, and the potential for both constructive
and destructive consequences. Group cohesiveness involves unity, influenced by task direction,
personal attraction, and group prestige.
Group dynamics, crucial for social changes, involves understanding how individual behavior changes
influence the entire group. Sympathy, suggestion, and imitation play roles in group dynamics, and
specific techniques like buzz sessions, role playing, brain storming, and recreational experiences can
enhance group processes. Buzz sessions stimulate discussion, role playing addresses problems for
group benefit, brain storming encourages discussion, and recreational experiences offer
opportunities for group participation.

Role of Communication in Group Dynamics Communication involves the transmission of a message

from a sender to a receiver. According to Toseland and Rivas (2001) communication includes:
1. encoding of perception, thoughts and feelings into language and other symbols by a sender;
2. transmission of language and symbols verbally, non-verbally or virtually; and
3. decoding of the message by the receiver.

Face-to-face group members experience both verbal and non-verbal communication, whereas
members of telephone groups experience only verbal communication and members of computer
groups experience only virtual communication. Interaction patterns are also fundamental to group
dynamics.
1. Leader is the central figure, and communication occurs from member to leader and leader to
member.
2. Group members take turns talking . Indication of extension between leader and the member.
3. All members freely communicate.
4. Interaction pattern focuses on the degree of centralisation of communication.(flow of
communication
5. Group-centered interaction pattern is more valued than leader-centered interaction pattern.
6. Indication of full participation among the members.
7. The status and power relationship within the group affect the interaction pattern.
8. Group Dynamics, Interpersonal attraction and the emotional bonds that form between
members influence the interaction pattern
9. Size of the group affect the interaction pattern. In general, there is more chance to
communicate if the group size is small.
10. Selective attention, clues and reinforcement may take important role to change the interaction
patterns
11. If members do not interact with equal valence, there seems to be indication of sub-group
formation.
12. Interpersonal attraction, emotional bonds and interest may create impact on the group
members
13. Physical arrangement in some situation may affect interaction patterns. Thus, we can say the
communication processes and interaction patterns are important factors for group dynamic

Q.7List out the features of interpersonal attraction and cohesion in group dynamics. Mention
about the measurement of group dynamics
ANS: Measurements in group dynamics
Measuring group dynamics is crucial to understanding both the overall behavior of a group and the
individuals within it. Various scales, such as the Group Climate Questionnaire, Group Cohesiveness
Scale, Group Work Engagement Measure, and Group Member Interpersonal Process Scale, help
assess different aspects of group dynamics. Task groups, like committees and teams, go beyond being
collections of individuals, creating synergy that enhances collective efforts. Attention to group
dynamics is essential as it facilitates member participation and satisfaction, ultimately contributing to
the achievement of group goals.
We can say that sub-group formation depends on interpersonal attraction among the group
members and the level of cohesion depends on this. There are some important features that can be
mentioned here
1. Proximity increases interaction among people and ultimately it increases attraction.
2. Similarity tend to make people attract toward each other.
3. The important contributing factors are acceptance and approval
4. Members are attracted to those who engage in group interactions that meet their
expectations.
5. Interpersonal attraction is just one of the building blocks of group cohesion.
6. Compatibility tends to promote interpersonal attraction.
7. Group cohesion is the sum of all the forces that are exerted on members to remain in a
group.
8. Cohesion means satisfaction of group members’ need for affiliation, recognition and security.
9. Participation of the group members increases the prestige and resources.
10. Cohesion reveals the positive relationship among the group members
11. Cohesion can lead to a level of conformity that detracts from the work of the group.

high levels of cohesion have been associated with beneficial group member behaviours. These
include the following:
i) greater perseverance towards group goals;
ii) willingness to take responsibilities for group functioning;
iii) willingness to express feelings;
iv) willingness to listen; and
v) ability to use feedback and evaluations
High levels of group cohesion are generally associated with positive outcomes. We can also say in
this regard that l Great satisfaction with the group experience,
 Higher levels of goal attainment by group members and group members and group as a
whole,
 Great commitment by group members,
 Increased feelings of self-confidence, self-esteem and personal adjustment, amongst
members of the group.

Q.9 Define Group. Elucidate the important features and characteristics of a group
ANS: When two persons or more come together and interact at one place it may be called a group.
The group may be defined in various ways. The term "group" can refer to physical proximity,
classification based on common characteristics, or belonging to an organization with a
structured and cohesive structure. The essential elements include interaction,
interdependence, shared goals, and a sense of belongingness among members. Given below
are a few important definitions of group and each of these definitions emphasises one or the other
important features of the group

IMPORTANT FEATURES OF GROUP

1. One or more individuals come together and influence each other.
2. There are social interactions and relationships amongst the individual members of a group.
3. There exists some common motives, drives, interests, emotions etc. amongst group members
4. There is communication among group members, both verbal and or non-verbal.
5. The group members have some common object of attention and group members stimulate each
other.
6. They have common loyalty and participate in similar activities.
7. There exits feeling of unity in the group. Group members treat each other with respect and
regard and has a sense of comradiere that develops among them.
8. The action of the members is controlled by the group.
9. There are some customs, norms and procedures which are acceptable to everyone but if
exception happens, then the particular member will be ostracised from the group
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GROUP
Suppose you belong to a group where you may observe some special features which you can accept
or not. It may be good or bad, healthy or unhealthy favourable or unfavourable, but there are certain
significant features say the characteristics of the group.
 A sense of we-feeling: There is a feeling of belongingness among the members of the group.
The members of the group help each other in performing their duties. They work collectively
against the harmful powers. They treat people who do not belong to the group as outsiders.
They always try to make the group self-sufficient.
 Common interest: Each and every member of the group has a common interest. There is
similarity among the members in regard to their interest which promotes unity. The group
includes those persons who are related to each other in such a way that they should be
treated as one.
 A feeling of unity: Unity is essential for every group. Each and every member of the group
treats each other as their own and there develops a sense of camaraderie amongst the
members of group.
 Related to each other: It is true that members of the group are inter-related. There is a
reciprocal communication among the group members. Social relations are the fundamentals
of group life.
 Affected by group characteristics: Every group has some social characteristics which separate
it from similar and dissimilar groups. These characteristics affect the members of the group.
The nature may be different for different persons, but still all the members are affected by
the group
 Common values: There are certain values which are common among members and are
traditionally respected and communicated to the succeeding generation. They are
manifested in the mutual behaviours of the members. Members of the social group are
bound together in terms of theses common values.
 Control of group: In each group there are some customs, norms and procedures which are
acceptable to everyone. In fact, without some norms, the existence of group life is
impossible. It may be stated that the reasons behind the similarity of behaviours in a group
life is that the actions of the members are controlled by the group.
 Obligation: In a group situation, all members have complementary obligations to each other.
Also the relationships between the members of a group get strengthened through their
mutual obligation and common social values
 Expectations: Not only mutual obligation, the members of the group also expects love,
compassion, empathy, co-operation etc., from all other members of the group. If mutual
expectation is fulfilled, the group members are maintained in tact. A group can maintain its
existence only if the constituent members fulfill their responsibility by satisfying the desires
among themselves.

Q.10 Discuss the nature, concept and scope of Social Psychology

ANS: Nature and Concept of Social Psychology:
 Introduction to Social Psychology:
o Emerged in the last century due to changing social realities and technological
developments.
o A response to new problems arising from linguistic, anthropological, ethnographic,
and archaeological fields.
  Roots of Social Psychology:
o Developed as a result of the intersection of psychology and sociology.
o Arose during a period of significant global upheaval.
 Understanding Societal Dynamics:
o Societies are shaped by people's activities, communication, and interactions.
o Social psychology aims to comprehend how human behavior is influenced by social
situations and how individuals, in turn, affect these situations.
 Practical Applications:
o Social psychology provides practical recommendations in various areas of life.
o Increasing demand for efficient management in industry, education, health, mass
communication, anti-social behavior, public services, and sports.
 Social Psychology in Relation to Other Disciplines:
 Definition by Floyd Allport (1924):
o Defines social psychology as the scientific study of individual experiences and
behavior concerning others, groups, and culture.
 Definition by Gordon W. Allport (1968):
o Describes social psychology as a discipline attempting to understand how an
individual's thoughts, feelings, and behavior are influenced by the actual, imagined,
or implied presence of others.
 Connection to Other Social Sciences:
o Explores the relationship between social psychology and other social sciences.
o Discusses background, developments, and intersections with disciplines like
sociology
 SCOPE OF PSYCHOLOGY
 Individuals in Social Context:
o Examines how thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of individuals are influenced by the
presence of others.
o Includes social perception, interaction, and various social influences such as trust,
power, and persuasion.
o Questions addressed: Impact of small group dynamics on cognition and emotions;
the reciprocal influence between social groups and individual members.
 Influence of Individuals on Groups:
o Investigates how individual perceptions and behaviors affect group behavior.
o Explores phenomena like persuasion's role in changing group behavior, emotions,
and attitudes.
o Questions considered: Reasons behind conformity, diversity, and deviance;
examination of group productivity and decision-making in the workplace.
 Understanding Groups as Behavioral Entities:
o Explores groups as behavioral entities and their mutual influences.
o Addresses questions about the dynamics between different groups, including
hostility, neutrality, or civility.
o Considers whether groups exhibit different behaviors compared to individuals
outside the group.
 Ideological Level (European Textbooks):
o Studies societal forces influencing the human psyche.
o Explores the broader impact of ideologies on individuals and groups in the context of
social psychology.

