Political Science

Unit 3
UNGA- world parliament- main deliberative organ-composed of all member states-each
member has one vote-meets in regular session (sept to dec)- can meet for spl. Session &
emergency spl. Sessions at request of UNSC or majority of members. Deals with
disarmament & int’l security, economic & financial, social humanitarian & cultural, spl.
Political & decolonization, administrative & budgetary & legal issues. WORK- discuss &
debate on matters reltd. to int’l peace & security, approves UN budget, appoints secretary
general on recommendation of UNSC. Elects judges of ICJ & non-permanent members of
UNSC.
UNSC- UN charter-maintaining int’l peace & security. Can meet any time. 15 council
members-10 non-permanent-5 permanent: China, France, Russia, UK, USA.

INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE-

It is principal judicial organ of UNITED NATIONS. Also known as WORLD COURT
LOCATED- PEACE PALACE, HAGUE, NETHERL&S.
COMPOSITION-
 15 judges
 9 yrs.
 Elected by UNGA with the recommendation of UNSC & by absolute majority at both
the chambers.
 All 15 from Different Countries
3- AFRICA
3- ASIA
2- Latin America & the Caribbean
2- Eastern Europe
5- Western Europe
 Judges are eligible for re-elections
 If a judge expires or resigns before the ending term period, an immediate special
election is held.
ISSUES DEALT- legal disputes b/w States
JURISDICTION-
 Can only deal when one or more states request. It cannot deal with disputes on it’s
own.
 It has Advisory Jurisdiction~ answering any legal questions asked at any
questioning of authorised body
 Decisions & Advisory Opinions are passed by Majority & in event of equal
division, President of ICJ’s decision is considered Final.
 WEAKNESSES-
 Lack of Accessibility- individuals cannot be parties, only states are allowed to
be parties in cases that are brought before it.
 Limited Jurisdiction of the Court- refers to the fact that the ICJ isn’t able to
exercise its jurisdiction with the respect to any states, the state's consent is
necessary for the court.
 Absence of Genuine Compulsory Jurisdiction- The ICJ's compulsory
jurisdiction is not really compulsory. The jurisdiction of the court depends on
the consent of the parties involved. States were given power to accept or not
accept the jurisdiction of the court & they are able to do so under their own
terms & conditions, although once a state gives its consent, the state is to
subject itself to the Jurisdiction of the Court.

