Complex Numbers Cheat Sheet Edexcel Core Pure 2

This chapter aims to build upon the complex numbers you learnt in Core Pure 1. We will look at Euler’s formula and De
Moivre’s theorem; two powerful ideas which will lay the foundation for most of the techniques you will encounter in 7𝜋𝜋 7𝜋𝜋
(𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 )4 𝜃𝜃
Example 4: Evaluate 13 13 giving your answer in the form 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖, where 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 ∈ ℝ. Notice that the result we want to show has 2𝑖𝑖 sin � � in the
this chapter. Complex numbers themselves have an unexpectedly large number of applications in the real world, such 4𝜋𝜋 4𝜋𝜋 2
(𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 )6 denominator. And recall that sin 𝜃𝜃 =
1
�𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 �, 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
−𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 13𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 −13𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 13𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 −13𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 13𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
as the modelling of quantum waves in Physics to the representation of alternating current in Electrical Engineering. 13 13 2𝑖𝑖 𝑒𝑒 2 𝑒𝑒 2 (𝑒𝑒 2 − 𝑒𝑒 2 ) 𝑒𝑒 6𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 (𝑒𝑒 2 − 𝑒𝑒 2 )
7𝜋𝜋 7𝜋𝜋 28𝜋𝜋 28𝜋𝜋 𝜃𝜃 𝑖𝑖𝜃𝜃 −𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = =
Use De Moivre’s theorem with the numerator: (cos + 𝑖𝑖 sin )4 = cos + 𝑖𝑖 sin 2𝑖𝑖 sin � � = 𝑒𝑒 − 𝑒𝑒 2 2 So if we multiply the top and bottom by −𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 −𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖𝜃𝜃
13 13 13 13 2 𝑒𝑒 2 (1 − 𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝜃𝜃 ) 𝑒𝑒 2 − 𝑒𝑒 2
Exponential form of complex numbers −
𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 −𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖𝜃𝜃

4𝜋𝜋 4𝜋𝜋 24𝜋𝜋 24𝜋𝜋 𝑒𝑒 2 , we get 𝑒𝑒 2 − 𝑒𝑒 on the bottom, which is equal to

2
In Core Pure 1, you learnt that the modulus argument form of a complex number 𝑧𝑧 is 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑟𝑟(cos 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑖𝑖 sin 𝜃𝜃), where Use De Moivre’s theorem with the denominator: (cos + 𝑖𝑖 sin )6 = cos + 𝑖𝑖 sin 𝜃𝜃
13 13 13 13 −2𝑖𝑖 sin � �
𝑟𝑟 = |𝑧𝑧| and arg 𝑧𝑧 = 𝜃𝜃. You can use Euler’s formula to express a complex number in an exponential form: 2
−13𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 13𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 13𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 −13𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
28𝜋𝜋 28𝜋𝜋 𝜃𝜃 𝑒𝑒 6𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 (𝑒𝑒 2 − 𝑒𝑒 2 ) 𝑒𝑒 6𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 (𝑒𝑒 2 − 𝑒𝑒 2 )
cos + 𝑖𝑖 sin The denominator is now equal to −2𝑖𝑖 sin � �. Multiplying the top
 𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
= cos 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑖𝑖 sin 𝜃𝜃 So, the whole fraction simplifies to: 13 13 2 ∴ 𝑃𝑃 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = =
24𝜋𝜋 24𝜋𝜋 and bottom by −1 gives us the required result. 𝜃𝜃 𝜃𝜃
cos + 𝑖𝑖 sin −2𝑖𝑖 sin � � 2𝑖𝑖 sin � �
13 13 2 2
So the complex number 𝑧𝑧 can also be written as:
28𝜋𝜋 24𝜋𝜋 28𝜋𝜋 24𝜋𝜋 nth roots of a complex number
We can simplify this using the rule for dividing complex numbers: = cos � − � + 𝑖𝑖 sin( − )
 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 , where 𝑟𝑟 = |𝑧𝑧| and arg 𝑧𝑧 = 𝜃𝜃 13 13 13 13 Finding the n roots of a complex number 𝑤𝑤 is equivalent to solving the equation 𝑧𝑧 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑤𝑤.
we divide the magnitudes and subtract the arguments. 4𝜋𝜋 4𝜋𝜋
= cos � � + 𝑖𝑖 sin � �
13 13
This is the exponential form of a complex number. You need to be very comfortable expressing a complex number in  The equation 𝑧𝑧 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑤𝑤 has 𝑛𝑛 distinct solutions (𝑧𝑧 and 𝑤𝑤 are non-zero complex numbers, 𝑛𝑛 is a positive
both exponential and modulus-argument forms. The exponential form will be quite prevalent in this chapter. integer).
