Contemporary

Grammar of English
Third Year
Prof. Mahdi M. Mohammed Alasadi

@alasadimehdi @alasadimehdi @Mahdi_Asad

2022-2023

Dept. of English- College of Education for Human Sciences-UOB

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Chapter Two: Elements of Grammar

Parts of a Sentence
Structurally speaking, the English sentence is classified into simple, compound and
complex. A simple sentence is the one that contains a subject, a verb, and a completed
thought. It can stand alone as an independent clause. Consider the following sentence:

Ex. Mary is wearing a face mask.

The above sentence is an example of a good simple sentence. It consists of a subject

(Mary), a verb phrase (is wearing), and an object (a face mask). In addition, it conveys
a completed thought.

A compound sentence is the one that is made up of two or more clauses of equal
grammatical importance joined by a coordinating conjunction. Consider the following
Ex. He went to the stadium, but I went home.

The above sentence is composed of two independent clauses coordinated by the

coordination conjunction (but). Each of the two sentences has a subject, a verb, and a
completed thought, so the understanding of any of the sentences is not dependent on
the other. Each one of them can stand alone with a complete meaning.

A complex sentence consists of one main clause and one or more subordinate
clauses. So, the clauses that made up the complex sentence do not have equal
grammatical importance, one of them is dependent on the other. The dependent or
subordinate clause cannot stand alone with a complete thought; its understanding is
dependent on the main clause which completes its meaning. Consider the following
sentence:

Ex. I like John because John likes me.

The above sentence is made up of two clauses one of them is independent (main
clause) (I like John) which can stand alone with a complete meaning, and the other one
is dependent (subordinate clause) (because John likes me) which can't stand alone with
a complete meaning unless it is attached to the main clause.

The English simple sentence is traditionally divided into two parts: Subject &
Predicate. The subject has the following characteristics:

1. It is the person or the thing about which we make an assertion, it is related to

what is being discussed.
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2. It determines concord or agreement with the verb in terms of number, a

singular subject requires a singular verb form while a plural subject requires a
plural verb form.
3. It is the part of the sentence that changes its position as we go from a
statement to question

The predicate is what we say about the subject. It is that part of the sentence which
contains the verbal element. So, the predicate in the following example is the whole
italicized part:

Ex. The student read the book.

However, in the next example below, the predicate is divided into (the auxiliary
verb as the operator & the predication).

Ex. The student is reading the book.

Range of Operators
The verb phrase may have several auxiliary verbs. In such case, it is the first
auxiliary that acts as operator. An operator is the auxiliary verb that facilitates the
expression of negation and interrogation. Consider the following examples:

• They should have been executed for their crimes.

• Should they have been executed for their crimes?
• They shouldn’t have been executed for their crimes.
The modal auxiliary verb (should) is the operator in the examples above for it
comes first in the sequence of auxiliaries and it performs the operations of negation and
interrogation.

Do-Operator
If the verb phrase has no auxiliary in the positive declarative sentence, do is
introduced when an operator is required for negation, interrogation and emphasis.
Consider the following examples:

• They trampled the roses.

To perform an operation on this sentence we need an operator. Since no auxiliary
verb is available in the sentence we should introduce the verb do. As the tense of the
sentence is past simple we should use the past form of the verb do which is did.

• Did they trample the roses? (interrogation)

• They didn’t trample the roses. (negation)
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• They did trample the roses. (emphasis)

Be-Operator
The verb be can act as operator whether it is an auxiliary verb, as in:

• Peter is wearing a face mask.

• Mary was washing the dishes.
• The children were vaccinated against Covid19.
The verbs (is, was, were) can be used to convert the above sentences into negation
and interrogation. Do it yourselves.

Or it is a main verb, as in:

• Brian is a pediatrician.
• Judy is smart.
• They are physical therapists.

Have-Operator
In British English the verb have can act as operator whether it is an auxiliary verb,
as in:

• Peter has been uploading his application documents.

• They have eaten today. too many carbs
The verbs (has/have) can be used to convert the above sentences into negation and
interrogation. Do it yourselves.

Or it is a main verb, as in:

• Brian has a degree.

• The child has a rotten tooth.
We will see later that in dynamic senses the lexical (main) verb have in both AmE
and BrE normally has the do-construction. Consider the following examples:

• He has coffee with his breakfast.

• Does he have coffee with his breakfast?
• He doesn’t have coffee with his breakfast.

Sentence Elements
The English sentence may alternatively comprise five units: (Subject, verb,
complement, object, adverbial). This doesn‟t mean that every English sentence
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should contain all these units, of course not, but by saying so we mean that these units
are the major units to be used in the English sentence. Consider the following
examples:

• Jump! (V)
• The girl laughed. (SV)
• John rented a flat. (SVO)
• Janet is a nurse. (SVC)
• George is upstairs. (SVA)
The above examples show that it is not necessarily for the English sentence to
comprise all these units.

Objects
You need to differentiate between two types of objects; direct & indirect.
Consider the following examples:

1. The boy ate the cake.

2. John bought his daughter a cell-phone.
Though both (the cake) and (his daughter) are labelled “object”, the relation
between each one of them with its fellow elements is different from the other.

In the first example the action, instigated by the verb (ate), directly passes from
(the boy) to (the cake), while in the second example the action doesn‟t pass from
(John) to (his daughter) directly but it passes through another station ( a cell- phone)
till it is received by (his daughter).

A sentence whose verb is a mono-transitive requires a direct object only, while a

sentence with a di-transitive verb requires a direct object and an indirect object.

We call (the cake) in example 1 (a direct object), but we call (his daughter) in
example 2 (an indirect object).

Indirect object
• The indirect object always precedes the direct object.
• The indirect object is mostly a noun phrase referring to a person.
• Its relationship to the other elements is that of a recipient.
• It can be deleted.

Direct Object
• The direct object always comes after the indirect object.
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• It must always be present if there is an indirect object.

• It is a noun phrase referring to things.
• It has the meaning of (what is done for) or (received by) the indirect object.

Complements
You need to differentiate between two types of complements; subject
complement & object complement. Consider the following examples:

1. John is a dentist.
2. They crowned him king.
You can see that ( a dentist) has a direct relation to the subject (John), therefore we
call it subject complement. The word (king) has a direct relation to the object (him),
therefore we call it object complement.

Categories of Verb
The verb is a major element in the English sentence. This means that it should be
present always. The distinction between verbs is drawn according to two criteria:

1. Their relation to object and complement type.

2. Whether they themselves admit the aspectual contrast of “progressive” and“non-
progressive”.
Concerning criterion No.1 verbs are divided into two categories:

• Intensive verbs: are those verbs that show a close semantic relationship
between the subject and the complement. Intensive verbs are (intransitive), they
don‟t require an object to complete their meaning, but they rather require a
subjective complement. The verbs (to be) and some linking verbs are the most
frequent intensives. Intensive verbs complement the subject, they tell us
something about the subject. They are usually followed by a noun, a preposition
or an adjective which tells us something about the subject of the sentence.
Consider the following examples:

• Max is a doctor. "a doctor" tells us what Max is.

• The cat is in the kitchen. "in the kitchen" tells us where the cat is located.
• Sam seems happy. "happy" describes Sam's state of being.
• Extensive verbs: We use extensive verbs to say what the subject is doing.
Extensive verbs are most other verbs, they do not have a subject complement.
Words or phrases following an extensive verb work as the verb‟s object. They
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apply to the verb, not the subject. Extensive verbs can either be (transitive or
intransitive). Consider the following examples:

• John runs fast. The focus of the sentence is (run) and how he does that.
• He stroked the dog.
• He sent me a message.
As far as criterion No.2 is concerned, verbs are divided into Stative & Dynamic.

Stative verbs are those verbs that do not usually occur in the progressive.
Semantically speaking they are used to express state of affairs rather than actions. They
often relate to:

• thoughts and opinions: agree, believe, doubt, guess, imagine, know, mean,
recognize, remember, suspect, think, understand
• feelings and emotions: dislike, hate, like, love, prefer, want, wish
• senses and perceptions: appear, be, feel, hear, look, see, seem, smell, taste
• possession and measurement: belong, have, measure, own, possess, weigh.
Dynamic verbs are those verbs that admit the progressive aspect. In English
grammar, a dynamic verb is a verb used primarily to indicate an action, process, or
sensation as opposed to a state. Such verbs are also called action verbs or event verbs.
Consider the following examples:

• The farmer trimmed the trees.

