Children Left Behind - Migration

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The Impact of Labour Migration on the Children Left Behind: A Study of

Elementary School Children in the Philippines
Article in Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia · October 1998

DOI: 10.1355/SJ13-2C
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The Impact of Labour Migration on the Children Left Behind: A Study of Elementary
School Children in the Philippines
Author(s): Graziano BATTISTELLA and Ma. Cecilia G. CONACO
Source: Sojourn: Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia, Vol. 13, No. 2, FAMILIES IN
SOUTHEAST ASIA: FACING FUNDAMENTAL CHANGES (October 1998), pp. 220-241
Published by: ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41056988
Accessed: 07-08-2017 00:17 UTC
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SOJOURN Vol. 13, No. 2 (1998), pp. 220-41
The Impact of Labour Migration

on the Children Left Behind:
A Study of Elementary School
Children in the Philippines
Graziano BATTISTELLA and Ma. Cecilia G. CONACO
Although the family in the migration process has been extensively stud-
ied, much less attention has been given to the impact of migration on
family members left behind. This paper explores in particular the impact
on the children, through a research conducted among elementary
school children of Filipino migrants. Overall, the impression is that mi-
gration is not necessarily disruptive for the development of the children
left behind, particularly if it is the mother who remains in the home. The
effect depends mostly on the extent of involvement of the extended
family in complementing the gaps resulting from parental absence. It is
important to provide the family members left behind, particularly the
husbands, with adequate training on child rearing, counselling, and dif-
ferent forms of support.
Introduction
The impact of migration has been examined extensively. The vast ma-
jority of studies have focused on the impact of migration on the receiv-
ing countries and on migrants and their families in the countries of
immigration. Studies on the impact of migration on countries of ori-
gin have highlighted macro demographic or economic aspects, or social
change in migrants' communities. Return migration has also been stud-
ied, as well as specific forms of migration. Much less attention, however,
has been devoted to the impact of migration on the migrant's family left
behind.
This does not imply that the family has been neglected in migration
Impact of Labour Migration on the Children Left Behind: Philippine Study 221
studies. On the contrary, in addition to the emphasis on the individual

migrant, the family has been considered largely as an economic entity,
a decision-making body, and a beneficiary in relation to migration. As
a consequence, the role of families and family networks have been ex-
amined in initiating and perpetuating migration, in the way they han-
dle remittances and in the relocation process of joining the migrant
abroad. However, research on the major impacts of migration on the
family members left behind while the migrant is abroad has been scarce
and mostly impressionistic. These impacts pertain to spousal relations,
parental roles, and the development of children in the absence of one
or both parents. The last aspect is the concern of this study. Prior to a
discussion of the study proper, it is relevant to understand "the family"
in the Philippine context.
The Family in the Philippines
The family as a basic unit in society, with a unique function in trans-

mitting cultural and moral values to the younger generation, is a fact
that few societies disregard. However, the concept of family and its basic
organization is hardly a universal concept in the modern world. In fact,
the family institution goes through a constant transformation, caused
in particular by the requirements of the economic system. In this trans-
formation, the extended family, most common in developing countries,
tends to become a nuclear one in economically developed societies.
Such transformations are not without costs. In particular, the ex-
tended family which tends to function as a support system for depend-
ants in the family, such as children and the elderly, is affected. When
the norm becomes a nuclear family in which both parents are employed
outside the home, the state needs to support the dependants through
welfare schemes, which are paid for by the working population. How-
ever, the crisis of the welfare state has laid bare the limits of welfare
schemes, cast a bleak shadow on the quality of life of dependants, and
questioned the delegation of family roles to the state.
In the Philippines, the family is considered the "basic building block
of Philippine society" (Méndez et al. 1984). Present both in the nuclear
and extended forms, the family is characterized by a bilaterally extended
222 Graziano BATTISTELU' and Ma. Cecilia G. CONACO
kinship system (Go 1993), based on consangu