Q. 11. Describe the historical development and emergence of Modern Social Psychology
Ans: Historical Origins and Development of Social Psychology:
1. Social Thought Before the Advent of Social Science:
Platonic Thought:
 Emphasized the primacy of the state over the individual.
 Individuals needed education to become truly social.

Aristotelian Thought:
 Stated that humans are social by nature.
 Trust in nature to enable individuals to live together and form relationships leading to
families, tribes, and the state.

Modern Traditions:
 Socio-centered approach: Focus on the determining function of social structures.
 Individual-centered approach: Social systems explained in terms of individual processes and
functions.

Individualism in Psychology:
 Rooted in the concept of individual satisfaction (hedonism and utilitarianism).
 Criticized for self-centered denial of others.

Concept of Power:
 Influenced by Machiavelli and Hobbes.
 Explored in social psychology through field theory and social exchange theory.
 Power studied in areas like aggression, conformity, obedience, and power in language.

Influence of Nineteenth Century Developments:

 Influenced by sociology and the theory of evolution.
 Examined societal forces and evolutionary principles in shaping human behavior.

2. The Second Stage of Development: Social Psychology as a Discipline:

 Key Moments:
o Emerged as a separate discipline by addressing socio-psychological problems.
o Separation of socio-psychological problems within psychology and sociology.
o Formation of the first forms of independent socio-psychological knowledge.

 Mid-19th Century Influences:

o Three significant socio-psychological theories emerged: people's psychology, mass
psychology, and the theory of instincts of social behavior.
o Theories were speculative and abstract, rooted in philosophical and descriptive
traditions.
3.People’s Psychology:
 Origin and Creators:
o Developed in mid-19th century Germany by Moritz Lazarus and Heymann Steinthal.
o Journal founded in 1859: "People’s Psychology and Linguistics."
 Ideas and Criticisms:
o Emphasized the importance of the "spirit of the whole" in history.
o Criticized by Vygotsky, who argued that social psychology should focus on the
mentality of the individual and the collective.
 Wundt’s Contribution:
o Wundt proposed physiological psychology and people's psychology.
 o People’s psychology involved non-experimental methods for studying language,
myths, customs, and art.
 Vygotsky's Views:
o Criticized Wundt, considering aspects like language and customs as "clots of
ideology."
o Advocated for studying the solution itself, not just the objects of study.
o Emphasized cultural-historical determination of mentality in social psychology.

q.12.Discuss the errors in attribution

Ans: Errors in Attribution - Attribution Theory:

The Fundamental Attribution Error:

 Description:
o Involves the tendency to attribute others' behavior to stable trait dispositions while
attributing our own behavior to specific situational influences.
o Pervasive in human judgment, it's fundamental due to its widespread occurrence.
 Example:
o When observing someone acting friendly, we assume they are naturally friendly.
However, the person may see themselves as introverted, attributing their friendliness to
the situation.
 Explanation:
o Perceptual Salience: When observing others, the person is the focus of attention,
making their behavior seem trait-based. In contrast, when assessing our own behavior,
changes in the environment are more noticeable, leading to situational explanations.
o Desire for Effective Interaction: Observers focus on internal dispositions when assessing
others, increasing predictability. On the other hand, understanding and predictability for
oneself involve careful attention to the environment, leading to a focus on situational
factors.
 Applications and Implications:
o Important in understanding human judgment but can negatively impact interpersonal
relations.

Halo Effects: Assuming Consistency within a Person:

 Phenomenon:
o Initial positive traits in a person lead to the inference of other uniformly positive
characteristics. The opposite is also true—spotting a single negative trait may lead to the
assumption of uniformly negative traits.
 Example:
o Perceiving someone as friendly and clearheaded might lead to assuming they are also
helpful and sociable. However, this assumption may not always hold true.
 Implicit Personality Theory:
o Reflects people's notion of traits found together in an individual, contributing to the halo
effect.
 Media Portrayals:
o The halo effect is observed in media portrayals of prominent figures, where a person's
positive or negative traits are assumed to be uniformly consistent.

Q.13 Explain the attribution theory and its applications

ANS: Attribution Theory and its Applicability in Education:
Fundamental Concepts:
 Influence on Academic Motivation:
o Attribution theory, developed by Weiner (1980, 1992), plays a crucial role in
academic motivation.
o Stresses that learners are motivated by the positive outcome of feeling good about
themselves.
 Incorporation of Cognitive and Self-Efficacy Theories:
o Integrates cognitive and self-efficacy theories.
o Emphasizes that learners' current self-perceptions significantly influence how they
interpret the success or failure of their efforts and their future tendencies.

Three Sets of Attribution Characteristics:

 Internal or External Cause:
o Examines whether success or failure is attributed to factors within the individual or
external environmental factors.
 Stable or Unstable Cause:
o Considers whether the cause of success or failure is stable (consistent across
occasions) or unstable (likely to change).
 Controllable or Uncontrollable Cause:
o Analyzes whether the cause is controllable (within individual control) or
uncontrollable (not easily alterable).

Learner's Perception and Positive Self-Image:

 Central Assumption:
o Learners interpret their environment to maintain a positive self-image.
o Attribute successes to internal factors and failures to external factors.

Principle of Attribution Theory in Motivation:

o Learner's perceptions of success or failure determine future effort.
o Four factors influencing motivation: ability, task difficulty, effort, and luck.

Factors Influencing Motivation in Education:

 Analysis of Ability, Task Difficulty, Effort, and Luck:
o Ability: Internal and stable, beyond direct control.
o Task Difficulty: External and stable, largely beyond control.
o Effort: Internal and unstable, controllable by the learner.
o Luck: External and unstable, little control by the learner.
 Learner's Perception and Future Effort:
o A learner's perception influences how attributions impact future effort.
o Attribution of success or failure to internal, controllable factors promotes
persistence.

Practical Guidelines for Teachers:

 Encouraging Positive Attribution:
o Reinforce effort attributions.
o Help students establish a belief in competence, attributing occasional imperfections
or failures to factors like bad luck or insufficient effort.
 Balancing Success and Effort Attribution:
o Attribute academic successes to internal, controllable factors.
o Attribute failures to internal, controllable factors (effort).
 Defining Effort and Internalizing Concepts:
o Define effort as devoting effective learning time, not just trying harder.
o Enable students to believe they can improve their efforts.
 Avoiding Excessive Competition:
o Excessive grading competition impairs learning.
o Evaluate students partly on effort, reinforcing a connection between effort and
success.
 Internal Locus of Control:
o Encourage students to believe their behavior leads to success or failure (internal
locus of control)

Q. 14 Discuss the ways of understanding one’s own behaviour

Ans: Understanding One’s Own Behavior:

Social Comparison:
 Drive for Evaluation:
o According to Festinger (1954), individuals have a basic drive to evaluate opinions and
abilities, leading to a need for social comparison.
o Social comparison involves assessing one's abilities and opinions by comparing them
with those of others.
 Objective vs. Subjective Evaluation:
o Objective evaluation relies on physical evidence, while subjective evaluation, such as
assessing piano-playing skills, lacks objective means.
 Social Reality and Comparison:
o Social reality, derived from how others generally think and feel, becomes crucial in
evaluating one's abilities.
o People tend to compare themselves with similar others for relevant information.

Knowing Our Emotions:

 Influence of Circumstances:
o Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer's (1962) experiment suggests that how we label our
emotional experiences can be influenced by circumstances.
o Emotional identification may be tied to the situations in which emotions are
experienced.