• My daughter baked a cake.
• The bird is singing beautifully.
English transitive verbs fall into three types:

1. Mono-transitive verbs are those verbs that require one object to complete their
meaning as in (John broke the window).

2. Di-transitive verbs are those verbs that require a direct object as well as an
indirect object, as in ( She bought her son a computer).

3. Complex transitive verbs are those verbs that require an object and an object
complement, as in ( They elected Biden president ).

Some English transitive verbs may undergo the process of category conversion, i.e
they might be converted from the category of transitive into the category of
intransitive, as in the following examples:

• They are hunting ducks. ( SVO )

• They are hunting. ( SV )
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In the same way they might be changed within the category of transitive from di-
transitive into mono-transitive, as in the following examples:

• Prof. Smith is teaching them physics. ( SVOO )

• Prof. Smith is teaching physics. ( SVO )

The Difference between Adverbs and Adverbials

"Adverbs and adverbials are similar but not the same. Though they share the same
modifying function, their characters are different. An adverbial is a sentence element
or functional category. It is a part of a sentence that performs a certain function. An
adverb, on the other hand, is a type of word or part of speech. We can say that an
adverb may serve as an adverbial, but an adverbial is not necessarily an adverb.”

The adverb is a label for a syntactic category, covering familiar single-word items
such as quickly, happily, and spontaneously. The adverbial refers to a function.
Linguistic elements that have this function include adverbs plus other linguistic
elements such as phrases (on the table, at the bookstore, next week, last year, etc.) and
clauses (e.g., after he saw the movie).“

Categories of Adverbial
We can distinguish the following categories of adverbials:
• Temporal adverbials (e.g. now, at five o‟clock, today…etc),
• Spatial adverbials (here, north, up, at home),
• Process adverbials (carefully, slowly, quickly, ….etc)
The list above is not complete for we have some other categories of adverbials
like (manner adverbials, degree adverbials, and frequency adverbials).

Adverbials are very free in their placement, appearing in different positions in the
sentence, not just sentence final:

• sentence initial: [Yesterday], I ran a marathon.

• sentence final: I ran a marathon [yesterday].
• Preverbal: I [always] run well in the heat.
• Postverbal: I handed the baton [quickly] to the next runner.
• within the verb group: I have [never] won a race.

Central and peripheral elements of the clause

The classification of the constituents of the English sentence can be done either on the
basis of the unit‟s form (its internal structure, as a noun phrase, or as a verb phrase), or
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on the basis of its FUNCTION (as a subject or an object of a clause). By function is

meant a unit's 'privilege of occurrence', in terms of its position, mobility, optionality,
etc.

According to the functional classification of the constituents of the sentence the

following generalizations have been made by grammarians:

1. The verb element (V) is the most 'central' element that is preceded by the subject
(S).
2. Following the verb there may be one or two objects (0), or a complement (C),
which follows the object if one is present.
3. The most peripheral element is the adverbial, which can occur either initially (in
front of the subject), or finally (after the verb, and after the object or complement
if one is present). Many adverbials, however, may also occur Medially.
4. A clause may contain a varied number of final adverbials.
The distinction between 'centre' and 'periphery' can be illustrated in the following
way. The verb element is the most 'central„ element in that (i) its position is normally
medial rather than initial or final; (ii) it is normally obligatory; (iii) it cannot normally
be moved to a different position in the clause; and (iv) it helps to determine what other
elements must occur .

For the opposite reasons, adverbials are the most peripheral elements: (i) their position
is most frequently final; (ii) they are usually optional; (iii) they are mostly mobile; and
(iv) they do not determine what other elements occur. They may be regarded, from a
structural point of view, largely as 'optional extras', which may be added at will, so that
it is not possible to give an exact limit to the number of adverbials a clause may
contain. The other elements, subject, object, and complement, are in various degrees
more peripheral than the verb, and less peripheral than the adverbial.

Types of Sentence Structure

Bringing together the distinctions that we have made earlier, the basic sentence
structure rules can be presented as follows:

1. S + V {st. & Int} + A. place + (A. time) , as in:

- I have been in the garden (since lunch).

2. S + V {st. & Int.} + Cs + (A. place) + (A. time), as in:

- My brother is a pathologist (at a public hospital) (now).

3. S + V {st. & ext. & tr.} + Od + (A. place) + (A. time), as in:
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- I heard a strange noise (upstairs) (this morning).

4. S + V {dyn. & Int.} + Cs + (A. process) (A. place) (A. time), as in:

- He grew restless (gradually) (in his office) (yesterday).

5. S+V{dyn. & ext. & mono-tr.}+ Od+(A. process)(A. place)(A. time), as in:

- She threw her purse (carelessly) (in the kitchen) (last night).

6. S+V {dyn. & ext. & di-tr.} +(Oi) + Od+(A. process)(A. place)(A. time), as in:

- He paid (them) some money (unwillingly) (in his office) (this morning).

7. S + V{dyn. & ext. & comp. tr.} + Od + Co+ (A. pro.) (A.pl.)(A.t) as in:

- They elected Biden president (willingly) (in the US) (last month).

8. S + V{dyn. & ext. & Intr.} + (A. pro.) (A. place) (A. time), as in:

- Someone was laughing (loudly) (in the next room)(when we left).

Realizations of the Verb Phrase

The verb element is always a verb phrase. This may be finite (showing tense, mood,
aspect and voice) or non-finite (not showing tense or mood but still capable of showing
aspect and voice).
Whether finite or non-finite , the verb phrase can consist of one word, or of more
than one word, in which case the verb phrase consists of a 'head verb„ preceded by one
or more 'auxiliary verbs„ as it is indicated by the Four Basic Verb Combinations Rules
below:
A. Modal + inf. as in: We can do nothing.

B. Perfect (have + p.p) as in: He had forgotten their wedding anniversary.

C. Progressive (be+ v + ing) as in: The wind is growing stronger.

D. Passive (be + p.p) as in: He was challenged rudely.

Realizations of the Subject

The subject is usually a Noun Phrase, at its simplest a pronoun such as she, he,
they…etc or a proper noun such as Tom, Julia…etc. But a noun phrase may be an
indeterminately long and complex having a noun as a head, preceded by other words
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such as an article, an adjective, or another noun, and followed by a prepositional phrase

or by a relative clause; it is by no means uncommon to find all such items present in a
noun phrase:

• The new gas station in the city which was built last year by a very well-know
company failed to meet quality standards.
The subject may be a Finite or Non-finite Clause as in:
• How the book will sell depends on the reviewers.
• To be neutral in this conflict is out of question.
The subject may be a Prepositional Phrase as in:
• In the mornings is my favorite time.
The subject may be an Adverb as in:
 Now is the time.
The subject may be an Adjective as in:
 Easy is not what we seek.

Realizations of the Subject Complement

The subject complement may be realized by the same range of structures as the
subject. But it has the additional possibility of being realized by adjectival phrases
(having the adjective as the head word), as in:

1. Noun phrase: Paul is a student.

2. Adjectival phrase: The journey was quite pleasant.

The news was very disturbing.

The town appeared abandoned.

3. Prepositional Phrase: The furniture is in bad condition.

4. Adverbial Phrase: Our vacation is almost over.

5. Non-finite clause: My advice is to keep your mouth shut.

His job was tending a bar.

6. Finite clause: The trouble is that he has no money left.

The question is who will replace him.

Realizations of the Direct Object

1. Noun phrase: Our programmer is testing his new software.
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2. Finite clause: He thought that he had a perfect alibi.

The officer described what he saw.
3. Non-finite clause: The dog wants to play in the garden.
Paul loves playing football.