The closeness of the relationship, however, is n
by structural proximity but by duties and pr
relationships.
The acquisition of members in the family th
larly significant. The kumpadre system, const
major moments of Catholic rituals (baptism
riage), expands the dimensions of the extende
of reciprocal obligations (Medina 1991). Chil
pected to show godparents the same respec
their parents. The implications of the exte
kumpadre system for the upbringing of childr
in the case of migration, because parents can
is someone to whom children can be entrusted
While households are increasingly becomin
households are decreasing, the extended famil
variations in different parts of the country. In
sible for the increase of nuclear households
extended households in urban areas. Relative
area become the point of reference for pers
educational opportunities in the city. "Helpi
desirable in the Philippine culture" (Go 1993, p
pitality is one basic form of assistance, facilit
ing character of Filipinos.
With regard to role expectations between
prevailing image is that of a husband who is
represents authority in the family. He is not
but to be of good morals. The wife, on the ot
family, is religious and faithful, and preserve
even amongst adversities. She has control of mo
life, including budgeting, while some aspects
tion is shared (Medina 1991).
The importance of the division of roles and
when one partner is absent and the remain
certain roles and responsibilities himself or h
family responsibility concerns child upbringing, in which a dominant

task is the inculcation of generational respect. Youngsters are supposed
to show respect for the elderly, a trait epitomized in the pagmamano
practice. Such respect applies also to the sibling hierarchy (the elder
brother [cuya] and sister [ate] enjoy a particular status) and it also over-
flows into society in general. Towards parents, this becomes obedience
and devotion, which implies the perennial duty of the adult child to take
care of the parents, particularly in their old age.
The absence of legal divorce in the Philippines and the difficulty of
obtaining an annulment of marriage from the Catholic Church mask
the real situation of marriage dissolution in the Philippines. Statistics
indicate dissolution in approximately 1 1 per cent of marriages. This does
not reflect the proportion of couples who maintain a unity of conven-
ience for the sake of children, for economic reasons, or because of so-
cial pressure. Marital dissolution is typically due to marital infidelity of
the husband, incompatibility, and financial problems. The unity of the
family, emphasized by cultural traditions as well as the lack of legal di-
vorce, is further tested by parental absence caused by economic reasons,
specifically internal and international migration.
The percentage of women in the labour force is currently 36 per cent,
with no appreciable change in the last ten or twenty years. Despite the
necessity to increase family income and raise the level of education of
women, which in turn would encourage them to develop careers out-
side traditional domestic roles, the Philippine economy has hardly pro-
gressed in the past decades. Therefore, "the average Filipino family is
more of a dual-earner rather than dual-career" (Medina 1991). Work-
ing women also bear the brunt of domestic chores.
When husbands migrate for employment abroad (the typical sce-
nario for families until the late 1980s), wives experience a double im-
pact from the absence of their partner. They experience an enlargement
of responsibility deriving from the necessity to make decisions and to
be the only point of reference for the children, as well as the burden of
exercising multiple roles. Generally, they are successful in coping with
the experience, helped by knowing it was only temporary and by sup-
port received from their extended families. Anecdotal evidence points
224 Graziano BATTISTELLA and Ma. Cecilia G. CONACO
to various problems arising in the family becau

migration. However, studies have not confirm
and Postrado 1986).
The increasing migration of women in the
mension to the impact of migration on the fam
ceive adequate research attention. Important que
term effects of such migration. One specific
impact of the absence on their children's edu
Impact of Migration on the Family and on Chil

