Construction and Building Materials 259 (2020) 120428

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Influence of steel fibers corroded through multiple microcracks on the

tensile behavior of ultra-high-performance concrete
Wonsik Shin, Doo-Yeol Yoo ⇑
Department of Architectural Engineering, Hanyang University, 222 Wangsimni-ro, Seongdong-gu, Seoul 04763, Republic of Korea

h i g h l i g h t s

Better tensile performance is achieved if steel fibers are moderately corroded.

Twisted fiber in UHPC is more susceptible to corrosion than the straight fiber.

Fewer and smaller microcracks give better tensile behavior by moderate corrosion.

Steel fiber corrosion affects g-value more significantly than tensile strength.

Maximum of 23% increase in the g-value is achieved by moderate steel fiber corrosion.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This study aims to investigate the effects of pre-formed microcrack properties and immersion duration in
Received 21 February 2020 a 3.5% NaCl solution on the corrosion degree of steel fibers in ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC).
Received in revised form 11 June 2020 Two types of steel fiber, i.e., straight and twisted, two pre-strain levels causing different microcrack prop-
Accepted 29 July 2020
erties, i.e., 0.45% and 0.6%, and four immersion durations of 0, 4, 10, and 20 weeks were investigated.
Available online 1 September 2020
Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) analysis was conducted using scanning electron microscope
images for a quantitative evaluation of the degree of surface corrosion. Test results indicated that steel
Keywords:
fibers embedded in the multi-cracked UHPC are oxidized due to permeation of the NaCl solution and
Ultra-high-performance fiber-reinforced
concrete
longer immersion durations lead to a higher corrosion degree in general. Better tensile performance
Steel fibers was achieved if both the straight and twisted steel fibers were moderately corroded. The twisted-
Corrosion degree fiber-reinforced UHPC was more susceptible to corrosion than the straight-fiber-reinforced UHPC,
Tensile performance indicated by the earlier deterioration in tensile performance and lower tensile parameter ratios. Given
Microcrack property identical immersion durations, the composites with fewer and smaller microcracks provided better ten-
sile performance due to the moderately corroded steel fibers. Steel fiber corrosion influences the energy
absorption capacity more significantly than the tensile strength, irrespective of the fiber type and micro-
crack property.
Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction it can be a sustainable alternative solution having superior proper-

Ultra-high-performance fiber-reinforced concrete (UHPFRC)
was first introduced in the mid-1990 s [1], and since then, exten-
sive studies have been conducted for its practical application.
Due to the excellent strength, ductility, durability, and fatigue
resistance, this newly developed material has been actively applied
to many buildings and infrastructures worldwide [2–8]. As a typi-
cal example, Nematollahi et al. [7,8] introduced application of
UHPFRC in the precast cantilever retaining walls and verified that
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: dyyoo@hanyang.ac.krswon, sik214@hanyang.ac.kr (W. Shin),
dyyoo@hanyang.ac.kr (D.-Y. Yoo).
ties in all aspects than the conventional precast reinforced concrete
(RC) cantilever retaining wall. However, it is also known to be sus-
ceptible to shrinkage cracks occurring during the manufacturing
stage [9,10] and can form tiny microcracks that are barely detect-
able with the naked eye, owing to several environmental factors.
Xie et al. [10] reported a reduction in strength of ultra-high-
performance concrete (UHPC) over time due to a formation of ther-
mal and shrinkage cracks. The high amounts of discontinuous steel
fibers incorporated in UHPC mixture can bridge the cracks and dis-
tribute the stresses effectively, causing the formation of multiple
microcracks, instead of few macrocracks. Such tiny microcracks
can be pathways of permeation of harmful ingredients, causing
oxidation of steel reinforcements, such as the discontinuous fibers,