Bem’s Self-Perception Theory:

 Basic Claims:
o Developed by Daryl Bem, self-perception theory posits two fundamental claims.
o Individuals infer their attitudes, beliefs, and internal states from their behavior and the
circumstances.
o When internal cues are weak, individuals, like external observers, rely on external cues
to infer their beliefs and attitudes.
 Influence on Self-Knowledge:
o People come to know themselves by observing their behavior, and this observation is not
necessarily tied to a motivational state like dissonance reduction.
 Contrast with Cognitive Dissonance Theory:
o Differs from cognitive dissonance theory, which assumes the need for consistency and
the reduction of dissonance.
 o Self-perception theory requires only the willingness to infer attitudes and beliefs based
on environmental and dispositional causes for actions.
 Differences and Contributions:
o Self-perception theory and cognitive dissonance theory can coexist, explaining
adjustments in self-knowledge under different conditions.
o Self-perception theory contributes by explaining a wider variety of self-attribution
phenomena.

Conclusion:
 Expanding Self-Knowledge:
o Understanding one's behavior involves social comparison, emotional labeling influenced
by circumstances, and the self-perception theory.
o Each aspect contributes to the complexity of self-awareness and how individuals come to
know themselves.
This summary provides an overview of understanding one's own behavior, incorporating social
comparison, emotional influences, and Bem's self-perception theory. The exploration delves into the
intricate processes involved in self-awareness and knowledge development.

Q.15 Define and describe Ethnography. Elucidate the methods and evaluation of the same/
Discuss the characteristics and steps in ethnographic method
ANS: Ethnography: Understanding Cultures

 Definition: Ethnography is the written description of a culture, focusing on customs, beliefs, and behaviors,
gathered through fieldwork.
 Qualitative Research Method:
 Originating from anthropology and sociology.
 Now a model for social psychology research.
 Approach:
 Discovery-Based: Emphasizes understanding activities and perspectives of actors.
 Multimethod: Combines participant observation, interviewing, and action research.
 Characteristics of Ethnography:
 Gathers data from various sources (interviews, observations).
 Studies behavior in everyday contexts, not just experimental conditions.
 Unstructured approach in the early stages to allow gradual issue emergence.
 In-depth study of one or two situations.
 Steps in Ethnographic Method:
1. Selection of culture, literature review, and variable identification.
2. Gaining entrance and cultural immersion.
3. Gaining informants, chaining process, and collecting data.
4. Data analysis and theory development, often induced from cultural immersion.
 Other Methods of Ethnography:
 Macro-Ethnography: Studies broadly-defined cultural groups.
 Micro-Ethnography: Studies narrowly-defined cultural groups.
 Emic Perspective: Focuses on how culture members perceive their world.
 Etic Perspective: Examines how outsiders perceive a culture.
 Cultural Patterning: Observes relationships between cultural symbols.
 Meta-Analysis:
 A statistical technique for synthesizing research findings systematically.
 Pools information from multiple studies to estimate overall findings.
 Assesses consistency across studies and identifies influential factors.
 Evaluation:
 Reliability of information crucial, ensuring validity, stability, and precision.
  Balance between logic and content theory in data interpretation.
 Acknowledges the inevitability of value judgments in social psychology research.
 Emphasizes the need for a defined research outline, clear goals, and thoughtful premises.

Q16. Discuss the methods of analysis in social psychology

ANS: Methods of Data Collection and Analysis in Social Psychology

In social psychology, various methods are employed for data collection and analysis. Here, we focus on key
methods:

1. Observational Method:
 Definition: Observing phenomena in their natural setting.
 Stages:
 Describing Behavior: Identifying and classifying behaviors.
 From Description to Causes: Exploring likely causes of observed behaviors.
 Types:
 Participant Observation: Researchers actively participate in the group being studied.
 Non-Participant Observation: Observers record behavior without active
participation.
 Formal Observation: Uses predetermined category systems for scoring behaviors.
2. Correlation Method:
 Definition: Examines relationships between variables.
 Correlation Coefficient: Ranges from +1.00 to -1.00, indicating the strength and direction of
the relationship.
 Interpretation: Correlation does not imply causation. Other factors may influence the
observed relationship.
3. Experimental Method:
 Definition: Systematically manipulating variables to observe their effects.
 Features: Involves independent and dependent variables, random assignment, and control
groups.
 Causation: Provides a basis for inferring causal relationships.
4. Ethnography:
 Definition: Describing a group or culture through immersive fieldwork.
 Approach: Discovery-based, involving participant observation, interviews, and action
research.
 Characteristics: Multimethod, emphasizing in-depth study of specific situations.

Methods of Analysis in Social Psychology:

1. Statistical Methods:
 Correlational Analysis: Examines relationships between variables.
 Factor Analysis: Identifies underlying factors influencing observed variables.
2. Logical and Theoretical Methods:
 Constructs of Typology: Creating categories based on shared characteristics.
 Various Means of Explanations: Developing theories to explain observed phenomena.

These methods collectively contribute to the richness of social psychology research, offering diverse
approaches to understanding human behavior and interaction. Each method has its strengths and limitations,
and researchers often employ a combination of approaches for a comprehensive analysis.

Q.16Discuss the applications of social psychology in population, health, environment and industry.
ANS: Social psychology has evolved to cover diverse life aspects like population, health, environment,
and legal systems. It applies a multicultural perspective to understand behavior within various
cultural and social contexts. Dissonance and attribution theories sparked extensive experimental
research, addressing criticisms of a narrow focus. Modern social psychology has diversified its
methods, emphasizing real-world applications and relevance to everyday life. The cognitive approach
is regaining significance, and new trends like socio-biology broaden theoretical tools. Applied social
psychology addresses practical issues using research principles in real-world setting

POPULATION PSYCHOLOGY

Population Psychology: Understanding Population Growth

 Focus of Population Psychology:
o Concentrates on the impact of the rapid increase in the human population.
o Addresses efforts to control population growth.
 The Persian Chessboard Analogy:
o Legend of the Persian Chessboard explains exponential growth.
o Vizier requested grains of wheat doubling on each square, leading to astonishing growth.
 Exponential Increase:
o Population grows geometrically each year, surprising due to our usual arithmetic
thinking.
o Exponential growth accumulates significantly over time.
 Geometric vs. Arithmetic Growth:
o Our thinking is often in arithmetic terms, not adapted to percentage increments.
o Continued population growth can be seen as an incentive but requires attitudinal
change.
 Role of Social Psychology:
o Social psychology plays a crucial role in changing attitudes and increasing sensitivity.
o Emphasizes the need for quality sex education, addressing situational constraints, and
accommodating individual differences.

HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY
Health Psychology: Understanding Psychological Processes in Health
 Definition and Scope:
o Specialty studying psychological factors in physical illness development, prevention,
and treatment.
o Challenges in preventing disorders include reluctance to acknowledge necessary
lifestyle changes.
 Relevance and Self-interest in Informational Messages:
o Study shows personal relevance affects belief in health threats.
o Women who drank coffee were less likely to believe threats related to caffeine and
breast disorders.
 Stress and Illness Connection:
o Psychologists explore stress, illness, coping, and reducing stress effects.
o Stressors include occupational and family threats, impacting health-related
behaviors.
o Direct link found between psychological responses, stress, and the immune system
(psychoneuro-immunology).
 Learned Hopefulness and Personality Variables:
o 'Learned hopefulness' associated with problem-solving skills and a sense of control.
o Neurotic individuals more negatively impacted by stress, prone to illness.
 o Personality traits like pessimism, optimism, and Type A behavior pattern influence
health outcomes.
 Social Support and Health:
o Importance of social support (physical and psychological) in health.
o Close interactions with family and friends contribute to illness prevention and faster
recovery.
o Social support aids in coping with critical choices during illness, emphasizing the role
of perceptions and attitudes.

ENVIORNMENT PSYCHOLOGY
Environmental Psychology: Understanding the Interaction Between Humans and the Physical
World
 Definition and Scope:
o Focuses on the interplay between the physical environment and human behavior.
o Examines factors like environmental stress, noise, temperature, air pollution, and
atmospheric electricity.
 Environmental Factors Affecting Behavior:
o Studies how environmental conditions influence human behavior.
o Negative impacts of human actions on the environment, such as global warming and
increasing waste problems.
 Pro-environmental Behavior Studies:
o Research explores ways to discourage littering.
o Strategies include the use of prompts, rewards, and legal measures to promote pro-
environmental behavior.