A Brief Literature Review
Potential problems for the education of children arising from the ab-
sence of one or both parents because of migration have always been pos-
tulated. However, research reveals different results which vary by the
country, family forms and cultural traditions, and the type of migration.
Such differences were conveyed in various papers presented at a con-
ference in Hawaii in 1983. In one study of families in the Philippines,
wives of migrant workers stated that the care and the discipline of their
children had been difficult and burdensome, and the majority felt they
had been stricter with the children, because of increased disciplinary
difficulties (Go and Postrado 1986, p. 127). However, migration was
not necessarily a factor when examining juvenile delinquency, since
there was no higher incidence of it in migrant families, nor was there a
perception in the community of such phenomenon (ibid., p. 143). In
Pakistan, in contrast, an increase in drug abuse among children of mi-
grant households was observed. Hospital records for a six-month period
showed "admission of 67 in-patients who were heroin addicts and of
these, 43 had fathers working in the Middle East" (Abbasi and Irfan
1986, p. 191). Researchers, however, warn about generalizing those
facts, since no control group was examined. In India, in addition to the
increased responsibility of wives in the choice of schooling for the chil-
dren, there was a tendency towards investing in the education of chil-
dren through enrolling children in better schools (Gulati 1986, p. 209).
In a comparative study concluded in 1986 concerning emigration
from India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, the Philippines, and Thailand, the con-
clusion was that the actual impact of migration was not as disruptive as
it could be (Gogate 1986). Specifically, in India, "migration of male
workers has not given rise to any insurmountable difficulties specific to
the care and education of the young" (ibid., p. 83). In this case the de-
cisive factor was the extended family, with everyone contributing to the
care of the young. Moreover, additional income from remittances al-
lowed for better education of children, in particular female children. In
the case of Pakistan, remittances have been utilized for the education of
children and "the absence of a local school has not deterred the fami-
lies from sending their children to another village/town for schooling"
(Gilani 1986, p. 143). In addition, inquiries on the impact of the ab-
sence of the father on the behaviour of children concluded that such
absence did not have a decisive negative impact. In Sri Lanka, respond-
ents could not reveal anything unusual as a consequence of the absence
of a partner. "Evidence from key informants such as the school teach-
ers was not adverse" (Dias 1986, p. 235), except for a remark about the
inappropriate display of expensive stationery by the children of migrant
workers in a deprived environment. A choice of better schools or the
project of sending children to university were also the results observed
in families of overseas workers from Thailand. Unlike families from
other countries, however, a fair proportion of the wives in Thailand (10
to 25 per cent) felt they could not discipline their children without their
husbands (Pitayanon 1986, p. 302). In general, therefore, the study ob-
served that remittances from migration have generated some enthusi-
asm towards education, particularly in India and Thailand and that no
major adverse effects of parental absence were observed, except for
Thailand.
A larger study on the global impact of human migration was organ-
ized by the United Nations University in seven countries in 1983 and
it was conducted in three phases: first, a state-of-the art survey on mi-
grant workers; second, a survey on returning migrants; and third, an as-
sessment of successes and failures in migration.
In the first phase it was observed that in India the children of "Gulf
families" have psychological problems.
Such children are becoming delinquents and turn

drugs. Mothers who have to take full control of th
ing it difficult in the absence of the supporting pres
Psychiatrists have even coined a new term: the "
(Nair 1986, p. 103)
At the same time a rising demand for education

with an increasing percentage of children, part
school and college. In conclusion, the author
chological problems associated with the Gulf
exaggerated" (Nair 1986, p. 103). In Sri Lank
researchers did not come across any cases of negle

unusual increase in school drop-outs, or serious i
the young that could be attributed to the parent's
(Gunatilleke 1986, p. 208)
The reason for these findings was attributed to

structures and extended family relations to cop
In the analysis of returnees under phase two
impact of the return of the parent in the fam
rea. Absence during migration had produced
family among the returnees, who took care of
before their migration experience, such as spen
ing them in their education (Seok 1991, p. 82
impact of the migrant's absence on the discip
seem meaningful. "Only 12 per cent of the re
their children had indeed become unruly durin
1991, p. 134). The percentage of "spoiled beh
per cent), but the effect on schooling was also lo
felt the education of children had suffered duri
ents. In Pakistan the impact of parental absen
considered minor. Only 7 per cent reported tha
of the father, their children had developed bad
and gambling; some 1 5 per cent indicated that
loneliness and insecurity, and 12 per cent found
to sickness (Khan 1991, p. 215). In Sri Lanka
that "the majority of migrants did not have
ments for the care of the children left behind" (Gunatilleke 1991, p.
317), the reason being that migration did not involve young families
with the mother as the migrant. In most cases, instead, either the spouse
who remained behind (60 per cent of the cases) or the mother of the
migrant took responsibility for the children.
The third phase of the research, conducted through case-studies,
showed that success or failure of migration also depends on the setting
of goals and the management of migration. When the household is in-
volved in such process, including sharing the responsibility of the edu-
cation of children while the migrant is abroad, the probability of suc-
cess is enhanced. A successful migration also contributes positively to
intra- family relations (Gunatilleke 1992).
While reference to the impact on children is of minor interest in
most studies on the impact of migration, a survey conducted in 1987
in the Philippines (Scalabrini Migration Center, 1987) was specifically
focused on this issue. The research targeted high-school and college-level
students from three Catholic colleges in Manila, Pampanga, and
Batangas. Students with parents abroad and students without migrant
parents, as well as parents and teachers were interviewed. The main
summary findings are:
Parents' migration and overseas employment is generally perceived as

