Chapter : Gravitation

If there is attraction between two objects by virtue of their masses, then this force would be Gravitation
force. This force is one of the main fundamental force among all fundamental forces which has infinite
range and weak strength in nature. Although, it is weak force in compare to all other forces but it has
potential (i.e., gravitation potential) to pull an object which feels its gravitation force field.

FORMULAE
Kepler’s Laws
▪ Kepler’s three empirical laws describe the motion of planets.
First Law : Each planet moves in an elliptical orbit, with the sum at one focus of the ellipse.
Second Law : The radius vector drawn from the sun to a planet, sweeps out equal areas in equal
time interval, i.e. areal velocity is constant. This law is derived from law of conservation of angular
momentum.
dA L
= = constant.
dt 2m
C B

d A

SUN

D
Here, L is angular momentum and m is mass of planet.
Third Law : T2  r3, where r is semi-major axis of elliptical path.
Note: Circle is a special case of an ellipse. Therefore, second and third laws can also be applied
for circular path. In third law, r is radius of circular path.
▪ Most of the problems of planetary motion are solved by two conservation laws :
1. conservation of angular momentum about centre of the sun and
2. conservation of mechanical (potential + kinetic) energy
v2

(m) r1 M r2
A B
S

v1
For A and B
Using conservation of angular momentum
m1 v1 r1 = m2 v2 r2 …(1)
 v1 r1 = v2 r2
 vr = constant
Since, r2 > r1
 v2 < v1
Now, using conservation of mechanical energy
1 GMm 1 GMm
mv 21 − = mv 22 − …(2)
2 r1 2 r2

Gravitational Force between Two Point Masses

▪ It can be given as
mm
F = G 12 2
r
where G  universal gravitation constant
= 6.07 × 10–11 Nm2/kg2
Gm1m2
▪ Direct formula F = can be applied under following three conditions:
r2
1. To find force between two-point masses.
 m1 m2

r
2. To find force between two spherical bodies.
m1 m2

r
3. To find force between a spherical body and a point mass.
m1 m2

r
▪ In vector form
v

Re

Force on m2 due to m1
 Gm1m2  ˆ  Gm1m2 
F = − 2  r = − 2 r
 r   r 

Gravitation Force for Hollow Objects:

▪ Gravitational force is only attractive in nature and which acts towards the centre of object and
changes with distance.
▪ Hollow Sphere: A point mass, m is kept outside the hollow sphere of mass M (i.e., concentrated
mass at the centre) then the gravitational force would be.
Mm
F=G 2
r
▪ If a point mass is kept inside the hollow sphere, then the gravitational force would be zero.

Acceleration Due to Gravity

GM
▪ On the surface of earth, g = = 9.81 m/s2
R2  Mass of earth = 5.97 × 1024kg

▪ At height h from the surface of earth,  Radius of earth = 6400 km
g  2h 
g' = 2
 g 1 −  , if h  R
 h  R 
1 + 
 R
▪ At depth d from the surface of earth,
 d
g ' = g 1 − 
 R
g ' = 0, if d = R, i.e. at centre of earth
▪ Effect of rotation of earth at latitude ,
g ' = g − R2 cos2 
At equator  = 0, g ' = g − R2 = minimum value
At poles,  = 90, g ' = g = maximum value.
At equator, effect of rotation of earth is maximum and value of g is minimum.
At pole, effect of rotation of earth is zero and value of g is maximum.

Field Strength
▪ Gravitational field strength at a point in gravitational field is defined as
F
E= = gravitational force per unit mass
m
▪ Due to a point mass E
GM
E= 2 (Towards the mass)
r
1
or E 2
r r
▪ Due to solid sphere
Inside points E
GM
Ei = 3 r GM/R2
R
At r = 0, i.e. at centre E = 0
GM r
At r = R, i.e. on surface E = 2 R
R
GM 1
Outside points, Eo = 2 or Eo  2
r r
GM
At r = R, i.e. on surface E = 2
R
As r → , E → 0
▪ Due to a spherical shell E
Inside points, Ei = 0
GM/R2
GM
Outside points, Eo = 2
r
GM r
Just outside the surface, E = R
R2
On the surface, E – r graph is discontinuous.
▪ On the axis of a ring E
GMx
Ex = 2 Emax
(R + x2 )3/2
At x = 0, E = 0 i.e. at centre E = 0
GM x
If x >> R, E  2 R/ 2
x
i.e. ring behaves as a point mass.
As x → , E → 0
2GM R
Emax = at x =
3 3R2 2

