STATIC GK

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Table of Contents
Content Page No.
States & Union Territories-Capital 3-6

Indian Flag 7-9

Political Map of India 10

Important Roles in India 11-12

Women in Business 13-14

Women Entrepreneurs in India 15-24

Ministers of India 25-26

Ministry and responsibility 27-32

Parliament of India 33-44

Power and duties of President of India 45-50

Election Process 51-56

Important International Bodies 57-67

Important National Bodies 68-69

Indian History 70-89

Indian Geography 90-109

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STATES- CAPITAL
Chief
State Capital Governor
Minister

Shri YS Jagan Shri S. Abdul

Andhra Nazeer
Amaravati Mohan Reddy
Pradesh

Shri Kaiwalya Trivikram

Arunachal Shri Pema Parnaik
Pradesh Itanagar Khandu

Shri Himanta Shri Gulab Chand

Assam Dispur Biswa Sarma Kataria

Shri Nitish Shri Rajendra Arlekar

Bihar Patna Kumar

Shri
Vishnu Deo Biswabhusan
Chhattisgarh Raipur Sai Harichandan

Shri P.S. Sreedharan

Shri Pramod Pillai
Goa Panaji Sawant

Shri
Bhupendra Shri Acharya Dev
Gujarat Gandhinagar Vrat
Patel

Shri Manohar Shri Bandaru

Haryana Chandigarh Lal Dattatraya
Khattar

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 Shri Shri Shiv
Himachal Sukhvinder Pratap Shukla
Pradesh Shimla
Singh Sukhu

Shri Hemant Shri C. P.

Jharkhand Ranchi Soren Radhakrishnan

Sri Basavaraj Shri Thaawar

Karnataka Bengaluru Bommai chand
Gehlot

Shri Pinarayi Shri Arif

Kerala Thiruvananthapuram Vijayan Mohammed Khan

Shri Shivraj Shri Mangubhai

Madhya Singh
Bhopal Chhaganbhai Patel
Pradesh Chouhan

Shri Eknath Shri Ramesh Bais

Maharashtra Mumbai Shinde

Shri N. Biren Anusuiya Uikey

Manipur Imphal Singh

Shri Conrad Shri Phagu

Kongkal Chauhan
Meghalaya Shillong
Sangma

Shri Dr. Kambhampati

Mizoram Aizwal Lalduhoma Haribabu

Shri Neiphiu Shri La. Ganesan

Nagaland Kohima Rio Iyer

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Odisha Bhubaneswar Shri Naveen Shri Raghubar Das
Patnaik

Punjab Chandigarh Shri Bhagwant Shri Banwarilal

Singh Mann Purohit

Rajasthan Jaipur Shri Shri Kalraj Mishra

Bhajan
lal
Sharma

Sikkim Gangtok Shri PS Golay Shri Lakshman

Aka Prem Acharya
Singh Tamang

Tamil Nadu Chennai Shri M. K.

Stalin Shri R. N. Ravi

Shri Anumula Dr. Tamilisai

Telangana Hyderabad Revanth Soundararajan
Reddy

Tripura Agartala Dr. Manik Shri Indrasena Reddy

Saha

Uttar Smt. Anandiben

Lucknow Shri Yogi
Pradesh Patel
Aditya Nath

Lt. Gen. Gurmit

Uttarakhand Dehradun Shri Pushkar Singh, PVSM,
Singh Dhami UYSM, AVSM,
VSM (Retd.)

West Dr. C.V. Ananda

Kolkata Km. Mamata
Bengal Bose
Banerjee

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UNION TERRITORIES-CAPITAL

Chief
UT Capital Lt. Governor
Minister

Andaman
and Nicobar Port Blair D K Joshi
Islands

Banwarilal
Chandigarh Chandigarh
Purohit

Dadra and
Nagar Haveli
Daman Praful Patel
& Daman
and Diu

Shri Vinai
Arvind
Delhi New Delhi Kumar
Kejriwal
Saxena

Jammu & Srinagar (Summer), Jammu

Manoj Sinha
Kashmir (Winter)

Brig.
Ladakh Leh (Summer) B.D.
Kargil (Winter) Mishra
(Retd)
Lakshwadeep Kavaratti Praful Patel

N. Dr. Tamilisai
Puducherry Puducherry
Rangaswamy Soundararajan

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Indian Flag
The National Flag of India is a national symbol designed in horizontal rectangular shape. It is
designed using three colours such as deep saffron (top most), white (middle) and India green
(lower most). The middle white colour contains navy blue Ashoka Chakra (means Wheel of Law)
in the centre having 24 spokes in the wheel. The present form of the national flag was adopted in
the meeting of Constituent Assembly on 22nd of July in 1947. The present Indian Flag was
declared as the official flag by the authority of India. As Indian Flag contains three colours, it is
also called as Tiranga. It is based on Swaraj flag.