Trigonometric identities
The following results follow from Euler’s formula and are worth remembering: You can also be expected to use De Moivre’s theorem to derive trigonometric identities. The following results are We use De Moivre’s theorem to find the roots of a complex number, along with the following fact:
important for such problems:
1 1 Proof: 𝑧𝑧 𝑛𝑛 = cos(𝑛𝑛𝜃𝜃) + 𝑖𝑖 sin(𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛) (𝐼𝐼)  𝑧𝑧 = 𝑟𝑟(cos(𝜃𝜃) + 𝑖𝑖 sin(𝜃𝜃)) = 𝑟𝑟(cos(𝜃𝜃 + 2𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘) + 𝑖𝑖 sin(𝜃𝜃 + 2𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘)), where 𝑘𝑘 is any integer.
 sin 𝜃𝜃 = (𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 )  cos 𝜃𝜃 = (𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 + 𝑒𝑒 −𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ) 1
2𝑖𝑖 2 If 𝑧𝑧 = cos 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑖𝑖 sin 𝜃𝜃, then 𝑧𝑧 −𝑛𝑛 = 𝑛𝑛 = cos(−𝑛𝑛𝜃𝜃) + 𝑖𝑖 sin(−𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛) = cos(𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛) − 𝑖𝑖 sin(𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛) (𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼)
𝑧𝑧
Adding (𝐼𝐼) and (𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼) gives: To solve an equation of the form 𝑧𝑧 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑤𝑤, you should follow the process used in Example 7 below:
These results are significant because they give us a direct connection between complex numbers and the 𝑛𝑛 1 1
 𝑧𝑧 + = 2 cos 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑧𝑧 𝑛𝑛 + 𝑛𝑛 = 2cos(𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛)
trigonometric functions. You could be asked to prove these. The proof of the first statement is given in Example 2, and 𝑧𝑧 𝑛𝑛 𝑧𝑧
𝑧𝑧 𝑛𝑛 −
1
= 2𝑖𝑖 sin 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 To prove the second statement, we would instead subtract (𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼) from (𝐼𝐼). Example 7: Solve the equation 𝑧𝑧 4 + 2𝑖𝑖√3 = 2, expressing the roots in the form 𝑟𝑟(cos 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑖𝑖 sin 𝜃𝜃).
the proof for the second is very similar. 
𝑧𝑧 𝑛𝑛
We start by making 𝑧𝑧 4 the subject: 𝑧𝑧 4 = 2 − 𝑖𝑖(2√3)
𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
You could be asked to prove any of the above results. Examples 5 shows how you can use these results to prove Writing in modulus-argument form: 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
Example 1: Express the complex number 𝑧𝑧 = √2 �cos + 𝑖𝑖 sin � in the form 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 . 𝑧𝑧 4 = 4(cos �− � + 𝑖𝑖 sin �− �)
2 2
trigonometric identities. (we could also use the exponential form) 3 3
We use the given form to figure out the 𝜋𝜋
|𝑧𝑧| = √2, arg 𝑧𝑧 = 1
modulus and argument of 𝑧𝑧 2 1 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 4
Example 5: Express 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 5 𝜃𝜃 in the form a cos(5𝜃𝜃) + 𝑏𝑏 cos(3𝜃𝜃) + 𝑐𝑐 cos(𝜃𝜃), where 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 and 𝑐𝑐 are constants. Taking the fourth root of both sides: 𝑧𝑧 = 44 �cos �− � + 𝑖𝑖 sin �− ��
Now using the exponential form 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
3 3
∴ 𝑧𝑧 = √2𝑒𝑒 2
1
1 1 𝑧𝑧 + = 2 cos 𝜃𝜃 But remember that if we add on any multiple of 2𝜋𝜋 to the 1
Example 2: Use Euler’s relation to show that sin 𝜃𝜃 = (𝑒𝑒 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ).
𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 Using 𝑧𝑧 𝑛𝑛 +
𝑧𝑧 𝑛𝑛
= 2 cos 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 with 𝑛𝑛 = 1: 𝑧𝑧 argument, this will also be a solution, so we add 2𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 to the 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 4
2𝑖𝑖 𝑧𝑧 = √2 �cos �− + 2𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘� + 𝑖𝑖 sin �− + 2𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘��
argument. Make sure to do this BEFORE you use De Moivre’s 3 3
Euler’s relation states: 𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = cos 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑖𝑖 sin 𝜃𝜃 (𝐼𝐼)
1 5 theorem, which is the next step.
Replacing 𝜃𝜃 with −𝜃𝜃. Note that 𝑒𝑒 −𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = cos(−𝜃𝜃) + 𝑖𝑖 sin(−𝜃𝜃) Raising both sides to the fifth power: �𝑧𝑧 + � = 32cos5 𝜃𝜃 1
𝑧𝑧 −𝜋𝜋 + 6𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 −𝜋𝜋 + 6𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 4
cos(−𝜃𝜃) = cos (𝜃𝜃) and sin(−𝜃𝜃) = −sin (𝜃𝜃) 𝑒𝑒 −𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = cos(𝜃𝜃) − 𝑖𝑖 sin(𝜃𝜃) (𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼) Simplifying the argument into one fraction makes further 𝑧𝑧 = √2 �cos � � + 𝑖𝑖 sin � ��
working slightly easier: 3 3
𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = cos 𝜃𝜃 − cos 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑖𝑖 sin 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑖𝑖 sin 𝜃𝜃 We now focus on the 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 and expand using 1 5 1 1 1 1 1
Subtracting (𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼) from (𝐼𝐼):
𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 2𝑖𝑖 sin 𝜃𝜃 the binomial expansion: �𝑧𝑧 + � = 𝑧𝑧 5 + 5(𝑧𝑧 4 ) � � + 10(𝑧𝑧 3 ) � 2 � + 10(𝑧𝑧 2 ) � 3 � + 5(𝑧𝑧) � 4 � + 5 −𝜋𝜋 + 6𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 −𝜋𝜋 + 6𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑧𝑧 𝑧𝑧 𝑧𝑧 𝑧𝑧 𝑧𝑧 𝑧𝑧 Now applying De Moivre’s theorem: 𝑧𝑧 = √2 �cos � � + 𝑖𝑖 sin � ��
1 12 12
Dividing by 2𝑖𝑖 sin 𝜃𝜃 = (𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 )
2𝑖𝑖 We can pair up the terms that match in 1 5 1 1 1 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
�𝑧𝑧 + � = �𝑧𝑧 5 + 5 � + 5 �𝑧𝑧 3 + 3 � + 10 �𝑧𝑧 + � 𝑘𝑘 = 0: 𝑧𝑧 = √2 (cos �− � + 𝑖𝑖 sin �− �)
power: 12 12
Multiplying and dividing complex numbers 𝑧𝑧 𝑧𝑧 𝑧𝑧 𝑧𝑧 5𝜋𝜋 5𝜋𝜋
There are four solutions in total. We use different values of 𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘 = 1: 𝑧𝑧 = �2(cos � � + 𝑖𝑖 sin � �)
Recall from Core Pure 1 that for any two complex numbers 𝑧𝑧1 , 𝑧𝑧2 : These terms can all be simplified using:
1 5 12 12
1 that result in the argument being in the range 11𝜋𝜋 11𝜋𝜋
|𝑧𝑧1 | �𝑧𝑧 + � = 2 cos(5𝜃𝜃) + 5(2 cos(3𝜃𝜃)) + 10(2 cos(𝜃𝜃))
𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧 𝑛𝑛 + 𝑛𝑛 = 2𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑧𝑧 −𝜋𝜋 < 𝜃𝜃 ≤ 𝜋𝜋 𝑘𝑘 = 2: 𝑧𝑧 = �2(cos � � + 𝑖𝑖 sin � �)