Realizations of the Object Complement

The object complement refers to the DO in a similar way as the SC refers to the subject
of a sentence. The headword in the VP of the sentence must be a complex transitive
verb. The Object Complement (OC) is realized by:

1. Noun Phrase: They chose her the beauty Queen.

2. Adjectival phrase: I find them reliable.
3. Prepositional phrase: She found him in despair.
4. Non-finite clause: We found her sitting on the porch.
I heard my name called twice.
5. Finite clause: You may call it what you like.

Realizations of the Indirect Object

The indirect objects have fewer possibilities than subjects and their realizations are
chiefly noun phrases, as in:
• He had given the girl a book.
The indirect object can rarely be realized by wh-nominal clause as in:
• The instructor will give whoever turns in his assignment early bonus points.
Unlike direct objects and subjects, they cannot be realized by that-clauses.

Realizations of the Adverbial

Adverbials can be realized by:
1. Adverb phrases, having an adverb as a head, as in:
 Peter was playing as WELL as he could.
 They very OFTEN praised Tom.
2. Noun phrases, as in:
 Peter was playing LAST WEEK.
 They praised Tom MANY TIMES.
3. Prepositional phrase -that is, structure consisting of a noun phrase dominated
by a preposition as a head, as in:
 Peter was playing WITH GREAT SKILL.
 They praised Tom FOR HIS GENEROSITY.
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4. Finite clauses, as in:

 Peter was playing ALTHOUGH HE WAS VERY TIRED.
 WHEN THEY SAW THE REPORT, they praised Tom.
5. Non-finite clauses, as in:
 Peter was playing TO WIN.
 MAKING A LOT OF NOISE they praised Tom.
 IF URGED BY OUR FRIENDS, we'll stay.
6. Verbless clauses, as in:
 GRATEFUL FOR HIS HELP, they praised Tom.
 WHILE IN LONDON, we'll stay at a hotel.

Parts of Speech
Parts of speech refer to the units or the elements that the sentence is composed of.
They are usually grouped into two categories: the major and the minor word classes.
The major word classes (nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs) are termed “major”
because they carry most of the content or meaning of a sentence. The other category,
the minor word classes, plays a more structural role in a sentence. Classes in this
category include (auxiliary verbs, prepositions, pronouns, determiners and
conjunctions. These words are sometimes also called “structure” words or “function”
words.

Open Class Items

The major word classes (nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs) are described as
“open class items”, in that they are indefinitely extendable. New items are constantly
being coined, and no one could make an inventory of all the nouns (for example) in
English, and be confident that it was complete.

Describing the major word classes as being “open” can‟t be true all the times
because not all the major word classes are truly open. Only certain adverbs can be
added to the adverb class (namely, the “manner” adverbs, which usually end in –ly);
however other types of adverbs are usually closed to new members.

Closed Class Items

The minor word classes (auxiliary verbs, prepositions, pronouns, determiners and
conjunctions) are described as “Closed Class Items” in the sense that their membership
is limited in number, and they can be listed. They cannot easily be extended by new
additions. Members of the minor word classes are said to constitute a system in being:
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1. Reciprocally exclusive: One‟s decision to use one item in a given structure

excludes the possibility of using any other. For example, we can say either (the
book) or (a book) but not (the a book).

2. Reciprocally defining: It isn‟t easy to tell the meaning of any individual item
separately. It is best defined in relation to the rest of the system.

Open VS Closed Class Classification

Grammatical descriptions, classifications and definitions are often not so airtight.
Therefore, the distinction between open and closed parts of speech must be treated
cautiously.

1. The traditional category of verb has been divided into three categories, two
closed (primary and modal verbs) and one open (full verbs).

2. The class of adverbs is notoriously heterogeneous, and may be separated into an

open class consisting of adverbs with an adjectival base (especially those, like
completely, which have an -1y suffix), and a closed class including adverbs such
as here, there, now, etc.

3. Many words appear to belong to more than one word-class:

- Few (Det.): There were few objections.

- Few (pron.): There were few.
- Sound (adj.): A sound mind in a sound body

)N.): We heard strange sounds last night .

(V.): His explanation sounds alright .

Round (adj.): We bought a round table.

(N.): He was knocked out in the second round.

(V.): We rounded the bend at high speed.

(adv.): He turned round and ran back to the house .

(prep.): We travelled round the country.

Stative and Dynamic

The previous characterization of the parts of speech we provided depended on their
grammatical form or function. Here, we shall see that they can be characterized in
terms of their semantic properties as “stative and dynamic”.
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Broadly speaking, nouns can be characterized naturally as “stative” in that they

typically refer to entities that are regarded as stable, whether these are concrete
(physical) like house , table, paper, or abstract (of the mind) like hope, warmth and
length.

Verbs can be more naturally characterized as 'dynamic': they are fitted (by their
capacity to show tense and aspect, for example) to indicate action, activity, and
temporary or changing conditions. However, many verbs are characterized as “stative”
because they don‟t admit the progressive aspect.

Adjectives are characteristically stative but many can be seen as dynamic. All
adjectives that can be used with the progressive or with the imperative are dynamic,
and all that cannot be used with the progressive or the imperative are stative. Consider
the following examples:

- He is being frank. VS *He is being short.

Pro-forms
Pro-form is a word or phrase that can take the place of another word (or word group)
in a sentence. The process of substituting pro-forms for other words is called
proformation.

Consider the content of the following table:

1. The most common pro-forms in English are pronouns. They replace NPs.
- The poor girl didn‟t complain, although she was badly hurt.
- Their new car was badly damaged when it was struck by a bolt.
- Do you like this dress or that one?
2. There are pro-forms for spatial adverbials:
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- Mary is in London and John is there too.

- If you look on the table, you‟ll find the book there.
3. There are pro-forms for temporal adverbials:
- Mary arrived on Tuesday and John arrived then too.
4. There are pro-forms for other adverbials.
- John searched the big room carefully, but the small room less so.
- Peter works out regularly. I do too. (Is there any other pro-form here?)
- Linda did the job well. Cathy did it similarly. (…..any other pro-form?)
5. There are other pro-forms for noun phrases:
- Give me the pen or the pencil. Either will do.
- The guests complained to the manager and each had a point.
- The guests complained to the manager but none was satisfied.
- I'll have the chicken. I'll have the same.
- He wanted me to lend him the special tools. Those I could not find.
6. There are pro-forms for verb phrases.
- I never watch TV but they do.
- She took a holiday in France and her brother did in Spain.
- He called the waiter and so did I.

Wh-Words as a Special Set of Pro-forms

Wh-words can be considered as a special set of pro-forms which can be used to refer
forward to what has not been stated. To highlight both the similarity and the contrast
between other pro-forms and wh-words, we may suggest that whereas other pro-forms
have a general meaning roughly statable as “We know what this item means/refers to,
so we need not state it in full”, the wh-words have a meaning something like “It has not
been known before what this item refers to, and so it needs to be stated in full”.
Through the use of wh-words we can ask for the identification of the subject, object,
complement, or an adverbial of a sentence:

- What was badly damaged?

- Where do your parents live?
- When did you raise the proposal?
- What did she hope they would play?
Wh-questions elicit information on a particular part of a sentence; subject, object,
complement or an adverbial.
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Yes/No Questions
Beside the Wh-questions, which elicit information on a particular part of a sentence;
subject, object, complement or an adverbial, there are questions which seek a yes/no
response in relation to the validity of the predication. Consider the following examples:

A: Do they pay you for the work?

B: Yes, they do.
No, they don‟t.
A: Will they pay you for the work?
B: Yes, they will.
No, they won‟t.
A: Are they paying you for the work?
B: Yes, they are.
No, they aren‟t.
A: Have they been paying you for the work?
B: Yes, they have.
No, they haven‟t.

Negation and Non-assertion

While Yes/No questions normally challenge the validity of a predication as a whole,
negation rejects it. There is a similarity between Yes/No question sentences and
negative ones in that both of them involve an operator. Negative sentences require also
the insertion of (not) between the operator and the predication. Questions and negations
are also similar to each other in that they both belong to the Non-assertive system. A
sentence can be non-assertive in one of two ways: by being negative or by being a
question.

assertion- positive and declarative

positive

Sentence

interrogative

non-assertion negative

negative
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Assertive and Non-assertive Predication

We can provide another evidence for the close relationship between Yes-no
questions and negation. They both associate with a set of words which we may call
NONASSERTIVE FORMS: any, anybody, anywhere, yet, etc. These in turn contrast
with corresponding ASSERTIVE FORMS (some, somebody, somewhere, already, etc)
which are associated with positive statements.