Q17. Discuss the experimental and quasi- experimental methods in social psychology research.
Elucidate the threats to validity in experimental research
ANS: Experimental Method in Social Psychology: Testing Cause and Effect Relationships
 Dominant Research Method:
o Experimentation is the primary research method in social psychology.
o Particularly effective for testing theories predicting causal relationships between
variables.
 Goal of Experiment:
o Aims to observe the impact on a phenomenon when certain features are
intentionally modified in the environment.
o Tests hypotheses about cause and effect relationships.
 Key Concepts in Experimental Research:
o Experiment: Well-controlled test of cause and effect hypotheses.
o Hypothesis: Statement about cause and effect that is testable.
o Variable: Measurable factor with different values.
o Independent Variable: Controlled by the experimenter, representing the
hypothesized cause.
o Dependent Variable: Represents the hypothesized effect, dependent on the
independent variable.
 Experimental Groups and Control Groups:
o Experimental Group: Involves the presence of the hypothesized cause.
o Control Group: Involves the presence of the hypothesized effect.
 Key Methods and Techniques:
 o Random Assignment: Ensures equal chances of participants being assigned to
experimental or control groups.
o Statistics: Mathematical techniques for drawing generalizations from data.
 Types of Experiments:
o Laboratory Experiment: Common in social psychology, focuses on controlled settings.
o Quasi-experiments and True Randomized Experiments: Vary in the degree of control
and realism in the data collection setting.
QUASI EXPERIMENT DESIGN
Quasi-Experimental Method in Social Psychology
 Definition:
o Conducted in natural, everyday life settings.
o Researcher has less than complete control over the setting.
o Higher realism but lower control compared to true experiments.
 Comparison with True Experiments:
o Representativeness of Data:
 Experiments: Low.
 Quasi-experiments: Low.
o Realism of Setting:
 Experiments: Low.
 Quasi-experiments: High.
 Control over Setting:
 Experiments: High.
 Quasi-experiments: Medium.
 Example - Impact of Violent Media on Behavior:
o True Experiment: Liebert and Baron (1972) randomly assigned children to view
violent or non-violent material, observing subsequent behavior.
o Quasi-Experiment: Black and Bevan (1992) assessed aggression tendency under
different conditions (waiting for violent/non-violent movie, having just seen
violent/non-violent movie).
 Strengths and Drawbacks:
o Experiment (True):
 Strength: Causal inferences about observed relationships.
 Drawback: Artificial setting.
o Quasi-Experiment:
 Strength: Conducted under natural conditions.
 Drawback: Inferior in drawing causal conclusions.
 Use Cases:
o Often the only feasible way to study social phenomena under ethical and practical
constraints.
o Examples include research on social interventions, teaching methods, healthcare
treatments, public information campaigns, and management techniques.
o Note: Quasi-experiments are employed when random assignment is impractical,
allowing for more natural study conditions despite limitations in causal inference.
THREATS
Threats to Validity in Experimental Research
 Validity Overview:
o Definition: Extent to which a method measures what it's supposed to.
o Types of Validity:
 Internal Validity
 Construct Validity
  External Validity
o Threats to Validity:
 Confounding:
 Definition: Failure to separate variables, making independent
assessment difficult.
 Example: Memory-age experiment with age and gender confounded.
 Social Desirability:
 Definition: Participants reluctant to provide honest reports due to a
desire to appear positively.
 Demand Characteristics:
 Definition: Cues in the experimental setting conveying the
experimenter's hypothesis.
 Example: Participants altering behavior to meet expected responses.
 Experimenter Expectancy Effect:
 Definition: Experimenter's expectation influencing participant
behavior to confirm the hypothesis.
 Minimizing Effects:
o Post-Experimental Enquiry:
 Technique: Interviewing participants post-experiment to understand their
beliefs about the experiment's aim.
o Unobtrusive Measures:
 Technique: Using measures participants are unaware of, reducing the impact
on behavior.
o Cover Story:
 Technique: Providing a false but plausible explanation of the experiment's
purpose to limit demand characteristics.
o Blinding:
 Strategy: Keeping the experimenter blind to the hypothesis or participant
conditions to minimize expectancy effects.
 Additional Strategies:
o Minimizing interaction between experimenter and participants.
o Automating the experiment to reduce communication of experimenter expectancies.
 Note: Employing these strategies helps enhance the validity of experimental research by
addressing threats that may compromise the accuracy and reliability of results.

Q18. Explain the nature and types of aggression. Describe the different ways of measuring
aggression.
ANS: Nature and Types of Aggression
 Forms of Aggression:
o Physical violence, verbal abuse, verbal assault, property damage, social snubs.
o Accidental harm is not aggressive; harm must be intentional.
o Harm in sexual masochism is not aggressive, as it's consensual.
 Developmental Aspects:
o Aggression in early childhood is part of normal development.
o Changes in aggressive acts throughout life.
o Aggressive behaviors evolve from physical actions to more complex forms.
 Types of Aggression:
 oPhysical aggression, psychological aggression, relational aggression.
oAggression is a component of mental health disorders like conduct disorder and
ADHD.
 Theoretical Perspectives on Aggression:
o Distinct subtypes of aggression exist.
o Different stimuli and processes lead to various forms of aggression.
 Clinical Classification:
o Affective/reactive (hot-blooded) aggression.
o Predatory/instrumental (cold-blooded) aggression.
 Instrumental vs. Hostile Aggression:
o Instrumental: Seeks positive reward or advantage.
o Hostile: Aims to cause injury or pain to the victim.
 Proactive and Reactive Aggression:
o Reactive: Response to provocation, self-defensive or angry actions.
o Proactive: Initiated without apparent provocation, driven by motives other than
anger.
 Positive vs. Negative Aggression:
o Positive: Seen as healthy, productive, promoting survival, protection, happiness.
o Negative: Results in personal injury or destruction, harming others.
 Developmental Functions of Aggression:
o Positive aggression aids autonomy, identity, and engagement with peers.
o Negative aggression is considered unhealthy, inducing damaging emotions.
 Note: Aggression is diverse, encompassing various forms and developmental stages.
Understanding its types helps in addressing and managing aggressive behaviors.
MEASURMENT OF AGGRESSION
 Rating Scales:
o Completed by mothers or schoolteachers.
o Example: Child Behaviour Checklist (Achenbach, 1994).
 Self-Report Measures:
o Individual fills out a questionnaire.
o Example: Buss-Durkee Hostility Inventory (Buss & Durkee, 1957).
 Observer-Based Measures:
o Overt Aggression Scale (Yudofsky, 1986) by nurse raters.
o Classifies different types of ward behavior in psychiatric patients.
 Subtype Scale:
o Reactive-Proactive Aggression Questionnaire assesses proactive and reactive
aggression reliably and validly.
 Justice System Measures:
o Official files from police, court, and correctional agencies.
o Self-report measures like Self-Reported Delinquency.
o Psychopathy Checklist Revised (PCL-R) assesses psychopathic traits (Hare, 1991).
 Clinical Projective Tests:
o Thematic Apperception Test (Murray, 1957; Wodrich & Thull, 1997).

Note: Aggression is measured using various tools, including rating scales, self-reports,
observer-based methods, subtype scales, and measures within the justice system. Clinical
projective tests also contribute to assessing aggression.

Q.19 Discuss the factors affecting attitude formation. Explain the types of attitude change.
ANS: Factors of Attitude Formation
 Need Satisfaction:
o Favourable attitudes develop toward things that help satisfy needs.
o Negative attitudes toward hindrances in goal attainment.
 Social Learning:
o Influenced by classical conditioning, instrumental conditioning, and observational
learning.
o Attitudes developed through repeated pairings, rewards, and modeling.
 Group Affiliations:
o Primary groups (family, peer group) influence attitudes through close interactions.
o Attitudinal homogeneity arises due to pressure for conformity, liking, information
sharing, and acceptance.
 Cultural Factors:
o Cultural traditions, norms, values, and religion impact socialization.
o Different cultures lead to diverse attitudes.
 Personality Factor:
o Personality traits influence the formation and development of attitudes.
o Attitudes in consonance with personality traits are acquired more easily.
 Stereotypes:
o Simple generalized expectations about people of other groups.
o Influence attitudes based on societal stereotypes.
 Given Information:
o Modern means of communication (radio, television) shape opinions and attitudes.
o The impact of information varies.
 Reference Group:
o A group an individual aspires to be like.
o Influences attitudes through adoption of similar values, norms, and goals.
 Personality Traits:
o Highly organized attitudinal systems align with personality traits.
o Low IQ and literacy levels associated with conservative, suspicious, and hostile
attitudes.
 Classical Conditioning:
o Neutral stimuli associated with positive or negative adjectives shape attitudes.
o Example: Pairing nation words with positive or negative words influences attitudes.
 Instrumental Conditioning:
o Attitudes maintained by parents are rewarding for children.
o Children learn that holding attitudes similar to parents is instrumental in getting
desired results.
 Observational Learning:
o Behaviors learned by watching activities of others.
o Children follow behaviors of parents and significant others in family and society
without questioning.
Note: Attitude formation is influenced by various factors, including social learning, group
affiliations, cultural factors, personality traits, stereotypes, given information, and reference
groups.