 |𝑧𝑧11 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧22|| =
|𝑧𝑧 |𝑧𝑧11 ||𝑧𝑧
= |𝑧𝑧 ||𝑧𝑧22||  � �= 𝑧𝑧 = 2 cos(5𝜃𝜃) + 10 cos(3𝜃𝜃) + 20 cos(𝜃𝜃)
12 12
𝑧𝑧2 |𝑧𝑧2 | 7𝜋𝜋 7𝜋𝜋
𝑘𝑘 = −1: 𝑧𝑧 = √2 (cos �− � + 𝑖𝑖 sin �− �)
12 12
𝑧𝑧1 But from the second step we said that 32 cos5 𝜃𝜃 = 2 cos(5𝜃𝜃) + 10 cos(3𝜃𝜃) + 20 cos(𝜃𝜃)
 arg(𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2 ) = arg(𝑧𝑧1 ) + arg (𝑧𝑧2 )  arg � � = arg (𝑧𝑧1 ) − arg (𝑧𝑧2 ) 1 5
𝑧𝑧2 �𝑧𝑧 + � = 32𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 5 𝜃𝜃, so we can say that:
𝑧𝑧 Solving geometric problems
We can deduce similar results for when complex numbers are given in an exponential form: Dividing both sides by 32: cos5 𝜃𝜃 =
1
cos(5𝜃𝜃) +
5 5
cos(3𝜃𝜃) + cos(𝜃𝜃)
The roots of a complex number when plotted on an argand diagram form a polygon. You can use this idea to solve
16 16 8 geometric problems.
If 𝑧𝑧1 = 𝑟𝑟1 𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝜃𝜃1 and 𝑧𝑧2 = 𝑟𝑟2 𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝜃𝜃2 , then:
Sums of complex series  The n roots of a complex number 𝑧𝑧 lie at the vertices of a regular 𝑛𝑛-gon which has its centre at O.
𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖(𝜃𝜃
𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧11𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧22 ==𝑟𝑟1𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟12𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒2𝑖𝑖(𝜃𝜃 12+𝜃𝜃
1 +𝜃𝜃 ) 2) Recall from Chapter 3 of Pure Year 2 that for a geometric series:

For example, the solutions to the equation 𝑧𝑧 4 = 2 + 𝑖𝑖 are the vertices of a square with centre 𝑂𝑂. We will now look at the
𝑧𝑧 𝑟𝑟1𝑟𝑟1𝑖𝑖(𝜃𝜃𝑖𝑖(𝜃𝜃
𝑧𝑧11  The sum of the first 𝑛𝑛 terms is given by 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 =
𝑎𝑎(1−𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 )
. roots of unity, which are useful for geometric problems:
 == 𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒 1−𝜃𝜃12−𝜃𝜃
) 2)
1−𝑟𝑟
𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧2 𝑟𝑟2𝑟𝑟
2 2 𝑎𝑎
 The sum to infinity is given by 𝑆𝑆∞ = .  An 𝑛𝑛th root of unity is a solution to the equation 𝑧𝑧 𝑛𝑛 = 1.
Example 3: Express √5𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 × 3𝑒𝑒 3𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 in the form 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖, where 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 ∈ ℝ. 1−𝑟𝑟

You can also use these results when 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑟𝑟 are complex. Questions involving series will often require a lot of algebraic  If you know one root of a complex number with 𝑛𝑛 roots, then you can find the other roots by multiplying by
The modulus of the resultant complex number is found by |𝑧𝑧| = √5, |𝑧𝑧| = 3 an nth root of unity.
manipulation to achieve the final result.