1. a. She hasn‟t finished her thesis yet.

b. Has she finished her thesis?
2. a. He doesn‟t want any food.
b. Does he want any food?
A sentence can be non-assertive in one of two ways: by being negative as in (1.a)
and (2.a) above or by being a question as in (1.b) and (2.b) above. The predication is
non-assertive in all four sentences above; in (1.a) and (2.a) the validity of the
predication is rejected, whereas in (1.b) and (2.b) the validity of the predication is
challenged.

While most words can be used equally in assertive and non-assertive predications,
some determiners, pronouns, and adverbs have specifically assertive or non-assertive
use. See the table below:

Assertive Non-assertive

Pam bought some apples. Pam didn't buy any apples.

I was speaking to somebody. I wasn’t speaking to anybody.

He is still at school. He is not at school any longer.

His mother is coming too. His mother isn’t coming either.

I like her a great deal. I don’t like her much.

I saw him somewhere. I didn’t see him anywhere.

She helped to some extent. She didn’t help at all.

They have arrived already. They haven’t arrived yet.

He has been a long way. He hasn’t been far.

 | P a g e 18

When we negate sentences, not only do we negate the verb, but also we change the
assertive forms into their non-assertive counterparts. Try to negate the following
sentences and make other changes that then become necessary:

- This applies to some of the people here already.

- Julia is still living at this address.
- It helps us in our daily work to some extent.
- Macron tests positive for coronavirus, too.
- There are a lot of people in the stadium.
- Coronavirus has already outbroken in Egypt.

Although the main markers of non-assertion are negative and interrogative clauses,
it happens sometimes that the some series are conversely used in negative and
interrogative clauses and that the any series are conversely used in the positive
declarative clauses. Consider the following examples :

- X contributed more than anyone to the destruction of Iraqi economy .

- Did somebody call last night?
- Would you like some apple juice?

The use of the non-assertive anyone in the first sentence is related to the fact that the
basic meaning is negative, as appears in the paraphrase :

- Nobody contributed more to the destruction of Iraqi economy than X .

So, it is the basic meaning of the whole sentence which ultimately determines the
choice of the some or any series .

While the use of the assertive somebody in the second sentence can be explained in
terms of positive presupposition: somebody suggests that the speaker expected a call
last night, the use of the assertive some in the third sentence can be explained as a
sincere invitation to lead the addressee to accept it.

Classification of English Verbs

In terms of their functions in the verb phrase, the English verbs are classified into:
1. Lexical Verbs : walk, talk, speak, break…etc
2. Auxiliary Verbs which are divided into:
a. Primary Auxiliaries: Do, Have, Be
b. Modal Auxiliaries: can, may, shall, will, could, might, should, would, ought to,
must, used to, need, dare.
 | P a g e 19

Forms of English Verbs

Regular lexical verbs like (call) have four morphological forms. Irregular lexical
verbs vary in this respect; a verb like (speak) has five forms, whereas (cut) has only
three forms. However, the primary auxiliary verb (be) has eight forms.

Base form call speak cut

-s form calls speaks cuts
-ing participle calling speaking cutting
Past form called spoke cut
-ed participle called spoken cut

These verb forms have different functions in the finite and non-finite verb phrases. On
this basis, the –s form and the past form are called finite, whereas the –ing participle
and the –ed participle are called non-finite. The base verb is sometimes finite, and
sometimes non-finite.

Finite Verb Phrases

Finite verb phrases may consist of just a finite verb as in:
- He worked very hard.
In finite verb phrases consisting of more than one verb, the finite verb is the first one:
- He was working for a computer company at that time.
- The enemy‟s attack had been planned for fifteen years.
The finite verb is the element of the verb phrase which has present or past tense. In
the sentences above, the finite verbs are (was & had). The verbs (working) and (been
planned) in the same above examples are non-finite verb forms, but they function in
finite verb phrases (was working) and (had been planned).
There is usually number concord between the subject and the finite verb. Such
concord is restricted to contrast between Third Person Singular and other persons:
I/we
You read , s/he reads
They

Concord of person between the subject and the finite verb is particularly clear with
the verbs (to be): I am…….. You are…… he is …….
 | P a g e 21

Non-finite Verb Phrases

The non-finite forms of the verb are:

- Bare infinitive : call

- To-Infinitive : to call
- The –ing participle: calling
- The –ed participle called

The non-finite verb phrases are mainly used as the verb element in the subordinate
clauses :

 After having spent six hours at the hospital, they eventually came home.
 He left the party and went home, not having anyone to talk to.
 To see all the detail, you have to look at the picture really carefully.
 If accepted by Parliament, the budget will lead to disastrous consequences .
As you may have noticed in the sentences above:

The non-finite verb phrases represent the verb element in the subordinate clauses .

The subordinate clauses in which they are used are subjectless. This does not mean that
all non-finite subordinate clauses are subjectless, some may come with subjects. If it
comes with no subject, the subject of the subordinate clause is usually the same as that
of the main clause .

Some non-finite subordinate clauses come with subordinators like (after, if) in
sentences (1) and (4), while some of them are subordinator free like sentences (2) and
(3).
The non-finite verb phrases are mainly used as the verb element in the subordinate
clauses:
1. After having spent six hours at the hospital, they eventually came home.
2. He left the party and went home, not having anyone to talk to.
3. To see all the detail, you have to look at the picture really carefully.
4. If accepted by Parliament, the budget will lead to disastrous consequences.
As you may have noticed in the sentences above:
1. The non-finite verb phrases represent the verb element in the subordinate
clauses.
2. The subordinate clauses in which they are used are subjectless. This does not
mean that all non-finite subordinate clauses are subjectless, some may come with
subjects. If it comes with no subject, the subject of the subordinate clause is
usually the same as that of the main clause.
 | P a g e 21

3. Some non-finite subordinate clauses come with subordinators like (after, if) in
sentences (1) and (4), while some of them are subordinator free like sentences
(2) and (3).

Combinations of Verbs
The verb element is always a verb phrase. This may be finite (showing tense, mood,
aspect and voice) or non-finite (not showing tense or mood but still capable of showing
aspect and voice). Whether finite or non-finite, the verb phrase can consist of one
word, or of more than one word, in which case the verb phrase consists of a 'head verb'
preceded by one or more 'auxiliary verbs' as it is indicated by the Four Basic Verb
Combinations Rules below:
A. Modal + inf. as in: We can do nothing.
B. Perfect (have+p.p) as in: He had forgotten their wedding anniversary.
C. Progressive (be+ v+ing) as in: The wind is growing stronger.
D. Passive (be+p.p) as in: He was challenged rudely.
These four basic verb combination rules may also combine with each other to make
up longer strings of verbs in one single verb phrase as illustrated below:

A+B= He must have typed the report himself.

A+C= He may be typing at the moment.
A+D= The report could be typed by Jane.
B+C= He has been typing all morning.
B+D= The report has been typed already.
C+D= The report is being sent to the FBI.
A+B+C= He must have been typing the report himself.
A+B+D= The reports must have been typed by the secretary.
A+C+D = The wave surfers must be being rescued by the coast guards.
B+C+D = The wave surfers have been being rescued by the coast guards.
A+B+C+D= The wave surfers must have been being rescued by the coast guards.
 | P a g e 22

Contrasts Expressed in the Verb Phrase

In addition to the contrasts of (Tense, Aspect, and Mood), the verb phrase is a
theater for some other operations or constructions:

1. Voice: involving the active passive relation, as in:

- Many critics disliked the movie. (SVO)
- The movie was disliked (by many critics). (S V passive (A))
2. Yes/No Questions requiring subject movement and the use of an auxiliary as
operator:
- Our team will play today. - Will your team play today?
3. Negation: converting a statement from assertion into non-assertion, it makes a
similar use of operators:
- Jennifer sang last night. - Jennifer didn‟t sing last night.
4. Emphasis which is frequently carried by the operator, as in:
- Jennifer did sing last night!
5. Imperatives, as in:
- Jump!
- You jump! - Don‟t step inside. - Let‟s go to the movies.