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.120428
0950-0618/Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 W. Shin, D.-Y. Yoo / Construction and Building Materials 259 (2020) 120428
rebars, and tendons. Algaifi et al. [11] and Hearn and Lok [12] have
similarly reported that the microcracks can create easy pathway for
harmful substances to enter and increase air permeability of concrete.
Recently, Hashimoto et al. [13] evaluated the impact of initial crack
width on the diffusivity of chloride ions and tensile response of ultra-
high-strength concrete, with the mix proportion and curing method
similar to those of UHPC, including the steel fibers under seawater
exposure conditions. The non-cracked UHPC samples exhibited insuf-
ficient steel fiber corrosion and chloride ion penetration up to
6 months, while the corrosion of steel fibers and deep chloride-ion
penetration were clearly observed in the cracked UHPC with a width
of 0.5 mm or greater [13]. The tensile strength was also influenced by
steel fiber corrosion; the corrosion initiation led to an increase of load
carrying capacity under tension. Beglarigale and Yazıcı [14] discovered
that steel fibers embedded in UHPC could remain uncorroded for up
to 1,200 wet/dry cycles when sufficiently covered in artificial seawa-
ter. Similarly, Voort [15] reported that the resistance to chloride ions
and gas permeability of UHPFRC are substantially higher than those of
ordinary concrete and high-performance concrete, e.g., its chloride ion
and gas permeability resistances are approximately 34 and 10 times
and 220 and 100 times greater than the others, respectively. This
improved performance is primarily attributed to the highly densified
microstructures of the former, which effectively prevent the growth of
rust crystals on the steel fiber surface [16]. Shaheen and Shrive [17]
noted that the corrosion process of steel fibers in UHPC is extremely
slow, thereby causing the corrosion of the exposed steel fibers only.
Likewise, previous studies [13,14,16,17] have evaluated the
steel fiber corrosion in UHPC and reported consistently that its
resistance to chloride ion penetration and steel fiber corrosion is
extraordinary if no cracks are formed. Paradoxically, UHPFRC is
susceptible to the formation of cracks, as aforementioned, and if
the embedded steel fibers are oxidized, the tensile performance
is altered considerably. In order to demonstrate the impact of steel
fiber corrosion on the tensile performance of UHPFRC, Yoo et al.
[18] recently adopted corrosion-induced steel fibers as reinforce-
ments for UHPC and discovered that the steel fiber corrosion by
up to 4% to 6% enhances the concrete’s tensile performance if the
fibers are completely pulled out from the matrix without fracture.
Although they [18] effectively evaluated the influence of steel fiber
corrosion on the tensile behavior of UHPFRC, there was a limitation
of using the pre-corroded steel fibers before mixing the concrete. In
real-world environment, the steel fibers, embedded in cement
matrix, are corroded through permeations of chloride ions, water,
oxygen, carbon dioxide, and other substances.
Accordingly, this study is the first to examine the effects of
microcracks and immersion durations in a 3.5% NaCl solution on
steel fiber corrosion in UHRC composites and the impact of corro-
sion on tensile performance. Two types of steel fibers, i.e., straight
and twisted, two pre-strain levels of 0.45% and 0.6% to provide the
various microcrack properties, and four immersion durations rang-
ing from 0 to 20 weeks were thus considered. The degree of corro-
sion on the steel fiber surface was also quantitatively evaluated
using scanning electron microscope (SEM) images with energy-
dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) analysis. Oxidization of the
steel fibers in the composites with microcracks was distinctly
observed and greatly influenced the post-cracking tensile perfor-
mance owing to the altered interfacial bond properties between
the fiber and matrix and the fiber failure mode.
2. Experimental program
2.1. Ingredients and mix proportion of UHPC
Type 1 Portland cement and silica fume (SF), i.e., Elkem
Microsilica 940U, were used to fabricate the UHPC mixture. The
mean particle size and density of the cement were 22 lm and
3.15 g/cm3, and those of SF were 0.31 lm and 2.10 g/cm3, respec-
tively. Additionally, fine aggregate and filler were used to achieve
high packing density and had mean grain sizes of 337 lm and
4.2 lm, respectively. The SiO2 content of the filler was approxi-
mately 98%. The advantages of using coarse aggregate in the UHPC
mixture are low production costs, high liquidity, and less mixing
time, but it also has a critical disadvantage of reducing the fiber
bond strength. According to the American Concrete Institute
(ACI) committee 239 [19], UHPC is required to achieve a compres-
sive strength of more than 150 MPa. Thus, such high-fineness
ingredients were only used to increase the bond strength and
lower the water-binder (W/B) ratio to 0.2, substantially affecting
the matrix strength. Additionally, a superplasticizer (SP) with a
solid content of 30% was used to achieve self-consolidating proper-
ties. As per the ASTM C1437 (flow table test) [20], the target flow
value was in the range of 230–250 mm. The detailed mix propor-
tion is given in Table 1.
2.2. Geometrical and physical properties of fibers
Concrete exhibits excellent compressive strength but is also
vulnerable to tensile forces. Therefore, steel fibers have been
adopted to reinforce this poor tensile performance. The volume
fraction of steel fibers used in this study was 2% [21]. It has been
reported that smooth, straight steel fiber with a higher aspect ratio
of 100 is more effective in enhancing the tensile performance of
UHPC than that with a lower aspect ratio of 65 [22]. Several previ-
ous studies [23–25] have also reported the benefits of deformed
steel fibers on the mechanical properties and shrinkage crack resis-
tance of concrete. Thus, the deformed (i.e., twisted) steel fiber,
which is commercially available and has an aspect ratio of 100,
was adopted in this study. Both macro straight and twisted steel
fibers with a diameter of 0.3 mm and length of 30 mm were thus
used as reinforcement in the UHPC to assess the resistance to cor-
rosion in seawater conditions and the impact of fiber corrosion on
the tensile performance of UHPC. High-strength steel fibers with a
tensile strength of greater than 2,500 MPa were used to prevent
the fibers from prematurely rupturing from the UHPC matrix. Their
geometrical and physical properties are summarized in Table 2.
2.3. Mixing and specimen preparation
For the UHPC mixture, dried cement, SF, silica sand, and silica
flour were combined in a Hobart-type mixer and pre-mixed for
10 min to ensure proper dispersion. Then, to achieve the appropri-
ate fluidity, water and SP were added and mixed for an additional
10 min. When the mixture had proper viscosity, we carefully added
the steel fibers for proper dispersion and mixed for 5 min. The flow
table test [20] was conducted to satisfy the target flow value
within the range of 230 to 250 mm.