ATITUDE CHANGE
Attitudes are relatively permanent but subject to change, and psychologists identify two types of
attitude change: congruent and incongruent.
 Congruent Change:
 o Attitude becomes more favorable after an incident.
 Incongruent Change:
o Attitude change is unfavorable, opposite to the already held attitude.

Factors Influencing Attitude Change:

 Changing Reference Group:
o Change in the reference group leads to a change in attitude.
 Changing Group Affiliations:
o Change in attitudes depends on the characteristics of the new group and the
individual's position in it.
 Additional Information:
o Change in attitude can result from information received through various means, such
as radio, television, and interactions.
 Persuasive Communication:
o Depends on the source's credibility, attractiveness, content, and characteristics of
the audience.
 Credibility of Communicator: Trustworthy and expert communicators are more effective.
 Attractiveness of Communicator: Physical beauty and similarity increase effectiveness.
 Content and Characteristic of Communication: Fear-arousing appeal and organization affect
attitude change.
o Fear arousal combined with alternatives is effective.
o Organization of communication includes one-sided vs. two-sided, primacy vs.
recency effect, and channel of communication.
 Enforced Contact:
o Social situations where opposing parties are compelled to interact.
o Allows people to understand each other better through repeated exposure.
 Characteristics of the Audience:
o People with high self-esteem, self-confidence, and aggression are less likely to be
affected.
o Age can bring about rigidity and conservatism in thinking, making older individuals
less susceptible.
 Inoculating Effect:
o Two-sided communication can create an inoculating effect, making individuals more
resistant to counter propaganda.
 Discussion vs. Lecture:
o Attitude change is more successful through discussion than lecture methods.
 Changing Group Affiliations:
o Change in attitudes is influenced by the attractiveness of the new group's norms,
values, and beliefs.
 Changing Reference Group:
o A shift in reference group may lead to a corresponding change in attitudes.
o Attitude change is a complex process influenced by various factors related to the
individual, communication, and social context.

Q20 Describe the concept of prosocial behaviour. Explain the factors affecting helping behaviour
ANS: Pro-Social Behavior: Definition and Description
 Definition by Staub (1979):
o Pro-social behavior is defined by Staub as voluntary behavior intended to benefit
another person.
 o Emphasizes spontaneity and initiative, distinguishing it from professional help.
 Definition by Aronson, Wilson, & Akert (2004):
o Pro-social behavior is defined as any act performed with the goal of benefiting
another person.
 Behavioral Aspects:
o Pro-social behavior encompasses various actions, including helping, sharing, giving,
and comforting (Bierhoff, 2002).
 Distinguishing Factors:
o Researchers aim to differentiate pro-social behaviors based on motivations,
consequences, and meanings.
o Subsets of pro-social behavior include altruism versus self-interest, sustained helping
behaviors versus one-time events, and the interplay of personality variables with
situational contexts.
 Interdisciplinary Nature:
o Pro-social behavior is not confined to a single discipline; psychologists, philosophers,
economists, sociobiologists, and others contribute varied and sometimes conflicting
perspectives.
o The broadness of the term "pro-social" may lead to conceptual challenges and
varying interpretations.
 Voluntariness and Intent:
o Pro-social behaviors are voluntary actions made with the intention of benefiting
others (Eisenberg & Fabes, 1998).
o Emphasis on the potential benefits to the person performing the pro-social behavior.
 Examples of Pro-Social Behaviors:
o Volunteering, sharing toys or food with friends, providing instrumental help (e.g.,
assisting a peer with school assignments), engaging in costly help (e.g., risking one's
life to save others), and emotionally supporting others in distress (e.g., comforting a
peer after a disappointing experience or caring for a person who is ill).
o The diverse perspectives on pro-social behavior highlight the complexity of this
topic, involving psychological, philosophical, economic, and sociobiological
considerations.

Q.21 Discuss the various manifestations of prejudice. Describe the methods of reducing prejudice
and discrimination
ANS: Manifestation of Prejudice: Behavioral Modes

Prejudice, defined as a negative attitude directed towards a particular group, manifests itself through
various modes of behavior. These manifestations include:

Withdrawal:
 Description: Involves moving away from the object of prejudice.
 Example: A person prejudiced against Jews attends a party, discovers Jewish attendees, and
decides to leave the party instead of asking them to leave.

Avoidance:
 Description: Involves keeping away from social situations where the object of prejudice may
be present.
 Example: A person prejudiced against Jews, upon learning that some attendees at a party are
Jewish, decides not to join the party, avoiding interaction with the object of prejudice.

Discrimination:
  Description: Involves biased behavior against the object of prejudice.
 Example: A prejudiced teacher discriminates against students of a particular community by
failing them, overlooking their merits, and not selecting them for school teams based on
biased criteria.

Lynching:
 Description: Involves behavior aimed at causing physical harm or injury to the object of
prejudice.
 Example: A prejudiced teacher subjects students of a particular community to physical
punishment without reasonable grounds, expressing bias through harmful actions.

Extermination:
 Description: An extreme form of prejudice manifestation aimed at eliminating the existence
of the object of prejudice.
 Example: During the Second World War, Hitler ordered mass extermination of Jews, seeking
to cleanse Germany of what he perceived as non-Aryan individuals. This extreme act resulted
in the massacre of millions of Jews.

These modes of behavior illustrate the progression from subtle forms of prejudice, such as
withdrawal and avoidance, to more overt and harmful actions like discrimination, lynching, and, in
extreme cases, extermination. Understanding these manifestations is crucial for addressing and
combating prejudice at various levels of society.

Methods of Reducing Prejudice and Discrimination

Social psychologists have proposed various methods to reduce prejudice and discrimination. Some of
these methods include:

Intergroup Contact:
 Description: Involves interactions between prejudiced individuals and the target group to
foster understanding and reduce misconceptions.
 Conditions for Effectiveness:
o Equal status between the parties.
o Intimate and honest contact, not superficial.
o Common goals that necessitate understanding.
Education:
 Description: Emphasizes the role of both informal and formal education in reducing
prejudice.
 Informal Education: Encouraging parents to avoid promoting prejudiced views.
 Formal Education: Developing curricula that promote harmony and liberalism.
 Cultural Assimilator: A method explaining traditions, norms, and values of different
communities to reduce prejudice.

Antiprejudice Propaganda:
 Description: Utilizes mass media, such as films and documentaries, to reduce prejudice.
 Effectiveness: Some studies indicate a reduction in prejudice of up to 60%, with antiprejudice
propaganda sometimes surpassing the impact of formal education.

Incongruent Role:
 Description: Involves assigning individuals roles that contradict their prejudice, creating
cognitive dissonance.
  Mechanism: Playing incongruent roles generates tension, compelling individuals to change
their prejudice to restore balance.

Social Legislation:
 Description: Governments enact laws prohibiting the expression of prejudice in any form,
making public manifestations of prejudice unlawful and subject to punishment.
 Example: Constitutional provisions in many countries, like non-discrimination based on caste,
creed, sex, or religion.

Personality Change Techniques:

 Description: In cases where prejudice is deeply ingrained in one's personality, therapeutic
treatments, including psychotherapies, are employed.
 Example: Play therapy for children to detect and address prejudice at an early stage.

These methods target prejudice and discrimination at different levels, ranging from interpersonal
interactions and education to legal frameworks and therapeutic interventions, highlighting the
multifaceted approach required for effective change.

Q.22. Describe the meaning and characteristics of stereotypes. Discuss their development and
maintenance Differentiate it from prejudice.
ANS: Characteristics of Stereotypes:
A stereotype is a cluster of beliefs lacking a rational basis about the members of a particular group.