a source of benefits. From the students' point of view, life is "better
now" than before their parents left home. Although two out of every
three parents or guardians experienced some problems regarding the
students, particularly at home and in school, they are confident in
their own ability to cope with these problems. Teachers reported that
less than 8 per cent of the students in the sample had behavioural
problems that warranted attention by the guidance counsellor or
other school official. The teachers' rating placed the students with mi-
grant parents in a more favourable light than even the students' own
parents' or guardians' assessment, at least in three areas of school per-
formance: interaction with classmates, asserti veness, and participation
in co-curricular and extra-curricular activities. Indeed, among youth
with migrant parents, the scale is tipped in favor of benefits (95 per
cent) rather than costs or disadvantages (5 per cent), (p. 54)
From the brief review of research undertaken so far, it appears that there
is no decisive evidence of a widespread negative impact of migration on
the children left behind. There are certainly p

ing from the absence of one or both paren
mechanisms left in place to face such problem
most convincing mechanism is the help derive
ily in its various forms in the different countr
Findings reported in the review of the litera
totally conclusive for several reasons. First, m
ducted was not specifically designed to assess t
on the children of the migrants. Second, anecd
ues to point to the temporary absence of the p
the growth of children. Third, migration has
ago, when most of the studies were conduct
migrants leaving every year has almost doub
more families. Specifically, female migration h
particularly from the Philippines. Insight su
likely to suffer less when fathers migrate than
1990, p. 57). With the present migration trends
the impact on the children is potentially highe
maternal deprivation is rather controversial.
Research Objectives, Methodology, and Lim

of the Study on Elementary School Children
For the above reasons a research project was un

pines to assess the impact of the absence of pa
tion on the physical, cognitive, social/emoti
iour of young children. The project's methodol
a survey of children in elementary gramma
child's feelings and behaviour from the child's
categories of children were surveyed for compa
father abroad, those with only the mother abr
parents working abroad. A fourth group of ch
at home and who have never left home to work
as a control group. The survey was conducte
(twenty-four public and fifteen private) during
and March 1996. In addition, focus group dis
with parents left behind, caretakers, and teachers, to provide "outsider"

perspectives into the situations and problems encountered by the chil-
dren.
A total number of 709 children were interviewed in Metro Manila
and the provinces of Bulacan, Quezon, and Rizal, which have the high-
est number of overseas migrants (see Table 1). The children were almost
equally distributed across interview sites, grade level, and gender, and
their mean age was 1 1.3 years. Half of the sample (49.5 per cent) had
an extended family member (that is, aunts, uncles, grandparents, cous-
ins) living in their household. Table 2 shows that parent-absent house-
holds were more likely to have a member of the extended family stay-
ing with them and who probably played a substitute role for the absent
parent.
Migrant parents of the children surveyed were working in the two
major regions for Filipino migration - the Middle East and Asia (over
80 per cent) with a different distribution between men (60 per cent in
the Middle East) and women (48 per cent in Asia). Such distribution
is closely patterned after the occupation of the migrants: 50 per cent of
women were employed in service occupations, while men were mostly
in production or working as seafarers. The average time abroad was 4.9
years, and was higher for fathers than for mothers.
Several methodological constraints may limit the extent of the con-
clusions that can be drawn from this study. First, the survey approach
to obtaining information from young children may be constrained by
the child's level of cognitive development since it requires knowledge
and insight into events as well as a certain level of verbal ability and ex-
pression. This was one reason for the decision to sample children be-
tween Grades 4 and 6 (ages nine to fifteen). However, despite attempts
to simplify the questionnaire and training our interviewers to help ex-
plain the questions to the respondents, the child's cognitive level may
still have affected the data. Furthermore, the emotionally sensitive na-
ture of our topic might have inhibited the children's ability to respond
to some of the questions.
A second issue relates to sampling. The sample was small and issues
of universal applicability arise. The question of the true randomness of
Table 1
Distribution of Respondents, by Demographic Characteristic
Frequency Percentage
Interview site
Metro Manila 182 25.7