Indian Flag History

A flag become the symbol of the country so any independent country needs a flag to represent a
unique symbol of the particular nation. The National Flag of India was first adopted in its present
form on 22nd of July in 1947 in the meeting of Constituent Assembly, few days before the
independence of country from British rule on 15 August, 1947. It was designed by the Pingali
Venkayya using tri colours, Ashok Chakra and Khadi clothes.
The National flag of India is designed in horizontal shape in which all the tri-colours are used in
equal proportions. The ratio of flag width to its length is 2:3. The middle white band contains a
navy blue wheel representing Ashok chakra with 24 spokes.
Before the final adoption of the national flag, it went through various amazing changes since its
first inception. The process started with discovering and searching for the unique national flag to
recognise the country during the national struggle for freedom from the British rule.

Meaning and Significance of Indian Flag

Indian flag means a lot for us. It is our symbol of unity to lead us on one common way of Dharma
even after being of different faiths and religions of Buddhism, Jainism, Hinduism, Islam and
Sikhism etc. The tricolour and Ashoka Chakra (means Wheel of Law) of the Indian flag reveals
some meanings which are as follows:
Saffron Colour The topmost part of the national flag is designed using saffron colour which
indicates courage and selflessness of the nation. It is the common and religiously significant color
of the religions like Hindu, Buddhist and Jain. Saffron colour indicates renunciation and
absolution of the ego of the people belonging to different religion and unites to become one.
Saffron colour is of great significance which reminds political leaders to devote towards the
nation as well as perform their work dedicatedly only for the goodness of the nation without
seeking any personal benefits. White Colour The middle part of the Indian national flag is
designed using white colour which represents the honesty, purity and peace of the nation.
According to the Indian philosophy, white colour also represents the cleanliness and knowledge.
It lightens the path of truth in order to guide the nation. It reminds the Indian political leaders to
lead the country to get the ultimate national goal by maintaining the state of peace. Green Colour
The lowermost part of the Indian national flag is designed using the green colour which
represents the faith, fertility and prosperity of the nation. According to the philosophy of India,
green colour is a festive and stabilizing color which represents the life and happiness. It indicates
the greenery of earth all over the India. It reminds the Indian political leaders to lead the country
by protecting the Indian soil from destruction by both, external and internal enemies. Ashoka
Chakra and 24 Spokes According to the Hindu religion, the meaning number 24 is of great
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significance in the Puranas. Ashok Chakra is considered as the Dharma Chakra which is also
known as the Samay Chakra. Ashok Chakra contains 24 spokes in the centre which represents the
24 precious hours of the whole day. It also represents 24 Dharma Rishis of the Hindu religion
Who wielded whole power of the Gayatri Mantra (a most powerful mantra of the Hindu religion).
All 24 Dharma Rishis of the Himalayas gets represented with 24 letters of the eternal Gayatri
Mantra (first one represents the Vishvamitra whereas last one represents the Yajnavalkya who
governs religion means Dharma).
Keeping Ashok Chakra in the middle of Indian Flag has a great history behind. Many years ago,
Lord Buddha got nirvana means Enlightenment in the Gaya. After getting nirvana he turned to
Sarnath, Varanasi where he met with his five disciples (means panch vargiya Bhikshu) named
like Kaundinya, Ashwajeet, Bhadrak, Mahanaam, and Kashyap. Lord Buddha preached them his
first sermon describing and distributing the Dharmachakra. This was taken by the King Ashoka to
represent on the top of his pillars which later become the base of origin this chakra as an Ashok
Chakra in the centre of Indian flag. The presence of Ashok Chakra in the national flag indicates
the strong bond of nation with Buddhist faith. The 12 spokes indicates the teachings of the Lord
Buddha however another 12 are paired with their equivalent symbols such as: Avidya (means
lack of knowledge), Samskara (means a shaper), Vijnana (means consciousness), Namarupa
(means name and form), Sadayatana (means six senses like ear, eye, tongue, nose, body, and
mind), Sparsa (means contact), Vedana (means pain), Trsna (means thirst), Upadana (means
grasp), Bhava (means coming to be), Jati (means being born), Jaramarana (means old age) and
death.

Why Ashok Chakra is in Navy Blue Colour

Navy blue colour, of the Ashok Chakra in the centre of the white strip of the national flag,
indicates the most truth of the universe. It represents the color of sky and ocean.