Several characteristics define stereotypes:

 Belief System:
o Stereotype is a set of beliefs used to categorize people.
o The categorization is often exaggerated and lacks truth.
o It serves as the basis for gross generalizations about people.
 Identification Based on Traits:
o Physical, social, and cultural characteristics are ascertained to identify people of a
specific group.
o There is a general consensus about the prevalence of a particular trait among people
in that category.
o It assumes that an individual will exhibit all traits of that category simply because
they belong to that group.

Characteristics of Stereotypes:
 Widely Accepted Beliefs:
o Stereotypes are widely agreed-upon beliefs about people of a particular category or
community.
 Exaggerated Generalizations:
o Stereotypes involve gross and exaggerated generalizations.
o They develop from experiences with individuals of another community and are then
extended to apply to all members of that community.
 Resistance to Change:
o Stereotypes usually resist change despite evidence to the contrary.
o Encounter with an individual who contradicts the stereotype often does not alter the
overall stereotype.
 Positive or Negative Direction:
o Stereotypes can be either positive or negative.
 o Example: Japanese being industrious is a positive stereotype, while Bengalees being
timid is a negative one.

Development and Maintenance of Stereotypes:

 Inadequate Experience and Information:
o Inadequate and improper experiences with people of another group can lead to the
formation of stereotypes.
 Socialization:
o The process of socialization, especially influenced by parents, plays a role in
stereotype formation.
o Parents may encourage their children to develop stereotypes to better prepare them
to deal with people of other communities.
 Imitation:
o People imitate beliefs, opinions, and attitudes held by others without critically
assessing their desirability and logical validity.
o Stereotypes can be adopted through imitation, particularly within one's own cultural
or communal context.
 Traditions and Folkways:
o Traditions and folkways prevalent in a culture contribute to the development of
stereotypes.
o Behaving according to societal traditions brings prestige and social reputation.
 Social and Cultural Distance:
o Social and cultural distance prevents individuals from gaining accurate knowledge
about people of other communities.
o Lack of correct knowledge and information creates a breeding ground for the
development and maintenance of stereotypes.

Difference between Stereotype and Prejudice:

 Treatment of Individuals:
o Stereotype: In stereotypes, all members of a community are treated alike, assuming
they have the same characteristics.
o Prejudice: Prejudice can take any direction, being either positive or negative.
 Nature of Concept:
o Stereotype: Stereotype is primarily a cognitive concept, involving cognitions and
expectations from a person solely based on their membership in a particular group
or community.
o Prejudice: Prejudice is a type of attitude encompassing all three components:
affective (emotional), cognitive (thoughts and beliefs), and behavioral (actions).
 Components:
o Stereotype: Focuses on cognitive aspects and expectations related to a group.
o Prejudice: Involves affective, cognitive, and behavioral components, reflecting
feelings, thoughts, and actions toward a particular group.
 Stability:
o Stereotype: Stereotypes are comparatively more stable than prejudices. They are
persistent and resistant to change.
o Prejudice: Prejudices may be more subject to change over time, especially through
interventions, education, and increased exposure to diverse experiences.
While stereotypes and prejudice are closely related concepts, the distinction lies in the treatment of
individuals, the nature of the concept, the components involved, and the stability of the beliefs
associated with each.

Q.23 Discuss the development and maintenance of prejudice

ANS: Development and Maintenance of Prejudice and Discrimination:
Psychologists have identified various factors contributing to the development and maintenance of
prejudice and discrimination:

Status and Power Structures:

 The relative status and power structures between two groups can lead to the development
of prejudice. For example, a dominant group may hold prejudiced beliefs about a
subordinate group based on their controlled behavior.

Historical Facts:
 Prejudice often emerges from historical incidents, economic conflicts, and power distribution
among groups. For instance, prejudice against women has historical roots in gender-based
atrocities, shaping societal attitudes.

Situational Factors:
 Factors in the immediate environment, such as social learning, job competition, and
conformity to norms, contribute to the development of prejudice. Socialization agents like
parents, schools, and religion transmit prejudices to individuals during the socialization
process.

Conformity to Norms:
 Prejudice becomes normative within a group, with members expecting each other to hold
such attitudes. Conformity to prejudiced norms may be reinforced by varying reward-cost
outcomes, fostering group cohesion.

Interaction Patterns:
 Interaction patterns within groups contribute to the maintenance of prejudice. Cohesion
increases when members depend on the group, and patterns unique to each group are
fostered when interaction predominantly occurs within the group.

Psychodynamic Factors:
 Psychological factors, such as frustration and aggression, play a role in prejudice. Frustration
can lead to aggression, often displaced onto a weaker object or group. The authoritarian
personality, characterized by rigid thinking and punitive tendencies, is linked to prejudice.

Personality Needs:
 Personality needs, including intolerance for ambiguity, a need for achievement of superior
status, and a need for security, may support prejudice. Intolerance for ambiguity may drive
individuals to seek clarity through prejudiced beliefs, while the need for security may be
satisfied by rejecting outgroups.

Understanding these factors provides insight into the complex processes that contribute to the
development and perpetuation of prejudice and discrimination in societies.
Q.24 Define and describe pro-social and altruistic behaviours. Discuss the 5-step response in
emergency situations
ANS: Pro-social Behavior and Altruism:

Pro-social Behavior:
 Definition: Voluntary behavior intended to benefit another person.
 Examples: Helping, sharing, giving, comforting.
 Characteristic: May include actions like volunteering, sharing resources, providing
instrumental help, offering emotional support.
 Focus: Emphasizes actions made with the goal of benefiting another person.
 Scope: Broad concept covering various behaviors aimed at helping others.
 Perspective: Can involve benefits to both the performer and the recipient.

Altruism:
 Definition: Any form of voluntary act intended to favor another without expectation of
reward.
 Origin: Coined by Auguste Comte, indicating innate drives toward sympathetic behavior.
 Motivation: Specific motivation to benefit another without consciously considering one's
own self-interest.
 Nature: Selfless help based on a pure desire to assist others.
 Relationship with Pro-social Behavior: Altruism is a specific form of selfless help, not
synonymous with pro-social behavior.
 Element of Self-interest: Altruism lacks the element of self-interest, distinguishing it from
pro-social behavior.
 Example: Donating money to a relief fund may not always be altruistic if motivated by factors
like tax exemption.

Comparison:
 Motivation: Pro-social behavior may involve various motivations, including benefits to the
self. Altruism, in contrast, is motivated purely by the desire to help others, without
consideration for self-interest.
 Scope: Pro-social behavior encompasses a wide range of actions aimed at benefiting others,
while altruism specifically focuses on acts devoid of self-interest.
 Examples: Pro-social behavior includes both selfless and potentially self-benefiting actions,
such as volunteering or donating money. Altruism, as a subset, involves actions that solely
aim to favor others without any expectation of reward.

In summary, while pro-social behavior covers a broad spectrum of actions intended to benefit others,
altruism represents a specific subset characterized by selfless motivation and the absence of self-
interest.

Pro-social Behavior in Emergency Situations:

In emergency situations, pro-social behavior involves a series of steps that individuals go through
before deciding to help. The five-step response, as outlined by Darley and Latane (1969), includes the
following:
1. Noticing the Emergency:
 Requirement: Individuals must first notice that an emergency has occurred.
 Influencing Factors: Distractions or being in a hurry may affect one's ability to notice
someone in trouble.
  Example: Seminary students in a hurry were less likely to help an injured person than
those who were not in a hurry.
2. Interpreting an Emergency as an Emergency:
 Determinant: Bystanders need to interpret the event as an emergency.
 Pluralistic Ignorance: In the presence of other bystanders, individuals may misinterpret
an emergency as something innocuous due to informational influence.
 Example: People may assume there's no danger if they see others with blank expressions
in response to an emergency.
3. Assuming Responsibility to Help:
 Responsibility Diffusion: The bystander's sense of responsibility decreases as the number
of witnesses increases.
 Phenomenon: Each bystander may assume that someone else will help, leading to a
diffusion of responsibility.
 Example: The Kitty Genovese murder case, where multiple witnesses failed to intervene.

4. Knowing What to Do:

 Requirement: Even if individuals notice and interpret the emergency, they must know
what form of assistance to provide.
 Significance: Lack of knowledge about how to help can hinder one's ability to assist.
 Example: Knowing first aid techniques in a medical emergency.