Time VS Tense
How different the two notions of Time & Tense are?
The notion of time is universal of three divisions; past, present, and future. It is
non-linguistic in the sense that it is independent of any particular language. Regardless
of the language they speak, people all over the world agree that (what happens around
the present moment is referred to as the present time), and that (whatever behind the
 | P a g e 23

present moment is referred to as past time), and (whatever ahead of the present moment
is referred to as future time).
Tense on the other hand is a linguistic/grammatical device. It means the verb
form or forms used to express certain time relations. Thus, one form indicates present
time, another form indicates past time, and another construction indicates future time.

Aspect
Aspect, unlike tense, is not concerned with placing events on a time line. Rather,
aspect is concerned with making distinctions about the kinds of actions that are
described by verbs- whether they are/were still continuing (expressed by the
progressive), or they are/were completed (expressed by the perfective). You can see in
the chart below that the traditional 12 “tenses” are actually 12 combinations of tense
and aspect.

Mood
Mood is a grammatical term used to denote the forms that a verb takes to show
what work it is doing (ex. Expressing a statement, a command, a wish…..etc), and the
manner in which the action or state is thought of by the speaker. It shows a wide range
of meanings, especially attitudes on the part of the speaker towards the factual content
of the utterance (ex. Certainty, definiteness, vagueness, possibility, obligation,
necessity….etc).

English sentences are said to display three main moods- Indicative, Interrogative,
and Imperative- and two minor moods: Exclamatory and Subjunctive.

Four of the five moods have sentence type counterparts, but the subjunctive can
be marked only by using a different form of the verb from the ordinarily called for.
 | P a g e 24

The indicative mood is used to discuss real events in declarative (positive and
negative) clauses. For example:
- She made the cake. - She is not my sister. - Today is Sunday.
The imperative expresses commands, prohibitions, and requests. For example:
- Eat your lunch. - Don‟t disturb! - Allow me to help!
The interrogative asks about a missing piece of information or seeks to confirm
or refute the given proposition. For example:
- Why does he seem upset? - Have you submitted your assignment?
The exclamatory mood conveys a strong emotion. For example:
- How disrespectful behavior it is!
- What a dismal weather it is!
The subjunctive mood is used rarely in English because the English language
usually prefers to express meanings of doubt, uncertainty, hypothetical states and
likelihoods with its range of central, semi- and marginal modal auxiliary verbs.

Meanings of the Present Tense

1. State present (Timeless):
With stative verb senses, the present is used without reference to specific time,
i.e there is no inherent limitation on the extension of the state into the past and future
(unless such a limitation is indicated by adverbials or other elements of the clause). The
state/timeless present includes general timeless statements or the so-called „eternal
truths‟. Scientific, mathematical, and geographical statements are examples of timeless
present.

- Spiders have eight legs.

- Two and three make five.
- The Nile flows in Egypt.

2. Habitual present:

With dynamic verb senses, the simple present usually implies an inherently
unrestricted time span. Habitual present resembles state present in being used for
„Timeless Statements‟. It is a sign of habitual present that one can easily add a
frequency adverbial to specify the frequency of repetition.

- Bill comes late every day.

- We feed our cat on fish.
 | P a g e 25

3. Instantaneous present:
Instantaneous present occurs when the verb refers to a single action began and
completed approximately at the moment of speech. Because the instantaneous present
implies that the event has little or no duration, it does not occur outside some rather
restricted situations, such as:

- Sport commentaries: Ex. Mane passes to Salah.

- Demonstrations: Ex. I enclose a form of application.
- Special exclamatory sentences: Ex. Here comes the winner!
- Performatives: The verb in the performative is often a verb of speaking such as
(request, advise, apologize…..) describing the speech act of which it is a part.
Ex. I advise you to withdraw.
Ex. I apologize.
Ex. I thank you for helping me.
Ex. I declare the meeting closed.

Progressive Aspect
As its name suggests, the PROGRESSIVE ASPECT (also sometimes called the
DURATIVE or CONTINUOUS aspect) indicates a happening IN PROGRESS at a
given time. Compare:

1. Joan sings well.

2. Joan is singing well.

These two sentences have the same tense, but different aspects. Notice the difference
this makes to the meaning: Joan sings well refers to Joan's competence as a singer (that
she has a good voice - a relatively permanent attribute); Joan is singing well refers to
her performance on a particular occasion or during a particular season. The same
formal contrast could be made for the past tense:
3. Joan sang well.
4. Joan was singing well.
But in this case, the semantic contrast is different: the simple past makes us see the
event as a whole, while the past progressive makes us see it as an activity in progress.
The different effect of the progressive in [l-2] and in [3-4] can be explained as follows:

The meaning of the progressive can be separated into three components, not all of
which need be present in a given instance:

(a) the happening has DURATION

(b) the happening has LIMITED duration
 | P a g e 26

(C) the happening is NOT NECESSARILY COMPLETE

The first two components add up to the concept of TEMPORARINESS. Thus in [2],
the progressive signals that Joan's singing is a temporary rather than a permanent
phenomenon; in [4], on the other hand, the progressive makes us see the event as
enduring/happening over a period, rather than as happening all at once. In [2], the
progressive 'shrinks' the time span of sings; in [4] it 'stretches out„ the time span of
sang. This difference arises because component (a) is distinctive for single events;
whereas component (b) is distinctive for states and habits. The component of
incompletion (c) is distinctive chiefly in the case of certain types of dynamic verb
meaning called CONCLUSIVE:

 I read a novel yesterday evening. [i.e. the whole novel]

 I was reading a novel yesterday evening. [i.e. there is no implication that I
finished the novel in the course of the evening]

Verbal Meaning and the Progressive

The three verb senses of state, event, and habit are differently interpreted with the
progressive.

1. State Progressive: In many cases the progressive is unacceptable with

stative verbs. They can be seen as belonging to one of two classes:
(a) Verbs of inert perception and cognition: e.g. think, believe, like, love, see, feel,
forgive, hear, remember, smell and wish....etc. These verbs disallow the progressive;
however some of them under certain circumstances allow the progressive:

- I think you are right.

- I am thinking of selling my car.
- I see my reflection in the mirror.
- I am seeing the dean tomorrow.

(b) Relational verbs: e.g., belong, cost, depend, need, owe, own, posses, resemble.

- We own a house in the country.

- * We are owning a house in the country.
- *Audrey was being well-dressed.
- * She is belonging to the women‟s society.
 | P a g e 27

2. Event Progressive: With event meanings, the progressive conveys the idea
that an event has duration, and has not yet come to an end. Contrast the
instantaneous present meaning of [l] with the duration implied by [2] or [3]:

1. The referee blows his whistle.

2. The referee is blowing his whistle.
3. The train was approaching.

Both [I] and [2] could be part of a radio commentary on a football match; but [l]
would suggest a brief blast on the whistle, while [2] would tend to suggest a continuous
or repeated blowing of the whistle. The present progressive is a , more common way of
referring to a present event than the simple present, because of the implication of
duration that tends to accompany such events:

1. (a) What is Mary doing at the moment?

(b) * What does Mary do at the moment?
2. (a) She is watching television.
(b) * She watches television.

3. Habitual Progressive: Combined with habitual meaning, the progressive

implies that the repetition takes place over a limited period:
1. The professor types his own letters. [The habit is permanent.]
2. The professor is typing his own letters while his secretary is ill. [The habit is
temporary.]

Simple Past Tense

The simple past tense is used when the speaker conceptualizes an effect factually,
but as remote in some way. The past tense combines two features of meaning:

1. The state/event must have taken place in the past with a gap between its
completion and the present moment. For example:
- I finished my term paper.
- I stayed in the USA for several weeks.
2. The speaker must have in mind a definite time at which the event took place:
- Oil prices dropped last year.
- They started working out two years ago.
3. For habitual or repeated actions in the past:
- It rained almost every weekend last winter.
- He used to sign with special pen.
 | P a g e 28

Past Progressive
The past progressive is used for:
1. An action in progress at a specific point in the past.
- At 11 P.M. Bob was sleeping.
- Tom was eating dinner at 6:30 P.M.
2. An action happened in the middle of another one.
- Karen was washing her hair when the phone rang.
- The power went off while I was watching my favorite program.