PACIFIC SETTLEMENT OF DISPUTES-

NEGOTIATION- No third party required; Negotiations are generally voluntary; Direct
Discussion between diplomatic representation of the states, to reach agreement; Try to
understand and appreciate one another’s view points; Can be held at different levels-
ambassadors, external affairs ministers or head of govt; Usually an attempt to reach a
compromise formula so that neither side loses. Example- Joint Comprehensive Plan of
Action aka Iran Nuclear Deal signed in 2015 between Iran and P5+Germany+European
Union
• MEDIATION- Mediation is a process through which a neutral third person
facilitates integrative negotiation between disputing individuals and groups; mediation
is facilitated by a third person; voluntary process where the disputing individuals
or groups work out their own solutions, and make informed decisions to resolve their
own disputes; does not make decisions for them. Even if the mediator suggests a
solution, it is not binding on the disputing parties. Most mediators however are
professionals who are unknown to the parties. The job of the mediator is to reconcile
the opposing claims and appease the feelings of resentment that may have arisen
between the states. the parties may terminate the process at any time. Examples-
1967- Zambia successfully mediated between Somalia and her neighbours
RECONCILIATION- Similar to mediation; process of settling a dispute by referring it to a
commission of persons whose task it is to elucidate the facts and to make a report containing
proposals for a settlement; The conciliator can only reconcile the disputing parties towards
the resolution of their conflict and does not have the power to impose solutions.
ARBITRATION- entails the appointment of an arbitrator, a neutral and independent third
party who hears and decides on the dispute as well as renders a final and binding decision
referred to as an award on a private basis, with the expenses borne primarily by both
parties. It may take varied forms depending on whether or not arbitration is freely chosen by
the parties and whether or not parties have agreed to be bound by the arbitrator’s decision. It
can be applied to different kinds of circumstances (public or private arbitration). Arbitration
has some of the advantages of mediation such as privacy and flexibility while on the
other there is a prospect of an authoritative decision. Arbitration Tribunal formed in 1965
to resolve the Rann of Kutch dispute between India and Pakistan India appointed a
Yugoslav arbitrator to the tribunal, Pakistan appointed an Iranian arbitrator, and UN
Secretary-General U Thant chose a Swede as the chairman. Award in 1968- award gave
approximately 10 percent of the disputed territory to Pakistan, while 90% remained with
India
ADJUDICATION- Adjudication refers to a settlement by a court. Here the framework for
considering cases is adversarial, court procedures are highly formal and lawyers are an
essential part of this process. This is an expensive way of resolving disputes. Example- On
17 July 2019, the ICJ determined in a case filed by India against Pakistan that Pakistan
was required to provide effective review and reconsideration of Mr. Kulbhushan Sudhir
Jadhav's conviction and sentence through means of its own choosing, in order to ensure
that full weight was given to his conviction and sentence, so that the full weight of the effect
of the violation of the rights set out in Article 36 of the Vienna Convention was given
COLLECTIVE SECURITY
group of nations who b& together to provide protection to each other against the enemy
MEANING- According to George Schwarzenberger, collective security is the mechanism for
joint action in order to prevent to counter attack against an established int’l order.
ORIGIN- originated against system of BOP after WW-I.
 Proposed by American President- WOODROW WILSON in 1919
 REASON- ineffective system of BOP
 Incl. in LEAGUE OF NATIONS but failed in practices
 After WW-II UN Charter- eliminated weakness & made valuable device.
ASSUMPTIONS-
1. All nations must have adequate power to deter any potential aggressor.
2. Unanimity among nations on defence powers
3. Equally free to join in action against aggressor
4. Mobilisation of collective security
5. Status-quo should be the national interest of all nations
6. Int’l peace & security-common objective
7. Collective preponderance of power can always outweigh the power of aggressor
8. Necessity of existence of int’l organisations
LEGAL PROVISIONS UNDER UN CHARTER-
Art. 1- incl. those situations u/ which the UN can take collective actions for maintenance of
int’l peace & security
Art.39-51 – Deals with actions with respect to threat to peace, breaches of the peace & acts of
aggressor.
Art. 50- Concerned w/ the possible ways in which Members & Non-Member states can adjust
their policies & actions towards the decision.
Art. 51- Impair the inherent right of indiv. Or collective self-defence if an armed attack ours
against a member of UN.
CONTRIBUTION-
KOREAN WAR CRISIS (1950-53)- UNSC ordered N. Korea when not followed UNSC
took action-16 nations offered armed forces & pushed back armed force of N. Korea & China
UNGA adopted UNITING FOR PEACE RESOLUTION. Still failed.
SUEZ CANAL CRISIS,1956 -EGPYT nationalized the canal. ISRAEL attacked the
boundaries with Britain & France. UNGA passed Resolution, deployed soldiers from 10
countries.
THE CONGO CRISIS,1960- When independent from Belgium, Belgium started attacking
on Congo. Congo seek UN’s help & with the help Belgium forces returns back
KUWAIT PROBLEM,1991- Iraq occupy Kuwait’s territory. UN Impose sanctions on Iraq
&in 2019 on USA’s command 28 nation forces attack on Iraq and regains Kuwait’s territory.
CRITICISM-
1. UN IS A NON-SOVEREIGN BODY- does not have supreme power.
UN isn’t designed to supersede the nations on their national initiatives.
2. CS IS IDEALIST IN NATURE & SCOPE - imaginary concept-improper
implementation
3. ABSENCE OF PERMANENT PEACE KEEPING- UNSC is empowered to use force
for peace making-don’t have peace making force-slow & long-time process to deploy
security force.
4. DOMINANCE OF POWERFUL NATIONS- Success & failure dependant on Powerful
nations. cs cannot of be against them.
5. JUSTIFY WAR AS A MEANS- self negative concept-consider war as illegal & then
accepts war by all nations against as a means for eliminating aggression
6. PREFERENCE TO NATIONAL INTERESTS- Nations use lame excuses to send
force to their friendly states even if they are the aggressor. National interest is priority for
their actions.

UNIT 4
COLD WAR
After the Second World War, the USA and USSR became two Super Powers. One nation
tried to reduce the power of other. Indirectly the competition between the Super Powers led to
the Cold War. Then America took the leadership of all the Capitalist Countries. Soviet Russia
took the leadership of all the Communist Countries. As a result of which both stood as rivals
to each other.
CAUSES OF COLD WAR-

Important Events of the Cold War

1. Berlin Blockade 1948
tension b/w Soviet Union and Allied countries grew, Soviet Union applied Berlin Blockade in
1948. The Berlin Blockade was an attempt by the Soviet Union to limit the ability of Allied
countries to travel to their sectors of Berlin. Further, the Communist government of the
German Democratic Republic began to build a barbed wire and concrete wall (Berlin Wall)
between East and West Berlin. It primarily served the objective of stemming mass emigration
from East Berlin to West Berlin. Except under special circumstances, travellers from East and
West Berlin were rarely allowed across the border. This Berlin Wall served as a symbol of
the Cold War (US and Soviet Union), until its fall in 1989.
2.
PHASES OF COLD WAR
 FIRST PHASE (1946-49) -
 SECOND PHASE (1949-53)
 THIRD PHASE (1953-57)
 FOURTH PHASE (1957-62)
 FIFTH PHASE (1962-70s)