Bulacan 156 22.0
Rizal 178 25.1
Quezon 193 27.2
Grade level
Grade 4 237 33.4

Grade 5 218 30.7
Grade 6 254 35.8
Age (in years)

9 9 1.3
10 182 25.7
11 201 28.3
12 242 34.1
13 57 8.0
14 12 1.7
15 6 0.8
Gender
Female 384 54.2

Male 325 45.8
Religion
Roman Catholic 599 84.4
Iglesia ni Kristo 23 3.2
Seventh Day Adventists 12 1.7
Born-Again Christian 47 6.6
Jehovah's Witness 8 1.1
Muslim 1 0.1
Presbyterian 1 0.1
Buddhist 2 0.3
Protestant 16 2.3
Respondent category
Both parents present 201 28.3

Father absent 206 29.1
Mother absent 186 26.2
Both parents absent 116 16.4
Table 2
Percentage Distribution of Households with Extended Family Members,
by Respondent Category
Respondent Category Without Extended Family With Extended Family

Both parents present (n = 201) 75.1 24.9
Father absent (n = 206) 60.7 39.3
Mother absent (n = 186) 37.4 62.6
Both parents absent (n = 1 16) 10.4 89.6
the sampling process can also be raised. These two f

statistical analysis and the researchers' ability to test th
eses and their ability to arrive at more conclusive stat
less, much can be learnt from exploratory descriptive
trends in the data appear consistent. Further research
however, to follow up and verify these trends.
A third issue relates to the use of the focus group d
plement the survey data. This is a frequently used res
gain a better perspective into the problem of interest
group discussions, however, are mainly qualitative and
exercised in the conclusions and extrapolations one
eral population. Qualifications and caveats notwithstan
exploratory research can still be appreciated for its co
systematic analysis of the impact of migration on chil
provocative hypotheses it generates.
Findings of the Study
As expected, the migration of parents was perceived b

the emotional level with a sense of loneliness and sadn
centage (5 per cent) confessed becoming disobedien
naughty. But a similar percentage found themselves o
and capable of taking care of themselves. Overall, the
an understanding of the main reasons for parents bei
for economic improvement of the family and for im
education.
232 Graziano BATTISTELUV and Ma. Cecilia G. CONACO
In the Philippines, better education for childre

school education. However, this educational i
mainly when the father is the migrant. The pr
economic, since migrant women, mostly emp
tions, earn lower salaries, with which they cann
dren to private schools. This is confirmed by
children in private school of migrants work
America, where salaries are higher than in the
Another aspect of children's education imp
school performance. The study suggests that sc
with parental absence, as shown by a compar
terms of the general average of the child as of
period of the study) and class rank (standard
eration class size). The school grades and class
with one or both parents absent were below t
parents present (see Table 3).
A further point is the comparison in perform
dren in the parent-absent groups. The data
absent children perform the least well in schoo
erage school grades and class ranks being the lo
Table 3). However, contrary to expectations, chi
both parents absent do not perform any worse t
absent group. This may be attributed to the invo
the extended family network in the developme
grants' children.
Table 3
Means on School Performance Measures, by Respondent Category
Respondent General Average Grades Class Rank

Category (n = 666) (« = 361)
Both parents present 83.30 38.07
Father absent 82.81 44.04
Mother absent 81.19 48.53
Both parents absent 82.23 47.98
Social development was tested by utilizing the Social Anxiety Scale