For evaluating if the mixture achieves sufficient compressive
strength, three cylindrical samples with a diameter of 100 mm
and height of 200 mm were fabricated and tested for each variable,
as per ASTM C39 [26]. The compressive strengths of UHPC rein-
forced with 2% straight and twisted steel fibers were found to be
210 and 201 MPa, respectively, greater than 150 MPa that is rec-
ommended by ACI Committee 239 [19].
The tensile performance of the UHPC was evaluated according
to the recommendations of the Japan Society of Civil Engineers
(JSCE) [27]. A dog-bone-shaped specimen was used with a sec-
tional area of 30  13 mm2 and a length of 330 mm. The tensile
behavior after the post-cracking of the composites is considerably
influenced by the casting method [28,29], and aligning the fiber in
the tensile force direction is effective [29]. Therefore, the fresh
UHPC with steel fibers was cast in the mold parallel to the tensile
 W. Shin, D.-Y. Yoo / Construction and Building Materials 259 (2020) 120428
Table 1
Mixture proportion of UHPC.
W/By Mix design [kg/m3]
Water Cement
0.2 160.3 788.5
[Note] W/B = water-to-binder ratio and SP = superplasticizer.
*
Superplasticizer includes 30% solid (=15.8 kg/m3) and 70% water (=36.8 kg/m3).
y
W/B is calculated by dividing total water content (160.3 kg/m3 + 36.8 kg/m3) by total amount of binder (788.5 kg/m3 + 197.1 kg/m3).
Table 2
Properties of steel fibers.
Fiber type Diameter, df[mm] Length, lf[mm]
S-fiber 0.3 30.0
T-fiber 0.3 30.0
[Note] S-fiber = straight steel fiber and T-fiber = twisted steel fiber.
force to provide an appropriate and similar fiber orientation. After
pouring the concrete, the surface was covered with a vinyl sheet to
prevent the abrupt evaporation of water. The samples were then
cured for 24 h at room temperature. After the specimens were
demolded, they were immersed in a water tank at a high temper-
ature of 90 °C, which was used by the Federal Highway Administra-
tion (FHWA) in the U.S. [30], and cured for 48 h to promote
strength development. After curing, the samples were kept at room
temperature in the laboratory until the tensile experiment.
2.4. Corrosion process of fiber
If steel fibers are moderately corroded, their bond strength in
the cement matrix increases, leading to an improvement in the
tensile strength of composites. UHPC has much better corrosion
resistance than standard concrete, but if cracks occur, the steel
fibers can be corroded [13]. Thus, to evaluate the influence of
microcracks on the steel fiber corrosion in UHPC, the non– and
multi-cracked UHPC samples were immersed in a standard 3.5%
NaCl solution. Its impact on the tensile performance was then ana-
lyzed. First, for the multi-cracked samples, a tensile load was
applied before the peak-load and was then removed. The pre-
strain levels were determined to be located approximately in the
middle between the initial cracking and ultimate strains. Thus,
the samples with straight fibers were subjected to a pre-strain of
0.45%, while the pre-strains of 0.45%, as a comparison, and 0.6%
were used for the samples with the twisted fibers. Afterward, both
the non– and multi-cracked samples were exposed to NaCl solu-
tion, similar to a marine environment, for a week. The samples
were then dried for a week and immersed again in the solution
for a week. This process was repeated for a total of 4, 10, and
20 weeks. In the strain-hardening zone, only microcracks were
formed, and the NaCl solution could easily permeate through the
cracks in the multi-cracked samples, causing steel fiber corrosion,
which could be accelerated during the drying process. A schematic
description of the corrosion process is illustrated in Fig. 1.
The test variables are broadly divided into two parts, such as
straight and twisted steel fibers. The initial capical letters, S and
T, thus indicate the straight and twisted steel fibers, respectively.
For the plain sample without pre-loading and corrosion process,
a hyphen and capical letter, P, were adopted as -P. On the other
hand, the pre-cracking and corroded samples had different nota-
tions. The pre-strain level was applied following the capital letters,
S and T, and the corrosion duration is provided after the hyphen.
For example, the S0.45-c4 indicates the pre-cracked UHPC sample
containing straight steel fibers up to a pre-strain of 0.45% and
exposed to the NaCl solution for 4 weeks.
3
Silica fume Silica sand Silica flour SP*
197.1 867.4 236.6 52.6
Aspect ratio[lf/df ] Density[g/cm3] Tensile strength[MPa] Elastic modulus [GPa]
100.0 7.90 2,580 200.0
100.0 7.90 2,428 200.0
2.5. Direct tensile test
Direct tensile tests were conducted as per the JSCE recommen-
dations [27]. The detailed geometry of the samples is demon-
strated in Fig. 2. The tensile force was applied using a universal
testing machine (UTM) with a maximum load capacity of 25 kN.
In order to minimize the impact of eccentricity during the experi-
ment, the specimen was carefully installed and secured with fix-
ings and screws. Pin-fixed support conditions were used to
minimize the effects of a secondary flexural moment, and a mono-
tonic uniaxial load at a rate of 0.4 mm/min was applied based on
the speed of the stroke movement. The load cell installed at the
crosshead of the UTM was used to record the applied load. The
elongation was measured by two linear variable displacement
transformers (LVDTs) with a capacity of 10 mm, installed in a spe-
cially constructed aluminum frame, as shown in Fig. 2. The tensile
stress and strain were evaluated by dividing the measured load
and elongation by the cross-sectional area and gauge length, i.e.,
80 mm, respectively.
3. Test results and discussion
3.1. Comparative tensile behavior of UHPCs reinforced with straight
and twisted steel fibers
Fig. 3 compares the average tensile stress and strain curves of
UHPC reinforced with the straight and twisted steel fibers. Initial
cracks in the matrix were formed at the tensile stress of approxi-
mately 8 MPa for both the straight and twisted fiber samples,
and they exhibited equally higher load carrying capacity beyond
the initial cracking point that is a strain-hardening response. Inter-
estingly, the straight-fiber-reinforced UHPC samples showed
higher tensile strength than the twisted fiber samples [22], even
though the latter had a relatively higher fiber–matrix bonding area
due to its triangular shape and torque resistance, caused by the
pre-twisting [21]. The lower tensile strength is because of an insuf-
ficient matrix volume to cover the fiber ununiformly and to pre-
vent splitting cracks in the matrix by the excessive bond
strength. Thus, a portion of the twisted steel fibers was prema-
turely pulled out from the matrix without untwisting, so that the
bond resistance of the twisted fiber was not fully developed in
the composites. This is inconsistent with the findings of single fiber
pullout tests [22,31], and thus leads to inferior tensile strength
compared with that of the counterpart with straight steel fibers
at an identical aspect ratio of 100. For example, the post-cracking
tensile strength of the S-P samples was 16.7 MPa, approximately