CASE STUDIES

SUPRANATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
ASEAN- Association of Southeast Asian Nations Est. 8 Aug. 1967- Bangkok, Thailand
Motto- One Vision One Identity One community HQ- Jakarta, Indonesia. Founding
members: Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand. Other Members-
Brunei, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, Cambodia.
Aim: to accelerate economic growth, social progress & cultural development & to promote
peace & security in Southeast Asia. A permanent secretariat in Jakarta, Indonesia, is headed
by a secretary-general, whose position rotates every five years.
First Summit- Bali, Indonesia-1976. end of the Cold War allowed ASEAN countries to
exercise greater political independence. SINCE 2001- summits takes place annually where
the heads of states and govt discuss current problems and find out solutions. In 2008 ASEAN
CHARTER came into force, giving the association status of legality established the ASEAN
Intergovernmental Commission on Human Right. Principles of non-intervention and
consensual decision taking remain unchanged by the charter & became its part. Decisions are
made by consensus no member can be forced to something. As a result, the group rarely
appears to be closed.
OAE- Organisation of American States
PURPOSE- SOLIDARITY & COOPERATION AMONG ITS MEMBER STATES.
FOUNDED- 30 APRIL, 1948 with adoption OAS CHARTER in Bogota, Columbia.
HQ- WASHINGTON DC, US; OFFICAL LANG. Eng., French, Portuguese & Spanish
Members- 35; independent states of the Americas—the North, Central and South America &
the Caribbean
Objectives (art.2)
1. Strengthen the peace and security
2. Promote and consolidate representative democracy
3. ensure the pacific settlement of disputes
4. Provide for common action on the part of those states
5. Seek the solution of political, judicial and economic problems that may arise among
them
6. Eradicate extreme poverty
7. Achieve an effective limitation of conventional weapons
AU- AFRICAN UNION (2002-PRESENT)
Earlier called Organization of African Unity (1963–2002)
consists of 53 African States, 4 member states, Guinea (2008), Madagascar (2009), Eritrea
(2009) and Côte d’Ivoire (2010) have been suspended.
2 PRIMARY AIMS: To promote the unity and solidarity of the African states and act as a
collective voice for the African continent. the eradication of all forms of colonialism
OBJECTIVES OF AU:
• Achieve greater unity
• Defend the sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence of its member states.
• Accelerate the political and socio-economic integration
• Promote and defend the African common positions
• Encourage international cooperation
• Promote peace
• Promote democratic principles and institutions, popular participation and good
governance
• Promote and protect human and peoples’ rights in accordance with the African
Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights
• Promote sustainable development
 • Promote cooperation in all fields of human activity to raise the living standards of
African peoples
• eradication of preventable diseases and the promotion of good health on the
continent
COMPOSED of Heads of State and Government; supreme organ; meets once a year;
decisions taken through consensus or by a two-thirds majority
EUROPEAN UNION (EU)- geo-political entity covering a large portion of the European
continent. WW-II- economic crisis-desire to move towards integrated Europe.
Started w/ 6 members-Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg & Netherlands.
Currently 27 members. 19 of these countries use EURO as their official currency.
It became European Economic Community in 1957 u/ treaty of Rome.
Objectives of the EU
Promote peace, values and the well-being of all citizens of EU.
Offer freedom, security and justice without internal borders
Sustainable development based on balanced economic growth and price stability, a highly
competitive market economy with full employment and social progress, and environmental
protection
Combat social exclusion and discrimination
Promote scientific and technological progress
Enhance economic, social and territorial cohesion and solidarity among EU countries
Respect its rich cultural and linguistic diversity
Establish an economic and monetary union whose currency is euro.

