Biology formal test

● Polar molecules: Polar molecules are the attraction of two atoms one with positive
charge e other with negative charge, this difference allows them to attract each other
with opposite charge and form a polar molecule.

Nonpolar Molecules: Apolar molecules don't have either positive or negative charge, this
makes them not attractive for other atoms.

Covalent Bond: Is the union of atoms in pairs or groups, sharing electrons, this is the
covalent bond.

Ionic bond: Is a type of bond formed from the attraction between positively and negatively
charged ions in a chemical compound, the ionic bond is always polar because it connects
two oppositely charged atoms

Types of covalent bonds:

● Nonpolar covalent bond: Is when the atoms share electrons equally, the resulting
molecule don't have even positive or negative poles, making the molecule nonpolar.
● Polar covalent bond: Is when the atoms share their electrons unevenly. The resultant
molecule is going to have positive and negative polos, becoming a polar bond.

Brazilian Biomes:
Amazon Forest
 ● Climate: Humid and hot, with a lot of rain.
● Vegetation: Tall trees that form a verdant canopy, dense vegetation rich in
biodiversity.
Caatinga:
● Climate: Hot and dry for most of the year, with rain only in a few months.
● Vegetation: Undergrowth, cacti, thorny trees and vegetation adapted to drought.

Cerrado:
● Climate: Hot and humid in summer, dry and cold in winter.
● Vegetation: Twisted trees, open savannas, rocky fields and vegetation adapted to the
seasonal climate.

Atlantic Forest:
● Climate: Humid and hot, with lots of rain and high humidity.
● Vegetation: Dense forest with tall trees, rich in biodiversity and endemism.

Pampa:
● Climate: Subtropical with warm summers and cold winters.
● Vegetation: Grasslands with grasses, adapted to drought.

Pantanal:
● Climate: Humid and hot, with seasonal floods that transform the landscape.
● Vegetation: Aquatic and terrestrial vegetation rich in biodiversity.

Biodiversity: Biodiversity is related to the different types of species that can be found in an
area
Abundance: Number of individuals (living organisms in a particular area)
Species richness: In a defined area, species richness represents the different number of
species that can be found.

Species A B C D

Environment 1 0 3 5 2

Environment 2 2 3 0 10

Environment 3 0 0 0 153

Environmental 1 and 2 has the bigger biodiversity because it has a different number of
species in a different area. The environment that has more abundance is the 3, because it
has a large number of one species in a specific area. The species richness in Environment
1 is 3, we can find 3 different types of species in Environment 1, species A, B, C and D.

Community A
Biodiversity: 4
Abundance: 10
Species richness: 4

Community B
Biodiversity: 4
Abundance: 10
Species richness: 4

Brazilian disease cycle:

Chagas cycle: Toxoplasmosis cycle :

Malária Cycle:
Amebiasis cycle:

Intestinal giardiasis cycle:

Cysticercosis cycle:
 Schistosomiasis cycle:
Taeniasis cycle:
 Ascariasis cycle: Ancylostomiasis cycle:

Filariasis

Disease Host(s) Treatment Symptoms

 Antiparasitic Acute: Fever, fatigue, muscle aches, swollen lymph nodes,
medication headache, loss of appetite, vomiting, diarrhea.
(limited Chronic: Heart problems (enlarged heart, irregular heartbeat,
effectiveness in heart failure), digestive issues (abdominal pain, constipation,
Chagas Disease Humans chronic cases) difficulty swallowing).
Antibiotic
combination
therapy (for Often asymptomatic.
Humans (can pregnant women Acute: Flu-like symptoms (fever, fatigue, muscle aches, swollen
infect many or lymph nodes), headache, night sweats. Can cause serious
warm-blooded immunocomprom complications in pregnant women and immunocompromised
Toxoplasmosis animals) ised) individuals (vision problems, brain inflammation).
Antimalarial Classic triad: Fever, chills, sweating.
medications Additional symptoms: Headache, muscle aches, fatigue,
(varies nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, yellowing of skin and eyes (jaundice),
depending on confusion, seizures (severe cases). Symptoms vary depending on
Malária Humans parasite strain) the type of malaria.
Antiprotozoal Diarrhea (may be bloody, with mucus), abdominal cramps,
Amoebiasis Humans medication urgency to have a bowel movement, dehydration (severe cases).
Humans (can
infect other Antiprotozoal Diarrhea (watery or greasy, foul-smelling), fatigue, gas, bloating,
Intestinal Giardiasis mammals) medication abdominal cramps, weight loss, nausea.
Depends on location of cyst(s):
Medication (may Brain: Seizures, headaches, dizziness, vision problems, learning
Humans (pigs require surgery disabilities, mental confusion (severe cases).
are intermediate for cysts in brain Eyes: Vision problems, pain, inflammation. Muscle: Pain,
Cysticercosis hosts) or eyes) weakness, swelling (rare).
Acute: Fever, fatigue, muscle aches, cough, itchy skin rash (after
Humans (aquatic swimming in contaminated water).
snails are Chronic: Bloody diarrhea, abdominal pain, blood in urine,
intermediate Antiparasitic difficulty urinating, painful urination, genital problems, kidney
Schistosomiasis hosts) medication damage (severe cases).
Humans
(cattle/pigs are
Taeniasis (Beef/Pork intermediate Antiparasitic Abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, weight loss, feeling hungry all
Tapeworm) hosts) medication the time, seeing segments of the worm in stool.
Antiparasitic Abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, coughing, wheezing,
Ascariasis (Roundworm) Humans medication fever, weight loss, passing worms in stool.

Skin irritation (itchy rash at entry point), cough, wheezing, fatigue,

Antiparasitic shortness of breath, iron deficiency anemia (pale skin, tiredness,
Ancylostomiasis (Hookworm) Humans medication weakness).
Depends on the type of filariasis:
Humans Antiparasitic Lymphatic filariasis: Swollen limbs (legs, scrotum), thickened
(mosquitoes are medication (may skin, pain.
intermediate require long-term River blindness: Eye pain, blurry vision, progressive vision loss
Filariasis hosts) treatment) (can lead to blindness).