18% higher than that of the T-P samples. A relatively smooth tensile
4 W. Shin, D.-Y. Yoo / Construction and Building Materials 259 (2020) 120428
Fig. 1. Process of steel fiber corrosion through multiple cracks.
Fig. 2. (a) Direct tensile test setup and (b) geometrical details of specimen.
stress–strain curve was observed in the sample with straight steel
fiber, while the twisted fiber sample exhibited a zigzag-shaped
curve in both the strain-hardening and softening zones, mainly
caused by spalling and splitting damages formed in the matrix.
The matrix damages can be observed in Fig. 3a, showing the local-
ized crack surfaces of the tested samples. The surface of the twisted
fiber sample was noticeably rougher than that of the straight fiber
sample owing to the matrix damages, and a portion of the twisted
fibers had not fully untwisted even after they had been completely
pulled out from the matrix.
The strain capacities and g-values are shown in Fig. 3b. Even
though the T-P samples provided a lower tensile strength, their
strain capacity of 0.95% was greater than that (0.76%) of the S-P
samples, which might be attributed to the better cracking behavior
of the former. As shown in Fig. 3a, more microcracks were formed
in the sample with the twisted fiber than with its counterpart
because it could transfer the tensile stress effectively to the sur-
rounding matrix. He et al. [32] reported that the critical transfer
distance, which is related to the spacing of microcracks, can be
reduced by increasing the fiber bridging stress and interfacial fric-
tional bond strength at a given fiber-bridging stress level. The
higher interfacial bonding area and anchorage effect of the twisted
fiber thus provided higher bond strength [22], causing the forma-
tion of more microcracks, compared with the straight fiber. The
average g-value of the S-P samples was found to be 104 kJ/m3, sim-
ilar to that (107 kJ/m3) of the T-P samples, due to the higher tensile
strength and post-cracking stiffness and lower strain capacity of
the former.
3.2. Effect of corrosion duration on the tensile behavior of UHPC with
straight steel fibers
Fig. 4 exhibits the comparative tensile stress and strain curves
of the plain, pre-cracked, and corroded straight steel fiber-
reinforced UHPC samples with various corrosion durations, i.e., 0,
4, 10, and 20 weeks, in the standard 3.5% NaCl solution. In order
to induce steel fiber corrosion in the NaCl solution, multiple micro-
cracks were pre-formed prior to the corrosion process. It was also
believed that the microcracked UHPFRC is closer to actual situa-
tions because it is susceptible to early-age shrinkage cracks [9].
In the strain-hardening zone, multiple microcracks are continu-
ously formed with limited increase in the crack width because
the fibers are in the fully bonded or partially debonded state in
general. The target tensile strain of the pre-cracked samples was
thus determined to be 0.45%, within the strain-hardening zone,
near the center between the initial cracking and peak points in
Fig. 4. The tensile stress–strain behaviors of the pre-cracked sam-
ples were reasonably similar to those of the uncracked sample,
indicating that steel fiber corrosion mostly causes the variation
in the tensile performance of the samples immersed in the NaCl
solution.
The tensile behavior of the UHPC with straight steel fibers is
surely affected by the immersion duration in the NaCl solution.
The tensile behavior of a non-corroded, pre-cracked UHPC sample
with a 0-week corrosion duration (S0.45-c0) was compared to that
of the plain sample (S-P) to evaluate the implication of pre-
cracking (control variable) on the tensile behavior, as shown in
Fig. 4a. Although the initial tensile stiffness of the pre-cracked
UHPC sample was lower than that of the plain sample, the tensile
strength and energy absorption capacity, which are fundamental
parameters for evaluating the tensile performance, were quite sim-
 W. Shin, D.-Y. Yoo / Construction and Building Materials 259 (2020) 120428
Fig. 3. Comparative tensile performance of UHPC with straight and twisted steel fibers: (a) tensile stress and strain curve and (b) summary of tensile parameters.
ilar for both samples. These results indicate that the pre-formed
microcracks in the UHPC composites do not affect the tensile
performance.
After a 4-week immersion in the standard NaCl solution, the
tensile strength of UHPC reinforced with straight steel fibers
increased substantially as compared with that of the plain sample,
as given in Fig. 4a and 5. Its tensile strength was found to be
18.8 MPa, about 13% increase over the tensile strength of the plain
sample, caused by the increased surface roughness of the moder-
ately corroded steel fibers. Frazão et al. [33] similarly reported that
the bond strength of hooked-end steel fibers in cracked self-
compacting concrete increases after 10-day immersion in the
3.5% NaCl solution due to the increased fiber surface roughness
by corrosion products. Yoo and Chun [34] have also recently
denoted that the pullout resistance of the straight steel fiber from
the UHPC matrix increases owing to the formation of an iron(III)
oxide (Fe2O3) (rust) layer on its surface from the corrosion process.
The roughened fiber surface enhances the interfacial frictional
resistance between the fiber and matrix, and a degree of corrosion
of 2%, based on the weight, was suggested as a threshold value for
achieving an excellent fiber-bridging capability in the UHPC com-
posites with random fiber orientations. The surface corrosion and
roughness were verified by SEM images of the pulled-out steel
5
fibers from the composites, summarized in Fig. 6. Slight scratches
on the surface of the steel fiber pulled out from the non-
corroded plain UHPC samples were only observed in Fig. 6a, while
both scratches and iron(III) oxide creating rougher surface were
found in the 4-week corroded samples in Fig. 6b. The surface
scratches were formed by abrasion from stiff particles at the inter-
face [35]. This can be also verified through the SEM images with
EDX analysis as shown in Fig. 7. Chemical element profiles for cop-
per (Cu), iron (Fe), and oxygen (O) were analyzed for the following
reasons: 1) Cu is the primary component of the brass-coating on
the fiber surface, 2) Fe comprises the main body of the steel fiber
and iron(III) oxide (Fe2O3), formed by the corrosion process, and
3) O is from the Fe2O3 and many other components in the hardened
cement mortar, e.g., Ca(OH)2, CaO, and SiO2. Cu from the brass
coating primarily covers the surface of the plain steel fiber before
the pulling-out process. However, as shown in Fig. 7c, most of
the brass coating was peeled off through the scratches formed dur-
ing the pulling-out process. Consequently, the main body of the
steel fiber, composed of the Fe element, is exposed, potentially
causing Fe to comprise the highest contents among the detected
chemical elements (Fig. 7d). Because the SEM image used in
Fig. 7 is from the plain steel fiber without corrosion, the small
amounts of O detected on its surface could have been contributed
6 W. Shin, D.-Y. Yoo / Construction and Building Materials 259 (2020) 120428