NON-ALIGNMENT MOVEMENT-
international forum of 120 developing countries that believe in the idea of non-alignment
with the major power blocs. It was established in 1961 in Yugoslavia under the leadership of
the then Indian Prime Minister Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, President of Egypt Gamal Abdel
Nasser and the President of Yugoslavia Josip Broz Tito.
In the aftermath of the Second World War and the decolonisation process, many countries in
the developing world in Asia and Africa felt the need for a strong movement towards
securing peace and prosperity and establishing security for all countries. This was when the
world was divided into two power blocs, that of the USA and the Soviet Union, especially
after the signing of the NATO and the Warsaw Pact. Most of these countries felt the need for
mutual cooperation and coordination with respect to not formally aligned with or against any
of the power blocs.
NAM Functioning
 NAM does not have a permanent secretariat or a formal hierarchy.
 Its administration is rotational and non-hierarchy.
 NAM takes decisions by consensus, which need not be universal, but only requires
substantial agreement.
 It has a Coordinating Bureau which is based at the UN in New York City.
 NAM meets every three years at the NAM Summit.
 At the Summit, a chair is chosen, which is a post held for three years.
In NAM, every member country has equal weight. It is the largest inter-country organisation
outside of the UN.
NAM Objectives
One of the chief objectives of NAM was “to create an independent path in world politics
that would not result in member States becoming pawns in the struggles between the
major powers.”
The three elements that define the approach of the organisation are:
1. Right of independent judgement
2. Struggle against imperialism and neo-colonialism
3. Use of moderation in relations with all big powers
In the current times, an objective of the organisation is restructuring the international
economic order.
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is a military alliance established by the North
Atlantic Treaty (also called the Washington Treaty) of April, 1949, by the United States,
Canada, and several Western European nations to provide collective security against the
Soviet Union. There are currently 30 member states. Headquarters: Brussels, Belgium.
Objectives of NATO
 to safeguard the freedom and security of all its members by political and military
means.
 promotes democratic values and enables members to consult and cooperate on
defense and security-related issues to solve problems, build trust and, in the long run,
prevent conflict.
 committed to the peaceful resolution of disputes. If diplomatic efforts fail, it has the
military power to undertake crisis-management operations.
These are carried out under the collective defence clause of NATO's founding treaty - Article
5 of the Washington Treaty or under a United Nations mandate, alone or in cooperation with
other countries and international organisations.
Terrorism- A form of violence that aims to achieve its objective through creating a climate
of fear, apprehension & uncertainity.
The term ‘terrorism’ and ‘terrorist’ can be traced to the French Revolution 1793–1794,
identified as the Reign of Terror. central point- terrorism is an act which uses violence to
achieve its ends and is characterized by certain forms of actions such as assassinations,
bombings, taking people as hostages, and hijacking of planes
Types of Terrorism
1. Insurrectionary Terrorism- aimed to revolutionary overthrown the govt. It is for
change of the system. It is positive in majority of time
2. Loner or Issue Terrorism- aimed at promotion of single cause. Eg: Bombing of
abortion clinic in USA
3. Nationalist Terrorism- aimed to overthrown colonial rule or occupation. often with the
goal of gaining independence for an ethnic, religious or national group. examples the
Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (commonly known as the Tamil Tigers) in Sri
Lanka.
4. Global Terrorism- aimed at inflicting damage & humiliation on global power &
transforming global civilization rule.
EG: 9/11 ATTACK- series of coordinated suicide attacks by Al Qaeda upon the US on
11 September 2001. 19 Al Qaeda terrorists hijacked four commercial passenger jet
airliners. Crashed two of the airliners into the Twin Towers of the World Trade Centre in
New York City. The hijackers crashed a third airliner into the Pentagon in Arlington,
Virginia, just outside Washington, D.C. 2,973 victims and the 19 hijackers died. The
overwhelming majority of casualties were civilians, including nationals of over 70
countries. defining feature of new terrorism is that religious motivations for terrorism
have replaced secular motivations
CAUSES-
Violent response to political conditions and crisis- growing number of Muslim states
experienced crises of governmental legitimacy, as popular frustrations mounted against
corrupt and autocratic regimes that were thought to have failed to meet their citizens’
economic and political aspirations. growing religiously based movement to overthrow
what were dubbed ‘apostate’ (a person who forsakes his or her religion) Muslim leaders
in countries such as Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Sudan and Pakistan. These leaders and their
regimes came to be seen as Islamism’s ‘near enemy’.
Cultural Explanation- Imposition of western secular, materialist culture due to
globalization has alienated and threatened their own unique cultural identity. growth in
politically engaged forms of religious fundamentalism in many parts of the Islamic world,
a trend that was radically accelerated by the 1979 Iranian ‘Islamic Revolution’ Internal
fault line among different sects
Expansion of the US influence in the Middle East- The USA came to be seen as the
‘far enemy’. policies such as support for Israel. The presence of US troops in the Middle
East support for ‘apostate’ Muslim leaders across the region made the USA appear to be a
threat to Islam.
Economic Explanations- Globalization unfavourable to the global South- seen as a form
of imperialism Inequality in the distribution of resources. Losing out in the globalised
economy. Franz Fanon suggested that the struggle would exist until the economic and
power imbalances were removed