Past Simple VS Present Perfect

There is a special problem of past time reference in English, the question of how to
choose between the use of the past tense and the use of the present perfect:

Past Simple Present Perfect

1. The happening is related to a 1. The happening is seen in

definite time in the past.
- He was in prison for ten years.
2. It implies a gap between the
time referred to and the
present moment.
- She suffered from asthma all her
life.
relation to the present time.
- He has been in prison for ten
years.
2. It bridges the gap between
the time referred to and the
present moment.
- She has suffered from asthma
all her life.

Past Perfect
The past perfect has the meaning of past in the past and can be regarded as an
anterior version either of the present perfect or of the simple past. What we said about
the present perfect applies to the past perfect, but with the exception that the point of
relevance to which the past perfect extends is a point in the past. For example:
1. When we bought it, the house had been empty for several years.
2. They had moved into the house before the baby was born.
The past perfect may be said to denote any event or state anterior to a time of
orientation in the past. Meanings of „state‟ and „event‟ can occur. Whereas sentences 1
& 2 above has illustrated the „state‟ meaning, sentence 3 below illustrates „event‟.
3. The goalkeeper had injured his leg, and he couldn‟t play.
 | P a g e 29

The past perfect does not have to refer to a more remote time than that referred to by
the simple past. In some cases, particularly in a clause introduced by „after‟, the two
constructions be more or less interchangeable:
- I ate my lunch after Sandra had come back from her shopping.
- I ate my lunch after Sandra came back from her shopping.

Simple Past Tense

The simple past tense is used when the speaker conceptualizes an effect
factually, but as remote in some way. The past tense combines two features of
meaning:

1. The state/event must have taken place in the past with a gap between its
completion and the present moment. For example:
- I finished my term paper.
- I stayed in the USA for several weeks.
The above sentences imply that ( I am no longer writing my term paper) and ( I am
no longer in the USA) respectively.
2. The speaker must have in mind a definite time at which the event took place:
- Oil prices dropped last year.
- Mary started school in 2001.
3. For habitual or repeated actions in the past:
- It rained almost every weekend last winter.
- He used to sign with special pen.

Past Simple VS Present Perfect

Past Simple Present Perfect

1. The happening is related to a definite 1. The happening is seen in relation to the

time in the past. present time.

- He was in prison for ten years. - He has been in prison for ten years.

2. It implies a gap between the time 2. It bridges the gap between the time
referred to and the present moment. referred to and the present moment.

- She suffered from asthma all her life. - She has suffered from asthma all her life.
 | P a g e 31

Here both sentences indicate a state of affairs before the present moment, but the
simple past indicates that the period of residence has come to a close, whereas the
present perfective indicates that the residence has continued up to the present time (and
may even continue into the future). This kind of difference, although by no means
invariable, is often summarized in the statement that the present perfective signifies
past time 'with current relevance'.

The present perfective differs from the simple past in relating a past event/state to a
present time orientation. Thus, in situations where either the present perfective or the
simple past can be appropriately used, it is generally felt that they are not
interchangeable, but that the present perfective relates the action more directly to the
present time. Compare:

1. Where did you put my phone?

2. Where have you put my phone?
The purpose of both of these questions may be to find the phone; but in [l] the
speaker seems to ask the addressee to remember a past action; while in [2] the speaker
apparently concentrates on the phone's present whereabouts.

Past Perfect
The past perfect has the meaning of past in the past and can be regarded as an
anterior version either of the present perfect or of the simple past. What we said about
the present perfect applies to the past perfect, but with the exception that the point of
relevance to which the past perfect extends is a point in the past. For example:

1. When we bought it, the house had been empty for several years.
2. They had moved into the house before the baby was born.
The past perfect may be said to denote any event or state anterior to a time of
orientation in the past. Meanings of „state‟ and „event‟ can occur. Whereas sentences 1
& 2 above have illustrated the „state‟ meaning, sentence 3 below illustrates „event‟.
3. The goalkeeper had injured his leg, and he couldn‟t play.
The past perfect does not have to refer to a more remote time than that referred to by
the simple past. In some cases, particularly in a clause introduced by „after‟, the two
constructions be more or less interchangeable:
- I ate my lunch after Sandra had come back from her shopping.
- I ate my lunch after Sandra came back from her shopping.
 | P a g e 31

Past Progressive
The past progressive is used for:
1. An action in progress at a specific point in the past.
- At 11 P.M. Bob was sleeping.
- Tom was eating dinner at 6:30 P.M.
2. An action happened in the middle of another one.
- Karen was washing her hair when the phone rang.
- The power went off while I was watching my favorite program.

The Future Constructions

English language does not have an obvious future tense corresponding to the
time/tense relation for present and past. Instead, there are a number of constructions for
denoting future time. Futurity, modality, and aspect are closely interrelated, and this is
reflected in the fact that future time is rendered by means of modal auxiliaries, by semi-
auxiliaries, or by the simple present or present progressive forms.
1. Will/shall + inf.
The most common way of expressing futurity is the modal auxiliary construction with
will, shall.
- Temperature tomorrow will be much the same as today.
- We shall hear the results within a week.
The kind of futurity expressed by these two modals is often colored futurity rather
than pure one. In addition to their future reference they often involve some other
meanings.
2. Be + going to + inf. : This construction tends to indicate the future as a
fulfillment of the present.
It may refer to a future resulting from a present intention:
- I am going to visit my in-laws at two o‟clock.
- She‟s going to be a doctor when she grows up.
It may also refer to the future resulting from other causative factors in the present:
- I‟m going to faint. (i.e. I already feel ill)
- It‟s going to rain. (i.e. I see black clouds gathering)
3. Present Progressive: The present progressive is used for future events arising
from a present plan, program, or arrangement .
- We are inviting several people to a party .
- She‟s going back to Paris in a couple of days .
When there is no time adverbial, the present progressive often suggests the near future .
- The Smiths are leaving.
 | P a g e 32

4. Present simple: The present simple is used for future events which are absolutely
certain, because they are part of an unchangeable plan:
- Tomorrow is Monday.
- The term finishes at the middle of March.
- The match begins at three on Tuesday.
In the above sentences, the speaker treats the event as a fact, and puts aside the doubt
one normally feels about the future.
5. Be + to-infinitive: This construction signifies an arrangement for the future
(especially an official arrangement):
- The US Foreign Secretary is to visit Iraq next month.
- They are to be married soon.
- The government is to start partial lockdown next month.
In addition, this construction signifies a command as well:
- You are to turn in your assignment by 10 o‟clock.
- You are to report to the chief executive by the end of the day.
Finally, it may refer to a contingent future:
- If he is to succeed, he must work harder.
- If you are to win the contest, you ought to train well.
6. Be about to + infinitive: This construction emphasizes the nearness of a future
event:
- I‟m about to write the dean a complaint letter.
- We are about to leave.

Future in the Past

We can put the future constructions already mentioned in the previous lecture (except
the present simple) into the past tense. We then arrive at “Future in the Past” meaning
(i.e. future seen from a view point in the past).
1. The Modal Verb Construction with Would: (rare; literary narrative style)
- The time was not far off when he would regret this decision.
- I knew he would help them.
- He promised that he would send a postcard from Egypt.
2. Be going to + Infinitive (usually conveys the idea that the anticipated happening
did not take place)
- You were going to submit your assignment.
- They were going to punish him, when he escaped.
- The plane was going to take off, when the engine broke down.
3. Past Progressive: When want to refer a personally arranged future event in the
past, we normally use the past progressive.
- I was meeting him in Chicago the next day.
 | P a g e 33

- They were having guests that evening.