Fig. 4. Effect of corrosion duration on the tensile behavior of UHPC with straight steel fibers: (a) S0.45-c0, (b) S0.45-c4, (c) S0.45-c10, and (d) S0.45-c20.

Fig. 5. Effect of corrosion duration on the tensile parameters of UHPC with straight steel fibers.

by the various components in the hardened cement mortar. The
strain capacity seemingly was not affected by the 4-week corrosion
process, but the energy absorption capacity (g-value) was mark-
edly improved due to the enhanced tensile strength. The g-value
of the corroded fiber samples was calculated by summing the
energy absorbed by the pre-cracked sample up to the tensile strain
of 0.45% and the energy absorbed by the pre-cracked, corroded
sample from the strain of 0.45% to the strain capacity, emax. The
average g-value of 4-week corroded fiber samples was found to
be 127 kJ/m3, approximately 22% higher than that of the plain sam-
ples (Fig. 5).
The tensile strength decreased by increasing the immersion
duration beyond 4 weeks up to 20 weeks. Therefore, the lowest
tensile strength of 16.1 MPa was obtained in the S0.45-c20 sample,
which was smaller than that of the plain sample. Conversely, the
strain capacity and energy absorption capacity (g-value) increased
from steel fiber corrosion up to the 10-week immersion duration
and decreased thereafter. Thus, the highest strain capacity and g-
 W. Shin, D.-Y. Yoo / Construction and Building Materials 259 (2020) 120428
Fig. 6. SEM images on pulled out straight steel fibers from UHPC: (a) S-P, (b) S0.45-c4, (c) S0.45-c10, and (d) S0.45-c20.
value were obtained as 0.92% and 128 kJ/m3, respectively, in the
S0.45-c10 sample. By increasing the duration of the corrosion pro-
cess from 10 to 20 weeks, the tensile performance of the UHPFRC
composites substantially deteriorated, caused by the premature
rupture of steel fibers at the crack planes. Once the steel fiber is
severely corroded, the interfacial bond resistance is increased by
the heightened surface roughness, and the cross-sectional area
decreases. Thus, the tensile strength will be reached more readily,
leading to premature failure before the complete pull-out from the
matrix. Yoo and Chun [34] previously reported this phenomenon
based on pullout tests of straight steel fibers in UHPC with various
corrosion degrees. Similarly, Banthia and Foy [36] noted that fiber
corrosion reduces its cross-sectional area and leads to fiber fracture
at the limit. This could be verified in the current study through pic-
tures taken using a high-resolution camera with an installed mag-
nifier of the steel fibers that had been pulled out from the localized
crack planes of the samples, as shown in Fig. 8. It was apparent that
the straight steel fibers from the plain composites had completely
pulled out without any breakage. Additionally, most of the steel
fibers from the composites from the 4- and 10-week corrosion pro-
cesses were pulled out without rupture, while some ruptured steel
fibers were observed in the samples from the 20-week corrosion
process, i.e., S0.45-c20, due to excessive corrosion. The prema-
turely ruptured fibers limited further increase in the post-
cracking tensile stress of UHPFRC, which resulted in the worst ten-
sile performance among all the tested samples.
The corrosion degree of steel fibers in the UHPFRC composites
with various immersion durations was quantitatively evaluated
through EDX mapping images of the surfaces, as shown in Fig. 9.
The elemental O content, closely related to the amount of rust
formed on the surface, was also evaluated. It was evident that
the O content increased with longer immersion durations in the
NaCl solution, indicating a higher degree of corrosion. With the
corrosion process, the weight ratio of O almost doubled (11.34%
7
? 20.77%), caused by the progressive formation of rust on the sur-
face. Yoo and Chun [34] have recently reported that the O content
on the fiber surface increases with the immersion duration in the
NaCl solution, resulting in higher surface roughness and increased
pullout resistance from the UHPC matrix. This phenomenon thus
produced superior pullout performance in the S0.45-c4 and -c10
samples as compared with the plain (S-P) sample. They [34] also
discovered that the weight of the steel fiber decreased continu-
ously with an increase in the immersion duration if the rust layer
was eliminated, due to a progressive loss of electrons from Fe oxi-
dation (iron(III) oxide, Fe2O3), which is composed of Fe3+ and O2–
ions. Thus, although the O content measured on the fiber surface
did not increase between 10 and 20 weeks, a continuous reduction
in the cross-sectional area of the fiber was expected, leading to the
premature rupture of the fiber and deteriorated tensile
performance.
3.3. Tensile behavior of UHPC with corroded twisted steel fibers
3.3.1. Effect of corrosion duration
Figs. 10 and 11 summarizes the tensile stress and strain curves
of the twisted-fiber-reinforced UHPC samples with various corro-
sion durations. Similar to the straight fiber samples in Fig. 4, sim-
ilar tensile stress–strain curves were observed in the plain and
pre-cracked UHPFRC composites up to the target pre-strain levels
of 0.45% and 0.6%. To purely evaluate the influence of steel fiber
corrosion on the tensile behavior of UHPC, the pre-cracking stres-
ses at the pre-strain levels of 0.45% and 0.6% need to be similar
enough to those of plain specimen. In Figs. 10 and 11, the pre-
cracking stresses at both 0.45% and 0.6% were similar to that of
plain sample, meaning that the fiber orientation was well con-
trolled, and thus, the steel fiber corrosion effect could be precisely
evaluated. The tensile performance was thus mostly affected by
steel fiber corrosion after immersion in the NaCl solution for vari-
8 W. Shin, D.-Y. Yoo / Construction and Building Materials 259 (2020) 120428