for Children (La Greca et al. 1988), ranging from 0 (no anxiety) to 19
(extremely anxious). A comparison of the mean scores of the four re-
spondent categories reveals a rather interesting result. Children with
both parents present have the highest mean social anxiety score (M =
9.30) followed by father-absent children (M = 9.13), mother-absent
children (M = 8.98), and children with both parents absent (M = 8.90).
However, the differences are minor. More significant is the fact that
there is only a fairly moderate level of anxiety among the children (as
indicated by mean scores which are in general at the mid-point of the
scale). This suggests a somewhat limited impact of migration on the
social development of children.
In researching the ability of children to cope with problems and to
seek help from adults, the study reveals that parents are the major source
of guidance for children. However, in the absence of parents, relatives
play a major role, particularly when the mother or both parents are
absent (see Table 4). (Unfortunately, although the trends in the figures
are in the indicated direction, no tests of significance could be performed
due to the distribution's inability to meet statistical assumptions.)
Relevant to social development is the question of who the child sees
as a role model. In general, parents are the most frequently cited role
Table 4
Percentage Distribution for Respondents Reporting Consultations with
Extended Family Members for Various Problems, by Respondent Category
Mother Mother
and and Percentage
Father Father Mother Father of Total
Nature of Problem Present Absent Absent Absent Response
Difficulty with homework (n = 709) 1.9 1.5 5.8 7.5 16.7
Problems with teachers (n = 708) 0.3 0.4 4.2 6.7 1 1 .6
Problems with classmates {n = 709) 0.5 0.9 2.7 3.9 8.0
Problems with siblings (n = 670) 0.7 1.1 5.0 8.2 15.0
Problems with parents (n = 707) 5.5 7.0 10.4 7.5 30.4
Having "crushes" (n = 702) 0.7 0.6 3.1 2.9 7.3
Personal questions (n = 704) 0.5 0.5 4.8 6.0 11.8
Questions on future plans (n = 691) 0.6 0.8 4.4 5.7 11.5
234 Graziano BATTISTELL¿' and Ma. Cecilia G. CONACO
models by children. The data, however, show

that may be worth further investigation. One is
centage of father-absent children choosing the f
mother-absent children choosing the mother as
significant proportion of respondents selected
particularly in the both-parents-absent categor
ing out that a sizeable proportion of the childr
specifically media personalities, as their role m
cited by the children for selecting a particular
positive characteristics of the person - kindnes
telligence, and responsibility.
A Children's Loneliness Scale (Asher, Hym
was also employed to measure children's feeli
cial dissatisfaction. The findings show that child
parents present were less lonely and less socially
ter adjusted socially) compared with the parent
ferential mean scores on the scale were 38.01
group, 37.56 for mother-absent children, 37.50
dren, and 37.48 for parent-absent respondents.
the scale, the happier and better adjusted the in
Other negative emotions possibly experienced
ful situations were also explored. Table 5 sho
each emotional experience of sadness, anger, co
apathy, fear, and feeling different from other
Table 5
Means on the Reported Experience of Specific Emotions,
Mother and
Specific Emotion Father Absent Mother Absent Father Absent
Sadness 2.0 1.9 1.8
Anger 2.5 2.2 2.4
Confusion 2.6 2.4 2.6
Feeling unloved 3.2 3.2 3.2
Apathy 3.3 3.2 3.4
Fear 2.4 2.3 2.5
Feeling different from other children 3.0 2.8 3.0
mean, the more frequently a particular emotion was experienced (note

that this series of questions were asked only of children who had one
parent or both parents absent). The data reveal patterns similar to those
demonstrated with indicators for other aspects of child development.
Mother-absent children tend to be more angry, more confused, more
apathetic, more afraid, and to feel more different from other children.
On the other hand, children with both parents away report greater sad-
ness.
The absence of parents also does not appear to have a decis

tive impact on the religious and spiritual development of the
First, many parents continue to remain the children's guides
abroad. Second, their substitutes (particularly the extended fa
bers) exercise a positive role in this regard. However, the abs
mother is felt much more, both because fathers who are pre
provide adequate care in religious and spiritual development
the extended family members who help the father do not be
ficiently involved in this aspect of the children's development
ation is better when both parents are absent, because childre
more drawn into the extended family as part of it and adjust
gious and spiritual practices. It should also be noted here t
schools, which are often directed by religious orders, do not m
difference in the spiritual development of children. However
of children in private schools tend to be more involved in th
education because these schools encourage their participation
economic and social positions allow them to do so.
With regard to moral development, two lists of deeds
"good" and "bad" by the children were compiled (see Ap
Obeying the parents and the elderly was considered the mos
good deed (59 per cent). Helping around the house was also
(30 per cent). Praying regularly and being faithful to religiou
mentioned by 29 per cent of the children. Gender specificity
by differences in concerns, with girls showing more concern
ence and respect to the elderly and for studying diligently, wh
expressed more concern for helping around the house and fo
kindness. With regard to differences according to parental a
appears that when the mother is at home there