5. Making the Decision to Help:

 Final Step: After knowing how to help, individuals must decide to intervene.
 Factors: Personal factors, such as feeling unqualified or fearing personal costs, can
influence the decision.
 Example: In an Internet chat room situation, addressing a specific person by name
increased the likelihood of quick help, regardless of group size.
In summary, pro-social behavior in emergency situations involves a series of cognitive and behavioral
steps, including noticing the emergency, interpreting it as such, assuming responsibility, knowing
what to do, and finally making the decision to help. Factors such as the presence of other bystanders
and personal considerations can influence each step of this process.

Q.24 Elucidate various causes of aggressive behaviour.

ANS: Causes of Aggressive Behavior:
Aggressive behavior has various causes, and understanding these factors can provide insights into
prevention and intervention strategies. The causes can be broadly categorized into neurophysiologic
perspectives, biological causes, environment and genes, parental rearing style, parent-child
interaction patterns, parental influence on children's emotions and attitudes, difficulties with friends
and at school, predisposing child characteristics, and environmental stressors.

1. Neurophysiologic Perspectives:
 Role of the Brain: Emphasizes the role of the brain, hormones, and neurotransmitters in
aggressive behavior.
 Biological Forces: Stresses that behavior is largely governed by biological forces rather than
environmental ones.
 Innate Nature: States that aggression is innate, not learned.

2. Biological Causes:
  Brain Dysfunction: Aggressive individuals may have poor functioning in the frontal and
temporal regions of the brain.
 Testosterone: Higher levels of testosterone are associated with aggressive and violent
behavior.
 Serotonin: Lower levels of serotonin, a neurotransmitter, are linked to impulsive aggressive
behavior.
 Birth Complications: Complications during birth, especially when combined with psychosocial
risk factors, may predispose individuals to aggression.
 Nutrition Deficiency: Factors like food additives, hypoglycemia, and deficiencies in protein,
iron, and zinc can contribute to aggressive behavior.

3. Environment and Genes:

 Genetic Influence: Twin and adoption studies suggest genetic effects, with a larger shared
environmental effect and a modest genetic effect.
 Family Environment: Genetically vulnerable children may be susceptible to unfavorable
family conditions.

4. Parental Rearing Style:

 Association with Antisocial Behavior: Poor supervision, erratic discipline, parental
disharmony, rejection of the child, and low involvement in the child’s activities are associated
with long-term antisocial behavior problems.
 Parent-child Interaction Pattern:
 Observational Influence: Aggressive behavior in children is influenced by how parents
behave towards them.
 Unresponsiveness: Lack of encouragement for polite behavior and responsiveness to
aggressive behavior contribute to disturbances.
 Parental Influence on Children’s Emotions and Attitudes:
o Early Indicators: Disorganized attachment patterns in infancy and difficulties in
emotion judgment contribute to later aggressive behavior.

5. Difficulties with Friends and at School:

 Poor Social Skills: Lack of social skills leads to peer rejection, association with antisocial
peers, and potential contribution to persisting aggressive behavior.

6. Predisposing Child Characteristics:

 Hyperactivity: Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is predominantly genetically
determined and may contribute to aggressive behavior over time.
 Low IQ: Delinquents often have lower IQ, which precedes the onset of aggressive behavior.

7. Environmental Stressors:
 Temperature: Higher temperatures can be associated with increased aggression.
 Crowding: High population density and overcrowding can lead to higher levels of aggression.
 Noise: Unwanted and loud noise, especially when unpredictable, can cause aggression.

Understanding these multifaceted factors can help in developing comprehensive approaches to

prevent and address aggressive behavior.

Q.27 Discuss the compliance of obedience as areas of social influence.

ANS: Compliance Strategies and Principles:
Principles Observed by Robert Cialdini:
 Reciprocation:
o Definition: Responding favorably to a request due to a sense of obligation after
receiving a favor.
o Example: If someone compliments you, you may feel obligated to buy a product they
offer.
 Credibility:
o Definition: Compliance is influenced by the credibility of the source making the
request, especially if the source is perceived as an expert.
o Example: Quoting a Nobel Prize-winning physiologist's advice on sleep to influence
opinions.
 Liking/Friendship:
o Definition: People are more likely to comply with requests from those they know and
like, based on the Social Exchange Theory.
o Example: Trusting a friend's recommendation to buy a product.
 Scarcity:
o Definition: Perceived scarcity of an object increases its desirability and the likelihood
of compliance.
o Example: Limited edition products create a sense of urgency to buy.
 Social Validation:
o Definition: People are more willing to comply if they see evidence that others,
especially similar others, are taking the recommended step.
o Example: Claims that a product is the best-selling in the market to influence
compliance.
 Commitment:
o Definition: Inducing commitment to a store or company through loyalty cards or
bonuses can make it harder for individuals to change their shopping behavior.
o Example: Loyalty cards that reward customers for frequent purchases.

Four Compliance Strategies:

 Foot-in-the-Door Technique (FITD):
o Definition: Involves getting a person to agree to a modest request first, making them
more likely to agree to a larger request later.
o Example: Asking someone to sign a petition before requesting a donation.
 Door-in-the-Face Technique (DITF):
o Definition: Involves making an extremely large request that is likely to be turned
down, followed by a more reasonable request that the person is more likely to
accept.
o Example: Asking for a large donation first, followed by a request for a smaller
donation.
 Low-Ball Technique:
o Definition: Involves offering an item or service at a lower price than intended, and
then raising the price after the person has agreed.
o Example: Offering a product at a discounted price, then raising it after the customer
has committed.

These compliance strategies and principles provide insights into how individuals can be influenced to
respond favorably to requests in various situations. Understanding these principles is crucial in areas
such as sales, advertising, and public relations.
OBEDIENCE
 Obedience:
o Definition: Obedience is a form of social influence where an individual acts in
response to a direct order from another individual, typically an authority figure. It
involves carrying out commands or orders given by someone in a higher hierarchical
position.
 Distinction from Confority:
o Conformity: Occurs through social pressure and the norms of the majority.
o Obedience: Involves following direct orders from authority figures.
 Hierarchy of Power/Status:
 Obedience is characterized by a hierarchy of power or status.
 The person giving the order holds a higher status than the person receiving the
order.
 Development of Obedience:
 Begins in infancy as individuals rely on parents for care and are subservient to
parental authority.
 Continues through life with the influence of authority figures in various contexts,
such as schools, workplaces, and societal structures.
 Forms of Obedience:
Obedience to laws, social norms, authorities (monarch, government, organization,
religion), God, self-imposed constraints, spouse, child, or management in the workplace.
 Cultural Attitudes to Obedience:
Traditionally regarded as a virtue in many cultures.
Expectation of obedience from children to elders, slaves to owners, and individuals to
authorities.
Shift in attitudes in Western cultures after events like the World Wars, civil rights
movements, and protests.
 Obedience Training:
Involves operant conditioning and is effective in social animals, including humans.
Children learn obedience as part of the socialization process, and soldiers undergo
extensive training for obedience in the military.
 Experimental Studies:
Milgram Experiment: Showed that individuals would obey authority figures even to the
point of administering potentially harmful electric shocks.
Factors influencing obedience include the prestige of the authority figure, the setting,
and the presence of disobedient peers.
 Factors that Increase Obedience:
Commands from an authority figure.
Prestigious institution setting.
Authority figure present in the room.
Learner in another room.
Subjects not witnessing disobedience by others.

 Psychological Factors in Obedience:

People justify their behavior by attributing responsibility to the authority figure.
Define expected behavior as routine.
Reluctance to be rude or offend authority.
Entrapment: People obey easy commands first and then feel compelled to obey more
difficult commands.
  Conclusion:
Obedience is a deeply ingrained human behavior.
Understanding the dynamics of obedience is crucial in comprehending societal
structures and individual actions in response to authority.

Q.1 Discuss the ethical issues involved in social psychological research

ANS: subjects' behavior based on the true purpose of the study. It takes forms like implicit deception,
technical deception, and role deception.
 Ethical Dilemmas: Deception raises ethical dilemmas regarding studying people without their
knowledge, revealing the true purpose, inducing stress, and influencing behavior.
Professional associations, like the APA, developed guidelines in 1972 and revised them in
1992.

 Informed Consent: Subjects must voluntarily agree, without coercion, to participate,

understanding the research's nature. Informed consent involves informing subjects about
procedures, risks, benefits, the right to refuse, and the right to withdraw without penalty.
Exceptions need approval.

 Debriefing: At the study's end, subjects should be debriefed, explaining the research's
purpose and procedures. This allows participants to ask questions, express feelings, and
recover from any upset caused. In sensitive topics, researchers may suggest ways for
participants to learn more about the subject.