What 24 Spokes Represents

According to the Hindu religion, all the 24 spokes of the national Flag represents the Life means
The Dharma which are as follows: Love, Courage, Patience, Peacefulness, Magnanimity,
Goodness, Faithfulness, Gentleness, Selflessness, Self-Control, Self-Sacrifice, Truthfulness,
Righteousness, Justice, Mercy, Gracefulness, Humility, Empathy, Sympathy, Spiritual
Knowledge, Moral Values, Spiritual Wisdom, The Fear of God and Faith (Belief or Hope).

What Are Rules And Regulations Of National Flag Code Of India

According to the national flag code of India based on 26th of January, 2002 legislation, some
rules and regulations must be followed to fly the flag:
▪ It allows the flag hoisting in the educational institutions (such as schools, colleges, universities,
sports camps, scout, etc.) as an inspiration to the students to respect their national Flag. Together
with the flag hoisting, a pledge of commitment should be followed in the educational institutions.

▪ A national flag can be hoisted by the public or private organizations on any national occasion by
following the dignity and honour of flag. According to the section 2 of new code, private citizens
are also allowed to fly flag in their premises.

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▪ It is restricted that flag should not be used by anyone for any communal or personal gains like
using it as a clothe. It is only flown from sunrise to sunset in any weather.

▪ It is prohibited to touch it intentionally to the ground, floor, trail in water, etc.

▪ It should not be used to cover the top, back or sides of any vehicles like car, aircraft, trains,
boats, etc in any condition.

▪ If one is using another flag together with the national flag, he/she must become aware of that no
flag other than the national flag should be at higher level. Nothing can be placed over it or it cannot
be used for decoration purpose.

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Political Map Of India

10
Important Roles In India

Name of the Post Name of the Officer

Chairman of the Rajya Sabha. Jagdeep Dhankhar (Vice President)
Chief Justice of India (CJI) . Justice D.Y. Chandrachud
Lok Sabha Speaker. Om Birla
Leader of the Lok Sabha. Narendra Modi
Leader of the Rajya Sabha. Shri Piyush Goyal
Pro tem Speaker. Virendra Kumar Khatik

Chief Election Commissioner. Rajiv Kumar

Comptroller and Auditor General of India Girish Chandra Murmu
(CAG).
Attorney General of India. R. Venkataramani
Cabinet Secretary of India. Rajiv Gauba
Principal Secretary to the Prime Minister. Pramod Kumar Misra

National Security Advisor. Ajit Doval

Home Secretary. Ajay Kumar Bhalla
Finance Secretary. T. V Somanathan
Defence Secretary. Giridhar Aramane
Foreign Secretary. Vinay Mohan Kwatra
Revenue Secretary Tarun Bajaj
Solicitor General of India. Tushar Mehta
Principal Scientific Adviser. Ajay Kumar Sood
Chief Economic Advisor. Dr. V. Anantha Nageswaran

Vice-chairperson NITI Aayog. Suman Bery

Governor, Reserve Bank of India. Shaktikanta Das

Central Vigilance Commissioner. Praveen Kumar Srivastava

Chief Information Commissioner. Heeralal Samariya

UN Ambassador (Permanent Representative). Ruchira Kamboj

Director, RAW. Ravi Sinha

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Director of the Intelligence Bureau (IB) Tapan Deka

Director, CBI Praveen Sood

Director-General, NIA. Dinkar Gupta
Director-General, National Security Guard. M.A. Ganapathy

Chairman, ISRO. S. Somanath

Chairman, SEBI. Madhabi Puri Buch
Chairperson, Atomic Energy Commission. Dr. Ajit Kumar Mohanty

Chairman, National Commission for Iqbal Singh Lalpura

Minorities.
Chairman, National Commission for Vijay Sampla
Scheduled Castes.

Chairperson, National Commission for Rekha Sharma

Women.
Chairman, National Commission for Hansraj Gangaram Ahir
Backward Classes

Chairman, Telecom Regulatory Authority of P D Vaghela

India.