multiplying each modulus. |𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2| = 3√5
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
The argument of the resultant complex number is found by arg 𝑧𝑧1 = 𝜃𝜃 , arg 𝑧𝑧2 = 3𝜃𝜃 Example 6: The series 𝑃𝑃 and 𝑄𝑄 are defined for 0 < 𝜃𝜃 < 𝜋𝜋 as 𝑃𝑃 = 1 + cos 𝜃𝜃 + cos 2𝜃𝜃 + cos 3𝜃𝜃 + ⋯ + cos 12𝜃𝜃 + ⋯  An nth root of unity is given by 𝜔𝜔 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑛𝑛 . For example, if a complex number has four roots then a ‘fourth’
adding the arguments together arg(𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2 ) = 4𝜃𝜃 13𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 13𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑄𝑄 = sin 𝜃𝜃 + sin 2𝜃𝜃 + sin 3𝜃𝜃 + ⋯ + sin 12𝜃𝜃 + ⋯ 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
6𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 −
𝑒𝑒 �𝑒𝑒 2 −𝑒𝑒 2 � root of unity is given by 𝜔𝜔 = 𝑒𝑒 4 .
Using the modulus argument form to write the resultant ∴ 𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2 = 3√5(cos(4𝜃𝜃) + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖(4𝜃𝜃))
complex number in the form 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖:
Show that 𝑃𝑃 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝜃𝜃
= 3√5 cos(4𝜃𝜃) + 𝑖𝑖(3√5)𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(4𝜃𝜃) 2𝑖𝑖 sin� �
2 Example 8: The point 𝑃𝑃(√3, 1) lies at one vertex of an equilateral triangle. The centre of the triangle lies at the origin.
De Moivre’s theorem Adding 𝑃𝑃 to 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖, we can see that we are dealing with a geometric 𝑃𝑃 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 1 + (cos 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑖𝑖 sin 𝜃𝜃) Find the coordinates of the other vertices of the triangle.
You can use De Moivre’s theorem to calculate powers of complex numbers: series. + (cos 2𝜃𝜃 + 𝑖𝑖 sin 2𝜃𝜃) + ⋯
We can use the previous line to figure out what 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑟𝑟 are for this This is an equilateral triangle, so the three vertices represent the three One root is 𝑧𝑧 = √3 + 𝑖𝑖
𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
geometric series. Using the exponential form where possible will So 𝑎𝑎 = 1, 𝑟𝑟 = cos 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑖𝑖 sin 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 roots of a complex number. We are given one root: In exponential form: 𝑧𝑧 = 2𝑒𝑒 6
 (𝑟𝑟(cos 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑖𝑖 sin 𝜃𝜃))𝑛𝑛 = 𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 (cos(𝑛𝑛𝜃𝜃) + 𝑖𝑖 sin(𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛))
make any manipulation a lot easier.
To find the other roots, we need to multiply by an 𝑛𝑛th root of unity. 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋

If we consider the exponential form, this result seems more obvious: There are three roots here, so we call it a cube root of unity: Cube root of unity = 𝑒𝑒 3
There are 13 terms in total (since the first term is 1), so using the 1(1 − (𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 )13 ) 1 − 𝑒𝑒 13𝑖𝑖𝜃𝜃
sum of a geometric series formula with 𝑛𝑛 = 13: 𝑃𝑃 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = =
𝑛𝑛 1 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑖𝑖𝜃𝜃 1 − 𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝜃𝜃 We multiply the original root by the root of unity two successive times to 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 5𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋

 �𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 � = 𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖(𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛) find the other two roots. Remember that the roots correspond to the
𝑧𝑧 = 2𝑒𝑒 6 × 𝑒𝑒
5𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
3
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
= 2𝑒𝑒 6
9𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
= −√3 + 𝑖𝑖
13𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 −13𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 13𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 13𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 −13𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 13𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 vertices. 𝑧𝑧 = 2𝑒𝑒 6 × 𝑒𝑒 3 = 2𝑒𝑒 6 = −2𝑖𝑖
We can rewrite 1 − 𝑒𝑒 as 𝑒𝑒 (𝑒𝑒
13𝑖𝑖𝜃𝜃
− 𝑒𝑒 ) 2 2 2 𝑒𝑒 2 (𝑒𝑒 2 − 𝑒𝑒 2 )
This formula allows you to easily simplify some seemingly complicated expressions, like the one in Example 4. This is a common trick you often need to use for series questions. =
1 − 𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝜃𝜃 (continues)  We write our answers as coordinates: �−√3, 1� and (0, −2) are our vertices.

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