 Minimal Risk: Research should minimize potential risks, ensuring they are no greater than
daily life encounters. Risks include invasion of privacy and stress. Participants should leave
the study in the same state as they entered.

Conclusion: While psychological research offers discoveries, it carries the responsibility to treat
participants ethically. This involves sensitivity, high ethical standards, and sharing research results as
a way to repay participants for their valuable assistance.

Q.2 Define conformity. Describe the factors that increase conformity.

ANS: Conformity Explained:
 Conformity is the process where an individual's attitudes and behaviors are shaped by what
they perceive others might think. This influence occurs in small groups and society at large,
driven by unconscious influences or direct social pressure. It can happen even in the absence
of others, such as when people conform to societal norms when alone.

 People often conform to gain a sense of security within a group, which could be based on
factors like age, culture, religion, or education. Non-conformity risks social rejection, making
conformity a way to avoid criticism and bullying. While commonly associated with
adolescence, conformity affects people of all ages and can have both positive and negative
effects.

 Conformity is crucial for establishing and maintaining social norms, ensuring smooth and
predictable societal functioning. Various factors impact the level of conformity, including
group size, unanimity, cohesion, status, prior commitment, and public opinion.
  Factors Increasing Conformity:

Researchers, inspired by Asch's experiments, identified factors enhancing conformity:

1. Attractiveness: People are more likely to conform to a group of attractive individuals.

2. Task Complexity: Conformity increases with the difficulty of the task or judgment.
3. Group Cohesiveness: Conformity rises when friendships or mutual dependencies are
established beforehand.

Types of Conformity:
 Research distinguishes between informational conformity (influenced by a desire for
information) and normative conformity (driven by a desire to fit in with the group).
Understanding these varieties sheds light on the complex nature of conformity in social
influence.

Q3. Describe the different aspects of similarity in interpersonal attraction

Ans: Similarity in Interpersonal Attraction:
 The saying "birds of a feather flock together" underscores the significance of similarity in
interpersonal attraction. Morry's attraction-similarity model suggests that actual similarity
sparks initial attraction, while perceived similarity develops as individuals rate others similar
to themselves in ongoing relationships. This perception can serve either oneself (in
friendships) or the relationship (in romantic contexts). Newcomb noted that people adjust
perceived similarity to maintain balance in a relationship, with perceived similarity often
surpassing actual similarity in predicting attraction.

Various Aspects of Similarity:

Interpersonal similarity and attraction are multifaceted constructs, encompassing demographics,

physical appearance, attitudes, interpersonal style, social and cultural background, personality,
interests, activities, and communication skills.

1. Physical Appearance: Matching hypothesis proposes that individuals of similar physical

attractiveness are more likely to express liking for each other.
2. Attitudes: Byrne's law of attraction asserts that attraction is positively related to attitudes
similarity. Similar attitudes activate perceived attractiveness and favorability, enhancing
social attraction.
3. Social and Cultural Background: People with similar economic status and certain
demographic characteristics, such as religious background and political orientation, tend to
be attracted to each other.
4. Personality: Interpersonal attraction correlates positively with personality similarity.
Romantic partners often desire similarity in traits like agreeableness, conscientiousness,
extroversion, emotional stability, openness, and attachment style.
5. Interests and Activities: Activity similarity, especially for high self-monitoring individuals,
significantly influences initial attraction. Low self-monitoring individuals are more influenced
by value-based attitude similarity.
6. Social Skills: Tactical similarity positively correlates with partner satisfaction and global
competence ratings in post-conversation measures of social attraction.
Understanding these dimensions of similarity provides insights into the complex dynamics of
interpersonal attraction, shedding light on how shared characteristics contribute to the formation
and maintenance of relationships.

q.3 Explain Heider’s Balance theory.

Ans: Heider's Balance Theory: Understanding P-O-X Model
Heider's Balance Theory, also known as the P-O-X model, was introduced by Fritz Heider in 1946 and
further developed in 1958. The theory revolves around three key elements:
Perceiver (P): The individual who forms perceptions.
Other Person (O): Another person who is part of the perception.
Object (X): The object of perception or focus.
Relationships in Balance Theory:
Pairs of these elements form two types of relationships:
Unit Relations: Depend on factors like similarity, ownership, and shared membership.
Affective Relations: Based on liking and disliking.
Both unit relations and affective relations can be either positive or negative.
Balance and Imbalance:
Heider proposed that elements could exist in a state of balance or imbalance. When balanced,
individuals feel relaxed with no tension. However, an imbalance between elements creates tension
and motivates the individual to restore balance.

Example:
Let's consider an example involving Sunil (P), Krishan (X), and Preeti (O).
Sunil likes Krishan (positive relation) and also likes Preeti (positive relation).
However, Krishan dislikes Preeti (negative relation).
This creates an imbalance for Sunil. To restore balance, Sunil must alter his relations with either
Krishan or Preeti. He could either start disliking Krishan or start disliking Preeti to achieve balance
once again.

Heider's Balance Theory illustrates how individuals strive for harmony in their perceptions,
experiencing tension when relationships are imbalanced and seeking resolution to restore
equilibrium.

Q4. Explain the two-dimensional model of conflict resolution

ANS: Two-Dimensional Model of Conflict Resolution
This model of conflict resolution is based on the idea that various conflict-handling behaviors can be
understood through two fundamental dimensions: assertiveness and cooperation. These dimensions
define five distinct modes for responding to conflict situations:
 Competing:
o Assertive and Uncooperative: Pursuing one's own concerns at the expense of others.
o Power-oriented: Using various forms of power to win one's position.
 Accommodating:
o Unassertive and Cooperative: Neglecting one's own concerns to satisfy the concerns
of others.
o Self-sacrificing: Involves acts of selfless generosity, obeying others' orders against
personal preferences, or yielding to others' points of view.
 Avoiding:
o Unassertive and Uncooperative: Neither pursuing one's concerns nor addressing the
concerns of the other.
 o Diplomatically sidestepping: Postponing discussions or withdrawing from threatening
situations.
 Collaborating:
o Assertive and Cooperative: Working with others to find a mutually satisfying
solution.
o Exploring disagreements: Digging into issues to understand underlying needs and
wants for both parties.
 Compromising:
o Moderate in Both Assertiveness and Cooperativeness: Seeking an expedient,
mutually acceptable solution.
o Middle-ground solution: Falling between competing and accommodating,
compromising involves giving up more than competing but less than
accommodating.

People are capable of using all five conflict-handling modes, and individuals may shift
between them depending on the situation. Certain individuals may be more adept at using
specific modes due to temperament or practice.

 Third-Party Intervention: Another approach to resolving group conflict involves seeking

mediation or arbitration from a third party. This third party, often an arbitrator, aims to arrive
at a solution considering the characteristics of the conflicting parties. The decision reached
through third-party intervention is binding on all involved parties. This method emphasizes
open discussion and negotiation, requiring the third party to be mature and skilled in human
relations.

Q,7Describe the factors responsible for interpersonal attraction.

ANS: Interpersonal attraction, a complex phenomenon, extends beyond superficial qualities like
honesty or humor. People often find themselves drawn to those perceived as similar, with attitudes
holding more weight than outward appearances. While agreement can foster attraction, feigning
agreement, known as ingratiation, is effective around 70%, striking a balance between insufficient
and suspicious.

In psychology, interpersonal attraction is a crucial topic due to humans' social nature. It plays a vital
role in forming social networks, providing security, and fulfilling the need to belong to a social group.
Various factors influence attraction, including similarity, social reward, familiarity, physical
attractiveness, and propinquity, with comprehensive assessments considering qualities of both the
attracted and attractor.

Physical attractiveness / Attractiveness and Job-Related Outcomes significantly impacts attraction,

leading to biases in judgments of sociability, success, and more. This bias permeates society, affecting
job-related outcomes such as hiring and salary. Attractive individuals tend to earn more than their
less attractive counterparts, demonstrating the real-world consequences of physical appearance on
success.

Propinquity, or proximity, contributes to the development of friendships and intimate partnerships.

The propinquity effect posits that increased interaction leads to increased liking, akin to the mere
exposure effect. Proximity influences friendship choices, with architectural features impacting social
dynamics. Proximity intensifies sentiments by providing opportunities for information exchange,
reinforcing positive sentiments through the reward-punishment ratio in interactions.
Understanding the interplay of physical attractiveness and proximity contributes to unraveling the
intricate dynamics of interpersonal attraction, shedding light on the multifaceted nature of human
relationships.