duties and praying regularly; when the father is
being friendly and helping around the house
are away the emphasis is on studying diligently
Conversely, disobeying the elderly, being rud
ing back topped the list of bad deeds (54 per ce
was second, followed by stealing and pilferin
cheating. Engaging in vice and drugs, and negle
work also received some mention. Gender diffe
typical expectations. Boys were particularly awar
of engaging in fights and using bad words, wh
scious of the negative behaviour of disobedience
lies.
The two lists of good and bad deeds show consistency in that they
reflect the basic values that have been instilled in children, particularly
that of obedience and respect for parents and the elderly. It is interest-
ing to observe, however, that while praying was included in the list of
good deeds in a prominent way, neglecting prayer and religious duties
was mentioned by only 6 per cent of the children as a bad habit.
Conclusions and Recommendations
This study focused on the children of migrant workers. The inconclu-

siveness of previous studies, mostly of high-school or college students,
suggested the need to explore the situation of migrants' children in lowe
age groups. Thus this study focused on children in the fourth, fifth, an
sixth grades, chosen from the provinces with the highest migration level
in the Philippines. The focus on younger children had an impact on the
methodology of the study. Because of their young ages, the survey had
to refrain from an excessively long questionnaire as well as from the ex-
cessive use of quantitative measures. The research instrument was mainly
qualitative in nature, with mostly nominal variables which allow for lim
ited statistical analysis. In this regard too, this report has been mostly
descriptive. It attempts to suggest direction of tendencies rather than
conclusions.
One important aspect of this study is family dynamics, which is cre-

ated by migration. The absence of one or both parents creates a void
which needs to be filled. Typically, such a responsibility falls on rela-
tives but outcomes are different. In cases where the father is abroad, the
involvement of relatives is small, as the mother, typically the one most
responsible for household management, copes with the situation. Where
the mother is abroad, relatives become involved in approximately 60 per
cent of the cases, either by moving into the house of the migrant or by
having the migrant's family move to theirs. Finally, where both parents
are abroad, children are given to the care of relatives in 90 per cent of
the cases. In the remaining 10 per cent, older brothers and sisters be-
come the heads of households as there are no relatives around due to
earlier internal migration by the family.
With regard to specific aspects of social development, children of
migrants tend to present problematic aspects, both in terms of school
achievement and social adjustment. However, this cannot be general-
ized. What is crucial is the impact of the persons who substitute for the
parents in the guiding role. In fact, with only the father abroad or both
parents abroad it appears that consequences are limited, either because
the mother can fill the gap of the father's absence or because the ex-
tended family, mostly in the person of the grandmother or an aunt,
function as surrogate parents.
The single most important finding in the survey is that the absence
of the mother has the most disruptive effect in the life of the children.
Although some of the fathers in our focus group discussion samples said
they eventually learnt the intricacies of mothering, this appears to be a
role women are more adept at, are better prepared for, and pay more
attention to. Thus, children without their mothers seem to have more
problems compared with other children in the study. Perhaps there is
nothing startling in this finding. However, it is important, considering
the increasing feminization of Filipino migration.
Overall, the impression is that migration is not necessarily disrup-
tive for the formation of the children left behind, particularly if the
mother remains in the house. The extent of disruption depends mostly
on the degree of involvement of the extended family in complement-
ing what is lacking due to parental absence. Un

family can also become a source of stress for
because of other demands, such as the use of re
fore, important to provide such families, partic
adequate training on child rearing, counselling,
support. Support groups in which issues related
are discussed appear helpful. Solo parents need
own frustration and anger in having to take ca
hold all by themselves.
In terms of migration policy, alternatives to
should be sought and provided. If female mig
lematic because of the abuses and difficulties fe
ter, that of absent mothers add to the proble
behind, especially young children. Economic
targeted particularly towards the local absorpti
force to maximize and facilitate the possibilit
with their families.
This survey has explored one aspect of the im
the family, that is, on the children. Two additi
important to study. One is the role and the dy
family during migration. The other is the link
and spousal relations. In the latter, it is mainly
that is of concern. However, it is known that n
or couples migrate to escape from difficult ma
tions. Problematic families should not be viewe
sult of separation and stress due to migration.
tion is at least a temporary way out of a difficu
Both aspects of migration's impact - exten
spousal relations - also have direct policy rel
ling programmes.
NOTE
This research was made possible by a grant from the National Secretariat of Social
Action, Justice and Peace, Philippines.
Appendix 1
List of Good and Bad Deeds
Good Deeds Bad Deeds
Helping around the house Engaging in fights/brawls