Fig. 7. Straight steel fiber pulled out from plain UHPC matrix: (a) SEM image, (b) EDX mapping for Cu, Fe, and O elements, (c) EDX mapping for Cu element, and (d)
concentration of chemical elements.

Fig. 8. Pictures on pulled out straight steel fibers from UHPC: (a) S0.45-c0, 9b) S0.45-c4, (c) S0.45-c10, and (d) S0.45-c20.

ous durations. In the shortest duration of 4 weeks, an increase in increased fiber surface roughness from a moderate corrosion. How-
tensile performance in terms of the tensile strength and energy ever, beyond the immersion duration of 4 weeks, the substantially
absorption capacity was observed for both the T0.45- and T0.6-c4 deteriorated tensile performance was observed. After the corrosion
samples, compared with that of plain T-P sample, caused by the process, the tensile stress could not be further increased, unlike
 W. Shin, D.-Y. Yoo / Construction and Building Materials 259 (2020) 120428 9

Fig. 9. Effect of corrosion duration on the content of O element.

Fig. 10. Effect of corrosion duration on the tensile behavior of UHPC with twisted steel fibers: (a) T0.45-c0, (b) T0.45-c4, (c) T0.45-c10, and (d) T0.45-c20.

with the plain T-P sample. For the 10-week immersion duration, the strain values of 0.45% and 0.6%, respectively, demonstrating
the tensile strengths of the T0.45- and T0.6-c10 samples were quite that further improvement in tensile stress is limited after the cor-
similar to the maximum tensile stresses of pre-cracked samples at rosion process of 10 weeks. This result is inconsistent with the
10 W. Shin, D.-Y. Yoo / Construction and Building Materials 259 (2020) 120428
Fig. 11. Effect of corrosion duration on the tensile behavior of UHPC with twisted steel fibers: (a) T0.6-c0, (b) T0.6-c4, (c) T0.6-c10, and (d) T0.6-c20.
observations from the samples without the corrosion process. The
T0.45- and T0.6-c20 samples with the longest immersion duration
of 20 weeks exhibited even smaller tensile strengths compared to
the pre-cracked samples in Figs. 10 and 11. This noticeable deteri-
oration of the tensile performance after the longer immersion
duration is a consequence of the negative effects of severely cor-
roded twisted steel fibers. The surfaces of the pulled out corroded
twisted steel fibers after various immersion durations, shown in
Fig. 12, were rougher due to the rust remaining on the surface
and the abrasive scratches from the interfacial particles in the
matrix. The roughness of fiber surface appeared more severe on
increasing the immersion duration, and the corrosion progress
noticeably reduced the cross-section of the twisted fiber from the
composites with the 20-week immersion. The severe corrosion
resulted in the decrease of fiber cross-section because the rust
(Fe2O3) is formed by Fe3+ and O2– ions. The rust was formed as
the ferric ion (Fe3+) came out from the steel fiber that decreased
the cross-sectional area. Furthermore, the failure mode of twisted
steel fibers pulled out from the localized crack planes was investi-
gated for the T0.45 series, as shown in Fig. 13. The twisted fiber
from the plain matrix without the corrosion process, T-P, was com-
pletely pulled out without any breakage. Most of the fibers from
the 4-week corroded samples were also pulled out from the matrix
without rupture. In contrast, many of the twisted steel fibers from
the 10- and 20-week corroded samples were prematurely rup-
tured, as shown in Fig. 13. Therefore, it can be concluded that
the tensile performance of twisted-fiber-reinforced UHPC deterio-
rates after immersion in the NaCl solution for more than 10 weeks
due to the premature rupture of fibers from excessive corrosion.
The tensile parameters, such as the tensile strength, strain
capacity, and the g-value, of the UHPCs with the twisted steel
fibers are summarized in Fig. 14. The best tensile performance,
with the highest tensile strength, strain capacity, and g-value,
was obtained in the T0.45- and T0.6-c4 specimens. For instance,
the highest tensile strength, strain capacity, and g-value of
15.5 MPa, 1.11%, and 140 kJ/m3, respectively, were found in the
T0.45-c4 specimen, approximately 9%, 16%, and 30%, respectively,
higher than those of the T-P specimen. The improved tensile per-
formance from moderate steel fiber corrosion continuously
decreased with an increase in the immersion duration from 10 to
20 weeks, so that the worst tensile performance was demonstrated
in the T0.45- and T0.6-c20 samples. For example, the lowest tensile
strength, strain capacity, and g-value of 13.1 MPa, 0.54%, and 65 kJ/
m3, respectively, were found in the T0.45-c20 sample, which are
approximately 8%, 43%, and 39% lower than those of the plain (T-
P) sample, respectively.
3.3.2. Effects of pre-crack and -strain level
In order to evaluate the effects of microcracks and the duration
of the corrosion process on the tensile behavior, two different pre-
strain levels of 0.45% and 0.6% were adopted for the twisted-fiber-
reinforced UHPC. The comparison of the cracking behaviors of the
T0.45- and T0.6-pr samples is illustrated in Fig. 15. It is evident that
the number of microcracks formed on the matrix increases on rais-
ing the pre-strain level because the higher tensile stress is contin-
uously transferred to the surrounding matrix, causing more
microcracks. These results are consistent with the observations of
Shin et al. [37] on the increasing numbers of microcracks of
 W. Shin, D.-Y. Yoo / Construction and Building Materials 259 (2020) 120428 11

Fig. 12. SEM images on pulled out twisted steel fibers from UHPC: (a) T-P, (b) T0.45-c4, (c) T0.45-c10, and (d) T0.45-c20.