Gravitational Potential
▪ Gravitational potential at a point in a gravitational field is defined as the negative of work done by
gravitational force in moving a unit mass from infinity to that point. Thus,
W
VP = − →P
m
▪ Due to a point mass V
Gm
V=−
r r
V → − as r → 0
and V → 0 as r → 
▪ Due to a solid sphere
GM V
Inside points Vi = − 3 (1.5R2 − 0.5r2 )
R
GM R
At r = R, i.e. on surface V = − r
R
GM GM
At r = 0, i.e. at centre V = −1.5 –
R R
V-r graph is parabolic for inside points 1.5GM
–
and potential at centre is 1.5 times the R
potential at surface.
 GM
Outside points Vo = −
r
GM
At r = R, i.e. on surface V = −
R
As r → , V → 0
V

▪ Due to a spherical shell

GM R
Inside points, Vi = − = constant r
R
GM GM
Outside points, Vo = − –
r R

GM
▪ On the axis of a ring Vx = − V
R2 + x2
GM
At x = 0, i.e. at centre, V = −
R x
This is the minimum value.
As x → , V → 0 GM
–
R
Gravitational Potential Energy
▪ This is negative of work done by gravitational forces in making the system from infinite separation
to the present position.
▪ Gravitational potential energy of two point masses is
Gm1m2
U=−
r
▪ To find gravitational potential energy of more than two point masses, we have to make pairs of
masses but neither of the pair should be repeated. For example, in case of four point masses,
m m mm mm mm mm mm 
U = −G  4 3 + 4 2 + 4 1 + 3 2 + 3 1 + 2 1 
 r43 r42 r41 r32 r31 r21 
n(n − 1)
For n point masses, total number of pairs will be .
2
▪ Maximum height attained by a particle
v 2 Re
h=
2gRe − v 2

Escape Velocity
▪ From the surface of earth,
2GM  GM 
v e = 2gR =  as g = 2 
R  R 
 11.2 km/s
▪ The value of escape velocity is 11.2 km/s from the surface of earth. From some height above the
surface of earth, this value will be less than 11.2 km/s.

Motion of Satellites
GM
▪ Orbital speed v o =
r
2
▪ Time period T = r3/2
GM
GMm
▪ Kinetic energy K =
2r
GMm
▪ Potential energy U = −
r
GMm
▪ Total mechanical energy E = −
2r
 GM v
▪ Near the surface of earth, r  R and v o = = gR = e = 7.9 kms−1 .
R 2
This is the maximum speed of any earth’s satellite.
▪ Time period of such a satellite would be
2 R
T= R3/2 = 2
GM g
= 84.6 min
This is the minimum time period of any earth satellite.

Geostationary or Parking Satellites

▪ A satellite which appears to be a at a fixed position at a definite height to an observer on earth is
called geostationary or parking satellite. They rotate from west to east.
N

Geostationary
Earth satellite
Equitorial
orbit
S
Height from earth’s surface = 36000 km
Time period = 24 h
Orbital velocity = 3.1 km/s
2 
Angular velocity = = rad/h
24 12
These satellites are used in communication purpose.

Polar Satellites
▪ These are those satellites which revolve in polar orbits around earth.
Polar orbit
N

Equator

S
Height from earth’s surface  880 km
Time period  90 min
Orbital velocity  8 km/s
2 
Angular velocity  = rad/min
90 45
These satellites revolve around the earth in polar orbits.
These satellites are used in forecasting weather, studying the upper regions of the atmosphere, in
mapping, etc.