Comforting/helping friends in need Stealing/pilfering
Praying regularly Telling lies
According elders respect Cheating in games/exams/Dishonesty
Being parents/elders Saying bad words/wrong things about others
Being friendly/Making friends Gossiping
Studying very well Disobeying elders
Showing kindness to others Cutting classes
Practising fair play/Being honest Engaging in vices/gambling
Being humble Too little self-confidence
Being godly Being lazy/Playing too much
Being patient/forgiving Watching pornographic materials
Contributing to the Church Being too proud/Selfishness
Being neat/clean No fear of God
Watching only wholesome TV programmes Neglecting studies
Behaving well/Practising good manners Watching too much TV
Accepting people for what they are Killing a person
Taking care of the environment Disrespecting elders
Fighting back with elders
Envying others
Misunderstandings/Arguing heatedly
Bringing harm to the environment
Joining bad groups/fraternities
Neglecting religious duties
Committing vandalism
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gration to the Arab World: Experience of Returning Migrants, edited by G
Gunatilleke. Tokyo: United Nations University, 1991.
Asher, S.R., S. Hymel, and P.D. Renshaw. "Loneliness in Children". Child Deve
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Cox, D. "Children of Migrant Workers: A Family Relationship Issue". In Childre
and Migration: A New Challenge for World-Wide

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Dias, M. "The Families of the Migrants". In Middle E
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Graziano Battistella is Director of the Scalabrini Migration Center, Quezon City.

Ma. Cecilia G. Conaco is Professor in the Department of Psychology, University of the Phil-
ippines.
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The Impact of Labour Migration on the Children Left Behind: A Study of

Article in Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia · October 1998

Graziano Battistella Maria Cecilia C. Gastardo-Conaco

40 PUBLICATIONS 608 CITATIONS

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The Impact of Labour Migration

Graziano BATTISTELLA and Ma. Cecilia G. CONACO

studies. On the contrary, in addition to the emphasis on the individual

The Family in the Philippines

The family as a basic unit in society, with a unique function in trans-

kinship system (Go 1993), based on consangu

family responsibility concerns child upbringing, in which a dominant

to various problems arising in the family becau

Impact of Migration on the Family and on Chil

Such children are becoming delinquents and turn

At the same time a rising demand for education

researchers did not come across any cases of negle

The reason for these findings was attributed to

Parents' migration and overseas employment is generally perceived as

the children left behind. There are certainly p

Research Objectives, Methodology, and Lim

For the above reasons a research project was un

with parents left behind, caretakers, and teachers, to provide "outsider"

Metro Manila 182 25.7

Grade 4 237 33.4

Age (in years)

Female 384 54.2

Both parents present 201 28.3

Respondent Category Without Extended Family With Extended Family

the sampling process can also be raised. These two f

Findings of the Study

As expected, the migration of parents was perceived b

In the Philippines, better education for childre

Respondent General Average Grades Class Rank

Social development was tested by utilizing the Social Anxiety Scale

models by children. The data, however, show

mean, the more frequently a particular emotion was experienced (note

The absence of parents also does not appear to have a decis

appears that when the mother is at home there

Conclusions and Recommendations

This study focused on the children of migrant workers. The inconclu-

One important aspect of this study is family dynamics, which is cre-

ing what is lacking due to parental absence. Un

Good Deeds Bad Deeds

Helping around the house Engaging in fights/brawls

Abbasi, N. and M. Irfan. "Socioeconomic Effects of International Migration on

and Migration: A New Challenge for World-Wide

grants, edited by G. Gunatilleke. Tokyo: United Nations

Abroad, edited by M. Abella and Y. Atal. Bangkok: United Nations Educa-

Graziano Battistella is Director of the Scalabrini Migration Center, Quezon City.

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