- He was getting married that afternoon.
4. Be to + Infinitive: (In formal use it can refer to what “was destined” or “was
arranged”
- He was to pay dearly for his ambition.
- The Olympics were to be held the next summer.
- She was later to regret her decision to marry him.
5. Be about to + Infinitive: (Usually conveys the idea that the anticipated
happening did not take place:
- The priceless tapestry was about to catch fire.
- The balloon was about to explode.
- The tree was about to fall.

The Subjunctive Mood

Unlike the other four moods, the subjunctive mood in English does not have a
sentence counterpart, it can be marked only by using a different form of the verb from
the ordinarily called for. There are three categories of the subjunctive:
1. Productive (Mandative): The subjunctive appears in dependent clauses
following main clauses. It occurs with a relatively restricted set of verbs, which
include (advise, ask, demand, insist, request, urge, suggest, prefer and propose).
The subjunctive in that-clauses does not vary, regardless of whether the subject
is first, second or third person or singular/plural, and regardless of time
reference. It has only one form, the base (V); this means that there is lack of the
regular concord between subject and verb in the 3 rd person singular present, and
tenses are indistinguishable.
- I insist that he take the test again.
- We suggest that she stay one more day.
- The department requires that every student study hard.
- He requested that the manager give him extra week to finish the project.
This use of the subjunctive occurs chiefly in formal style (especially in AmE ) where
in less formal contexts one would rather make use of other devices such as (to-inf.) or
(should + inf.) and following main clause adjectives:
- We suggest that she should stay one more day.
- It is necessary for every student to inform himself of the rules.
- It is important for her to be given a second chance.
- It is essential that he be prepared for the exam.

In subjunctive clauses, a negation element is always placed directly before the main
verb rather than after an auxiliary verb:
 | P a g e 34

- We insist that he not make the phone call.

- We prefer that the plan not be changed.
- He requested that they not execute him with electric chair.
- It is desirable that she not become rude.
2. Formulaic Subjunctive: It consists of the base form of the verb, but is used only
in certain exclamations to express a wish or hope, very often involving
supernatural powers.
- God bless you!
- Heaven help us!
- God save the queen/king!
- Heaven forbid that……..
3. The Hypothetical Subjunctive: It is used in conditional and concessive clauses
and in subordinate clauses after optative verbs like (wish). It occurs at 1 st and 3rd
person singular past of the verb (be), matching the indicative (was) which is the
more in less formal style:
- If I were you, I would enjoy my vacation.
- He spoke to me as if I were deaf.
- I wish I were a king.

Criteria for Identifying Modal Auxiliaries

There are some morphological and syntactic criteria that govern the use of modal
auxiliaries. These criteria are summarized as follows:
1. Construction with bare infinitive: They are normally followed by the bare
infinitive, except with (used) and (ought).
- You will be asked some questions.
- She can do it.
- You ought to come early.
- He used to read for hours.
2. Finite functions only: They can occur as the first element of the verb phrase.
They cannot occur in nonfinite functions, i.e. as infinitives or participles.
3. No third person inflection: They are not inflected in the third person singular of
the present tense, i.e. they have no (s) form.
4. Abnormal time reference: Not only the present forms, but the past forms of the
modal auxiliaries can be used to refer to the present and future time (often with
hypothetical or tentative meaning):
- I think he might/may retire next May.
- Will /would you phone him tomorrow?
The first thing to notice about the meaning of modal auxiliaries is that they form a
semantic opposition with ordinary tensed verb forms. When English speakers use a
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modal, they interject their own perspective and view a proposition more subjectively
than when they simply use present and past tenses. Consider the following examples:
1. (a) John is a teacher. 1. (b) John may be a teacher.
2. (a) John was a teacher. 2. (b) John may have been a teacher.
Many linguists and semanticists have discussed modals as having at least two
distinctly different meanings : (1) Logical Probability (2) Social Interaction. This
means that modals are used for such reasons as : to give a proposition of a degree of
probability, to express one‟s attitude, to perform various social functions, such as
expressing politeness or indirectness when making requests, giving advice, or granting
permission.
3. You may leave the room. (Granting Permission)
4. It may rain tomorrow. (Logical Probability)
When modals are used for social interaction, the speaker using them must take into
account the relevant features of the social context. For example, in sentence (3) above
the speaker should have sufficient status or authority to be able to grant permission to
the interlocutors. Furthermore, the situation should be formal rather than informal, or
the speaker would have used (can) instead of (may) for granting permission.
Knowing all the relevant features of the social context allows the speaker to select
the appropriate modal auxiliary in any given interaction. In contrast, in sentence (4)
above, knowledge of the social context would have no effect on the modal selected.
What the speaker is intending to convey is his assessment that the probability of rain
the following day is relatively low. The speaker would likely use (may) regardless of
the interlocutors or the situation.

Meanings and Uses of (Can)

The modal auxiliary verb (can) is used to express the following meanings:
1. Theoretical Possibility: ( It is possible + for (subject)+ an infinitive clause)
- Even expert drivers can make mistakes (It is possible for even expert drivers
to….)
- Can he be working at this time?
- He can‟t be working at this time.
2. Ability: In this sense (can) may be paraphrasable by ( be able to….), (be capable
of), (know how).
- Bill can cook better than his wife. (Bill is able to cook….)
- Can you remember where they live?
- I can say some words in Italian.
3. Permission (less formal): It is possible to paraphrase (can) in the sense of
permission by (be allowed to) , (be permitted to):
- Can we borrow these books from the library? (Are we allowed to …..?)
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- Can I come in?

Meanings and Uses of (Could )

The modal auxiliary verb (could) is used to express the following meanings:
1. Present Possibility (Theoretical or Factual): ( It is possible+ for (subject)
infinitive clause ……)
- Even expert drivers could make mistakes.
- The road could be blocked.
2. Past ability: In this sense (could) may be paraphrasable by ( be able to….), (be
capable of), (knew how).
- I could swim all the way across the Tigris.
- At the age of six, he could speak English and Italian.
3. Permission: It is possible to paraphrase (could) in the sense of permission by (be
allowed to).
- In those days only men could vote in elections.
- Could I bring my pet dog into the party?
4. Contingent possibility or ability in unreal conditions:
- If we had more money, we could buy a new car.
- You could have asked for help if you had wanted to.

Meanings and Uses of (May )

The modal auxiliary verb (May) is used to express the following meanings:
1. Possibility : ( It is possible that ……)
- You may never succeed. (It is possible that you‟ll never succeed)
- You may be right.
2. Asking for/Granting Permission: (be allowed to/ be permitted to)
- You may borrow my computer if you wish.
- Visitors may reclaim necessary travel expenses up to a limit of 50 dollars.
- May I ask a question?
As permission auxiliary, may is more formal and less common than can. However,
may is particularly associated with permission given by the speaker. That is, a
difference is sometimes felt between (You may leave when you Iike.) ['I permit you ..']
and (You can leave when you like.) ['You are permitted . . .], which can mean
permission in a more general and impersonal sense.

Meanings and Uses of (Might)

The modal auxiliary verb (Might) is used to express the following meanings:
1. Possibility : ( It is possible that ……)
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- There might be some complaints. (It is possible that there will be some
complaints)
- We might go to the movies.
- He might have been telling lies.
2. Asking for Permission: (be allowed to/ be permitted to)
- Might I ask whether you are using the typewriter? (Am I allowed to ask…..?)
- Might I rest in your chair?
- Might I have a copy of the letter?
when used to ask for permission, might indicates greater uncertainty of the answer.

Meanings and Uses of (Shall)

The modal auxiliary verb (shall) is used to express the following meanings:
1. Prediction (with 1st person subjects):
- According to the opinion polls, I shall win easily.
- We shall know the results of the election within a week.
2. Volition (with 1st person subjects). In its volitional use, (shall) expresses the
following meanings:
 Willingness on the part of the speaker with 2nd and 3rd persons subjects.
- He shall get his money.
- You shall do just as you wish.
 Intention/determination on the part of the speaker with 1st person subjects only.
- We shall uphold the wishes of the people.
- We shall defend our country.
 Insistence/giving orders on the part of the speaker with 2nd & 3rd persons
subjects
- You shall do exactly as I say.
- He shall be punished if he disobeys.
 Obligation in legal and quasi-legal injunctions:
- All members shall settle their international disputes by peaceful means.