Fig. 13. Pictures on pulled out twisted steel fibers from UHPC: (a) T0.45-c0, 9b) T0.45-c4, (c) T0.45-c10, and (d) T0.45-c20.

high-performance fiber-reinforced cementitious composites under
flexural loads. Although the widths of the pre-formed microcracks
are tiny, there was a slight increase in the crack widths when
increasing the pre-strain level from 0.45% to 0.6%. For example,
the average microcrack width of the T0.6-pr sample was
26.9 lm, approximately 30% higher than that (20.6 lm) of the
T0.45-pr sample. The average crack width was calculated based
on the following process: 1) ten microcracks were randomly
selected, 2) the widths of a single microcrack at three different
locations were measured, and 3) the thirty measured crack widths
were averaged. Thus, it is reasonable to expect that the NaCl solu-
tion could more effectively corrode the steel fibers in the T0.6-pr
samples than those in the T0.45-pr samples through the more
numerous and wider microcracks. This can be supported by the
findings of Frazão et al. [33] that the bond strength of steel fiber
in concrete is more highly increased with the crack width under
the corrosion enviroment. Hashimoto et al. [13] similarly discov-
ered deep chloride-ion penetration and steel fiber corrosion in
UHPC with crack widths of 0.5 mm or greater.
For the quantitative evaluation of the implications on the ten-
sile behavior of corroded UHPFRC from the pre-cracks and strain
level, the tensile parameter ratios of the tensile strength and
energy absorption capacity based on the plain samples are given
in Fig. 16a. Both the tensile strength and g-value ratios of the
T0.45 series were higher than those of the T0.6 series in general,
which might be caused by the more severely corroded steel fibers
in the latter. Based on our investigation of the failure mode of the
pulled out twisted steel fibers from the T0.45- and T0.6-c4 samples
12 W. Shin, D.-Y. Yoo / Construction and Building Materials 259 (2020) 120428

Fig. 14. Effect of corrosion duration on the tensile parameters of UHPC with twisted steel fibers: (a) T0.45 series and (b) T0.6 series.

(Fig. 16b), some of the ruptured fibers were detected from the lat-
ter only. For the immersion duration of 4 weeks, further improve-
ment of tensile strength and energy absorption capacity was
limited in the T0.6-c4 samples due to the more severely corroded
fibers that had prematurely ruptured compared to the T0.45-c4
sample. For the longer immersion duration of 10 weeks, the rup-
tured twisted fibers were both detected for the T0.45- and T0.6-
c10 samples, but because the latter was more highly corroded, it
demonstrated worse tensile performance than the former. On the
contrary, the tensile performances of T0.45- and T0.6-c20 were
similar at the longest duration of 20 weeks, apparently due to
highly corroded fibers in the T0.45-c20 samples as well. Fewer
and smaller microcracks formed on the UHPFRC composites effec-
tively delay the corrosion of embedded steel fibers, and thus, better
tensile performance can be achieved at identical corrosion
durations.

3.4. Comparative corrosion effect on the tensile behavior of UHPFRC

according to steel fiber type

The deterioration of the tensile performance of UHPFRC started

Fig. 15. Pictures of typical crack patterns: (a) S0.45-pr, (b) T0.45-pr, and (c) T0.6-pr. at the immersion duration of 20 and 10 weeks for the straight and
 W. Shin, D.-Y. Yoo / Construction and Building Materials 259 (2020) 120428 13