Disease Life Cycle

 1. Kissing bugs carry Trypanosome parasites.
2. Kissing bug bites a human and releases parasites in their saliva.
3. Parasites enter the bloodstream and infect cells.
Chagas Disease 4. They multiply and spread throughout the body, potentially damaging organs.
1. Cats shed Toxoplasma gondii cysts in their feces.
2. Humans can become infected by accidentally ingesting cysts from cat feces (e.g., unclean litter
boxes), contaminated meat, or organ transplants.
Toxoplasmosis 3. Cysts break open, releasing parasites that invade tissues and multiply.
1. Plasmodium parasites live inside female Anopheles mosquitoes.
2. Infected mosquito bites a human and injects sporozoites.
3. Sporozoites travel to the liver and mature into merozoites.
4. Merozoites rupture liver cells, enter the bloodstream, and infect red blood cells.
5. Inside red blood cells, parasites multiply rapidly.
6. Red blood cells burst, releasing new merozoites to infect more cells (repeating cycle causes
Malaria fever and chills).
1. Entamoeba histolytica cysts are passed in the stool of infected people.
2. A healthy person ingests cysts from contaminated food or water (poor hygiene or sanitation).
Amoebiasis 3. Cysts hatch in the intestines, releasing amoebas that can cause inflammation and diarrhea.
1. Giardia lamblia cysts are passed in the stool of infected humans or animals.
2. A healthy person ingests cysts from contaminated food or water (fecally contaminated sources).
3. Cysts hatch in the intestines, releasing trophozoites that attach to the intestinal wall, causing
Intestinal Giardiasis irritation and diarrhea.
1. Eggs from the adult pork tapeworm (Taenia solium) leave the infected human in their stool.
2. Pigs ingest the eggs while eating contaminated feces.
3. Eggs hatch in the pig's intestines, releasing larvae that burrow into muscle tissue and form cysts.
Cysticercosis (Pork 4. Humans become infected by eating undercooked pork containing these cysts.
Tapeworm) 5. Inside the human intestine, the cysts develop into adult tapeworms, restarting the cycle.
1. Eggs from adult Schistosoma worms leave the infected human in their urine.
2. Eggs hatch in water, releasing miracidia that seek out and infect specific aquatic snails. 3. Inside
the snail, the parasite goes through several developmental stages, multiplying.
4. Free-swimming cercariae emerge from the snail and can penetrate human skin during contact
with contaminated water.
5. The cercariae mature into adult worms inside the human body, migrating to specific organs and
Schistosomiasis laying more eggs.
1. Similar to pork tapeworm, eggs from the adult beef tapeworm (Taenia saginata) leave the
infected human in their stool.
2. Cattle ingest the eggs while grazing on contaminated pastures.
3. Eggs hatch in the cow's intestines, releasing larvae that burrow into muscle tissue and form
cysts.
4. Humans become infected by eating undercooked beef containing these cysts.
Taeniasis (Beef Tapeworm) 5. Inside the human intestine, the cysts develop into adult tapeworms, restarting the cycle.
1. Eggs from adult roundworms (Ascaris lumbricoides) are passed in the stool of infected
individuals.
2. The eggs develop and become infective in the soil over time.
3. Humans accidentally ingest infective eggs from contaminated soil (poor sanitation or children
playing in dirt).
4. The eggs hatch in the intestines, releasing larvae that migrate through the bloodstream to the
lungs.
5. Larvae are coughed up, swallowed, and mature into adult worms in the intestines, restarting the
Ascariasis (Roundworm) cycle.
1. Eggs from adult hookworms (Ancylostoma duodenale or Necator americanus) are passed in the
Ancylostomiasis stool of infected individuals.
(Hookworm) 2. Eggs hatch in warm, moist soil, releasing larvae that live freely for a time
Disease Target Body Part(s)
Chagas Heart, digestive system (primarily intestines), nervous system (acute: possible brain
Disease inflammation)
Lymph nodes, brain, eyes (can cause serious complications in these organs for pregnant
Toxoplasmosis women or immunocompromised individuals)

Malaria Blood, liver, spleen

Amoebiasis Intestines (large intestine: colon)

Intestinal
Giardiasis Small intestine
Cysticercosis Brain (most serious), eyes, muscles (less common)
Schistosomiasi
s Intestines, bladder, kidneys, other organs depending on worm species
Taeniasis
(Beef/Pork
Tapeworm) Intestines
Ascariasis
(Roundworm) Intestines, lungs (during larval migration)
Ancylostomiasi
s (Hookworm) Skin (entry point), lungs (during larval migration), intestines
Filariasis Lymphatic system (lymphatic filariasis), eyes (river blindness)

2
Standard deviation and 𝑅

Standard deviation: The standard deviation is how spread a set of data is from its
average value. A higher standard deviation means that the graphic has a greater
dispersion of the data points, while a lower standard deviation means that the data
are clustered to the average.

R - squared: It evaluates the accuracy of a model in predicting results. R² is like a

grade for your prediction model: the higher it is, the better the model explains the
variability of what you want to predict.

Interpretation of standard deviation and R- squared

Standard Deviation
 In this image, the bell curve represents the distribution of data points, with the mean
(average) at the center. The shaded areas on either side of the mean represent the
standard deviation. A wider shaded area indicates a higher standard deviation,
meaning the data points are more spread out from the mean.

R-Squared

In this image, the scatter plot shows the relationship between two variables. The
regression line represents the predicted values for one variable based on the other.
The R-squared value, typically displayed near the top right corner of the graph,
indicates how well the regression line fits the data points. A higher R-squared value
(closer to 1) means the regression line better explains the relationship between the
variables.

Example:

Standard Deviation: Imagine a group of friends shooting at a target. A low standard

deviation means the shots are more clustered closer to the center, while a high
standard deviation indicates the shots are more dispersed across the target.

R Squared: Imagine a guessing game where you try to guess which animal a friend
is thinking of. A high R-Squared means that your questions (hints) helped you to
guess the animal correctly, while a low R-Squared indicates that your questions did
not help you much to guess the animal.