Meanings and Uses of (Should)

The modal auxiliary (should) may be used to express the following meanings:
1. Obligation & Logical Necessity:
- You should paint your door.
- You should go slowly here, it is a built-up area.
- The floor should be washed at least once a week.
In this sense, the use of (should) implies the speaker‟s authority; however it does not
imply that the speaker has confidence that the recommendation will be carried out. In
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fact, with the perfective aspect, (should) typically has the stronger implication that the
recommendation has not been carried out:
- They should have met her at the airport.
- You should have submitted your assignment two hours ago.
2. Putative use occurs in that clauses "after expressions of emotion (sorrow, joy,
displeasure, surprise, wonder, etc.).
- It is unfair that so many people should lose their jobs.
- I am surprised that he should feel lonely.
- It‟s a pity that he should resign.
- It‟s disgraceful that she should spy on her husband.
3. Contingent use with 1st person subjects only (especially in BrE) in the main
clause.
- If there were an accident, we should report it.
- We should take immediate action, if a serious crisis aroused.
4. In rather formal real condition:
- If you should change your mind, let us know.
- If you should leave, inform me first.

Meanings and Uses of (Will)

The modal auxiliary (will) may be used to express the following meanings:
1. Willingness ('weak volition'), especially 2nd person. It is used to soften the tone
in requests.
- Will you have another cup of coffee?
- Will you (please, kindly, etc) open the window?
2. Intention ('intermediate volition'). Usually contracted 'II; mainly 1st person.
- I'll write as soon as I can.
- We won't stay longer than two hours.
3. Insistence ('strong volition‟ = insist on). In this sense, (will) is stressed, hence no
contraction.
- He 'will do it, whatever you say. ('He insists on doing it,..')
Notice the difference in meaning between the use of (will/shall)
- He shall do whatever you say. (I insist on his doing it…..)
- She 'will keep giving us hard times.
4. Prediction: the similar meanings of other expressions for logical necessity and
habitual present. The contracted form („ll) is common.
A. Specific prediction:
- They will have arrived by now.
- My favorite TV show will be finished by now.
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B. Timeless prediction:
- Oil will float on water.
This sort of prediction with (will) often occurs with conditional sentences:
- If litmus paper is dipped in acid, it will turn red.
C. Habitual prediction:
- A lion will only attack a human being when it is hungry.
- He'll (always) talk for hours if you give him the chance

Meanings and Uses of (Would)

The modal auxiliary verb (Would) is used to express the following meanings:
1. Willingness: It is used to soften the tone in requests.
- Would you help me address these letters?
- Would you lend me your car?
2. Insistence: This somewhat rare use implies willfulness on the part of the subject
referent.
- He would leave the house in a muddle.
- She would keep interrupting me.
3. Intention: in indirect speech
- The manager said he would phone me after lunch.
- My cousin promised that he would help me decorate the office.
Outside indirect speech, however, (would) is not used in the sense of intention;
hence a sentence such as He would meet me the next day is almost inevitably
interpreted as free indirect speech.
4. Contingent use in the main clause of a conditional sentence.
- If you pressed that button, the engine would stop.
- If there were an accident, we would/should have to report it.
Although the conditional sentence is the most typical context in which hypothetical
(would) occurs, there are many other contexts in which hypothetical (would) is used:
- I would hate to lose this pen.
- It would be impossible to estimate how many crimes went undetected since
2003.
5. Probability:
- That would be the postman. (on hearing the doorbell)
- That would be George. (on hearing horn honks)
6. Habitual prediction of a characteristic activity in the past
- My kids would sit in front of the television continuously. [ it was customary of
……]
- They would spend hours playing videogames. [ it was typical of them……]
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Meanings and Uses of (Must)

The modal auxiliary (must) may be used to express the following meanings:
1. Obligation or compulsion: In this sense, it is paraphrasable by (be obliged to)
and (have to) or (have got to).
- You must get up earlier in the morning.
- You must quit smoking.
- Passengers must cross the line by the footbridge.
There are two negatives of (must):
a. (not be obliged to) = needn‟t, don‟t have to:
b. (be obliged not to) = mustn‟t
Must does not have a past form; therefore we use (had to) to express obligation in the
past.
- They had to wear school uniforms when they were kids.
- I had to work late last night.
- Yesterday you said that you [must/had to] be back by 10 p.m.
- * He must leave in a hurry yesterday.
2. (Logical) Necessity:
- Students must pass an entrance examination to study at this school.
- You must have a permit to enter the national park.
- We must wash the floor every day.
- There must be a mistake.
Meanings and Uses of (Ought to)
1. Obligation, (Logical) Necessity or expectation:
- You ought to start at once.
- They ought to be here by now.
- She ought to have arrived at her office by now.
- We ought to have finished painting the house by the end of next week.
Ought to has no past form, but we can use (ought to + perfective aspect) to talk about
things which were supposed to happen but did not.
- I ought to have phoned him this morning, but I forgot.
- They ought to have stopped at the traffic lights.
To express the idea that the subject is not fulfilling his obligations or that he is acting
foolishly or not acting sensibly, ought to + the continuous infinitive (ought to + be+
(v+ing) is used:
- You ought to be studying for your exam.
- We ought to be wearing seatbelts.
2. Advice:
- You ought to read this. It is very good.
- You ought to listen to classical music if you want to relax.
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- If you want to lose weight, you ought to cut out snacks and junk food.

Used To
In grammatical terms, used to is a defective verb which has no present tense and
doesn‟t occur in the progressive. Used always takes to-infinitive and occurs only in the
past tense. It may be constructed like main lexical verbs, in which case, it may take the
do-construction, as a consequence two spelling possibilities are at hand: didn‟t used to
and didn‟t use to. The interrogative construction Used he to …..? is especially in (BrE);
Did he used to …..? is preferred in both (AmE) and (BrE).
Affirmative: used for all persons
Negative: used not/usedn't for all persons
Interrogative: used you/he/they? etc.
Negative interrogative: used you not/usedn't you? etc.
Negative and interrogative can also be formed with did:
didn't use to/ did you use to?/ didn't you use to? This is a more informal form,
common in conversation.
Used to is used to express the following meanings:
1. To express a discontinued habit or a past situation which contrasts with the
present:
• I used to smoke cigarettes; now I smoke a pipe.
• He used to drink tea; now he drinks coffee. Modal Auxiliary uses
• She usedn't to like Tom but she quite likes him now.
• Used he to be that rude?
2. To express a past routine or pattern. Here we are not making a contrast between
past and present; we are merely describing someone's routine during a certain
period.
• Tom and Ann were a young married couple. Every morning Tom used to help
Ann in the kitchen and set off for work. Ann used to stand at the window and
wave goodbye. In the evening she used to welcome him home and ask him to tell
her about his day.

Dare
Dare is another defective verb that can be constructed in two ways, either as a modal
auxiliary with a bare infinitive and without the inflected forms, or as a main verb with
to-infinitive, -s inflection and past form. Its use as a modal auxiliary is mainly
restricted to negative and interrogative sentences.
• She daren‟t tell him what she thinks.
• Dare you jump from the top of that high wall? Modal auxiliary uses
• I daren‟t do it.
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• She doesn‟t dare (to) go out at night.

• The old lady didn‟t dare (to) open the door. Main verb uses
• Did he dare (to) criticize my arrangements?
• Nobody dares (to) tell him the truth.

Need
Need is another defective verb that can be constructed in two ways, either as a modal
auxiliary with a bare infinitive and without the inflected forms, or as a main verb with
to-infinitive, -s inflection and past form. Its use as a modal auxiliary is mainly
restricted to negative and interrogative sentences. Need as an auxiliary is seldom used
in the affirmative except when a negative or interrogative sentence is preceded by an
expression which changes the negative or interrogative verb into an affirmative:

• I don't suppose I need wear a coat.

• Do you think I need tell Tom?
• He needn‟t go now. Modal auxiliary uses
• Need he go now?
• Needn‟t he go now?

• He needs to go now.
• He doesn‟t need to go now.
• Does he need to go now? Main verb uses
• Doesn‟t he need to go now?