Fig. 16. Effect of pre-strain level on the tensile performance of UHPC with twisted steel fibers: (a) summary of tensile parameter ratios and (b) comparative failure modes of
fibers.
14 W. Shin, D.-Y. Yoo / Construction and Building Materials 259 (2020) 120428
twisted steel fiber samples, respectively. This result means that the
twisted steel fiber is more susceptible to the surface corrosion than
the straight steel fiber due to higher possibility of rupture failure. It
has been reported that the interfacial bond resistance of steel fibers
in UHPC is enhanced due to the increased roughness from surface
corrosion [34]. The maximum fiber tensile stress generated by the
pullout force is much higher for the twisted steel fiber in the UHPC
matrix than for the straight steel fiber in the same matrix due to
the greater fiber–matrix bonding area and anchorage effect of the
former. Given the identical embedded length, the maximum ten-
sile stress of the twisted fiber is thus closer to its ultimate tensile
strength than that in the case of its counterpart, thereby causing
a higher possibility of rupture failure. For example, the maximum
tensile stress of the aligned twisted steel fiber in the UHPC was
found to be 1,941.1 MPa, similar to its ultimate tensile strength
of 2,428 MPa and much higher than that (1,249.0 MPa) of the
aligned straight fiber in the same matrix [38]. Furthermore, the
twisted fiber samples produced more microcracks at the pre-
cracking strain of 0.45% than the straight fiber samples, which is
consistent with the findings of Yoo et al. [22]. The cracking behav-
iors of the pre-cracked (S0.45- and T0.45-pr) samples are com-
pared in Fig. 15. Notably, the average microcrack widths of the
S0.45- and T0.45-pr samples were quite similar to each other,
i.e., 20.9 and 20.7 lm, respectively. Conversely, the average num-
ber of microcracks was found to be approximately 9.8 ea for the
T0.45-pr samples, about two times higher than that (4.3 ea) of
the S0.45-pr samples. The twisted steel fiber is known to generate
micro splitting cracks to the surrounding matrix during its pulling
out process [39]. Due to the higher number of microcracks and
splitting cracks formed in the matrix, the higher corrosion degree
was expected to be generated in the twisted steel fibers and pre-
mature rupture failure. Accordingly, the tensile performance of
twisted-fiber-reinforced UHPC samples started to deteriorate at
Fig. 17. EDX mapping images of pulled out steel fibers from multi-cracked UHPC with 10-week immersion duration at various locations: (a) d = 2 mm, (b) d = 5 mm, and (c)
center.
an earlier immersion duration of 10 weeks than their counterpart
with the straight fibers which started to deteriorate at 20 weeks;
thus, the twisted fiber samples are considered to be more suscep-
tible to corrosion environments. The EDX mapping analysis of the
fiber surfaces pulled out from the UHPFRC composites at various
locations, i.e., the cross-sectional center, 2 mm, and 5 mm from
the exposed surface, of the S0.45- and T0.45-c10 samples supports
this explanation, as shown in Fig. 17. Regardless of the steel fiber
type, the fibers located closer to the exposed surface (2 mm) are
the most highly corroded. For the straight steel fibers, the degree
of corrosion, indicated by the O content, became quite similar from
the location of 5 mm to the center. Conversely, the degree of cor-
rosion of the twisted steel fibers seemed to continuously decrease
as the distance from the exposed surface to the center was
increased (2 mm ? 5 mm ? center), and the O content at the loca-
tions of 5 mm and the center was higher for the twisted fiber sam-
ples than for its counterpart with straight fibers. This increase is
caused by the higher permeability of the NaCl solution through
the wider and more numerous microcracks in the former.
In order to compare the effects of corrosion on the tensile per-
formance of the UHPC with straight and twisted steel fibers, the
tensile parameter ratios, i.e., tensile strength and g-value ratios,
for the plain samples are summarized in Fig. 18. Higher tensile
parameter ratios were obtained in the straight fiber samples in
general, as compared to the twisted fiber samples that have a
higher susceptibility to corrosion. Additionally, the tensile energy
absorption capacity of UHPFRC was more highly influenced by cor-
rosion than the tensile strength, regardless of the steel fiber type
(Fig. 18). Yoo and Chun [34] recently reported that surface corro-
sion is effective in improving both the bond strength and pullout
stiffness up to a certain degree. The higher bond strength and pull-
out stiffness, which can more effectively transfer tensile stress to
the surrounding matrix and generate multiple microcracks, could
 W. Shin, D.-Y. Yoo / Construction and Building Materials 259 (2020) 120428
Fig. 18. Effects of fiber type and immersion duration on the tensile parameter ratios of UHPFRC.
lead to higher strain capacity. Because the g-value is related to both
the tensile strength and strain capacity, the steel fiber corrosion
impacted the g-value more than the tensile strength itself.
4. Conclusions
This study investigated the effect of steel fibers corroded
through pre-formed microcracks on the tensile performance of
UHPFRC. Two different types of steel fiber, i.e., straight and twisted,
were used, and two pre-strain levels of 0.45% and 0.6% were
applied to examine the influence of microcrack properties on the
degree of steel fiber corrosion. SEM-EDX analysis was conducted
on the pulled out fibers to quantitatively evaluate the degree of
corrosion. Based on the test results and discussion, the following
conclusions can be drawn.
1) Using the twisted fiber was more effective in enhancing the
deformability of UHPC than the straight fiber, but they both
provided similar energy absorption capacities due to the
lower tensile strength of the former.
2) The NaCl solution permeating through the microcracks oxi-
dized both the straight and twisted steel fibers embedded
in UHPC, and longer immersion duration generally led to
higher corrosion degree.
3) The tensile performance of UHPC with straight steel fibers
was generally improved by moderate fiber corrosion when
immersed in the NaCl solution for up to 10 weeks, but it
15
was significantly deteriorated thereafter due to the prema-
ture ruptures of fibers. The S0.45-c10 sample provided the
highest g-value of 128 kJ/m3, approximately 23% higher than
that of the plain sample.
4) The twisted-fiber-reinforced UHPC demonstrated better ten-
sile performance at the shortest immersion duration of
4 weeks, but the performance continuously deteriorated
after that. Thus, the twisted-fiber-reinforced UHPC is consid-
ered to be more susceptible to corrosion than its counter-
part, as indicated by the earlier deterioration of tensile
performance and the lower tensile parameter ratios.
5) Given identical immersion durations, the composites with
fewer and smaller pre-formed microcracks resulted in better
tensile performance due to the moderately corroded steel
fibers. Conversely, if most of the steel fibers were severely
corroded, the effect of the microcrack properties on the ten-
sile performance was mitigated.
6) Compared to the tensile strength, the energy absorption
capacity of UHPFRC was more significantly affected by steel
fiber corrosion, regardless of the fiber type and microcrack
properties.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Wonsik Shin: Formal analysis, Data curation, Writing - original
draft. Doo-Yeol Yoo: Supervision, Conceptualization, Writing -
review & editing, Funding acquisition.
16 W. Shin, D.-Y. Yoo / Construction and Building Materials 259 (2020) 120428
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by the National Research Foundation
of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korea government (MSIT) (No.
2017R1C1B2007589).
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