Chairman, 15th Finance Commission of India. N K Singh

Chief of the Army Staff. General Manoj Pande

Chief of the Naval Staff. Admiral R. Hari Kumar

Chief of the Air Staff. Air Chief Marshal VR Chaudhari

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Women in Business
Name Title Affiliation
Nirmala Sitharaman Union Minister for Finance Government of India
and Corporate Affairs
Nita Ambani Founder and Chairperson, Reliance Foundation
Reliance Foundation
Soumya Swaminathan Chief Scientist, World World Health Organization
Health Organization (WHO)
(WHO)
Kiran Mazumdar-Shaw Executive Chairperson Biocon
Suchitra Ella Co-founder and Joint MD Bharat Biotech International
Ltd
Arundhati Bhattacharya Chairperson & CEO Salesforce India
Gita Gopinath Chief Economist International Monetary Fund
Tessy Thomas Distinguished Scientist and DRDO
Director General,
Aeronautical Systems
Sangita, Suneeta, Preetha, Director Apollo Hospitals
Shobana Reddy
Anshula Kant MD and CFO World Bank
Renu Sud Karnad Managing Director HDFC Ltd
Shobhana Bhartia Chairperson and Editorial HT Media
Director
Kalli Purie Vice Chairperson India Today Group
Revathi Advaithi CEO Flex
Leena Nair Chief Human Resources Unilever
Officer
CEO Chanel
Mallika Srinivasan Chairman and MD Tractors and Farm Equipment
(TAFE)
Swati Piramal Vice Chairperson Piramal Group
Vishakha Mulye Chief Executive Aditya Birla Capital
Vibha Padalkar MD and CEO HDFC Life
Isha Ambani Director Reliance Jio and Reliance
Retail
Bela Bajaria Head of Global TV Netflix
Falguni Nayar Founder and CEO Nykaa
Aparna Bawa COO and Interim Chief Legal Zoom Video
Officer Communications
Zia Mody Co-founder AZB & Partners
Soma Mondal Ex - Chairperson SAIL

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Vinita Gupta CEO Lupin Laboratories
Priya Nair Global CMO HUL

Sindhu Gangadharan MD and Senior Vice President SAP Labs India

Pallavi Shroff Managing Partner Shardul Amarchand

Mangaldas & Co.
Anjali Bansal Founder Avaana Capital
Kaku Nakhate President and Country Head Bank of America,Bank of
India America
Divya Gokulnath Co-founder Byju's
Samina Hamied Executive Vice Chairperson Cipla
Ameera Shah Promoter and MD Metropolis Healthcare
Zarin Daruwala Cluster CEO, India and South Standard Chartered Bank
Asia markets
Geetha Manjunath Founder and CEO NIRAMAI Health Analytix
Priyanka Chopra Jonas Founder and Investor Purple Pebble Pictures,
Anomaly Haircare; Bumble
India
Meena Ganesh MD, Co-founder and Portea Medical
Chairperson
Mira Kulkarni Chairman and MD Mountain Valley Springs
Nivruti Rai Vice President Intel India
Neerja Birla Founder and Chairperson Mpower
Aruna Jayanthi MD, Latam and Canada Capgemini
Aparna Purohit Head of India Originals Amazon Prime Video
Renuka Ramnath Founder and CEO Multiples Alternate Asset
Management
Monika Shergill Vice President, Content Netflix India
Suparna Mitra CEO, Watches and Wearables Titan Company
Division
Padmaja Ruparel Co-founder Indian Angel Network
Ashu Suyash Former MD and CEO CRISIL

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Women Entrepreneurs in India
1. Aditi Gupta: The Co-founder of Menstrupedia

• Menstrupedia is a complete guide about periods that is taught in more than 30 schools
across India. They also have several free resources available to help break the
taboo.

2. Ashwani Asokana: Founder, Mad Street Den

MAD is an Artificial Intelligence and Computer Vision company. Their mission is to build
models of generalizable intelligence to make it available for use to billions of people. Today, with
a team of 175+ MAD is revolutionising the fashion industry with its Image recognition platform,
Vue.ai launched in 2016.
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3. Basudha Shrivastav: ExpressEarth Digital Services

• ExpressEarth has created a niche environment for smart travellers. It‘s a unique
channel that provides different options for travelling that truly suit you and not a
travel company or agent. They provide travel options for corporate travels too.
They have won several awards including NASSCOM 10k programme. The
programme and The Startup India programme truly helped the startup in its early
days from its establishment in 2015.

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 4. Chitra Gurnani Daga: Co-founder, Thrillophili

• Thrillophilia is an Indian adventure travel company that curates local experiences for unique and
offbeat travel stories. Today, with 3.5 million monthly users, it hasbecome one of the largest online
platforms for travel experiences. With an active website, blog and social media Thrillophilia has
managed to build up a brand name for itself. They are one of the most well-known travel companies
in India.

5. Divya Gokulnath: Co-founder BYJU’S

• BYJU‘s is the world‘s most valuable ed-tech startup. It offers learning through an
app and website for competitive exams like JEE, CAT, NEET and IAS and for
students in classes 1-12.

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 6. Dr Florida Tilton: Founder of Biozone Research Technologies

Biozone does research, analytical, academic and publishing services and creates
herbal products. It is a research and development organisation which has been
recognized by DSIR (Ministry of Science and Technology, Govt. of India). Their
services include customised research in fields of Molecular Biology, Plant Tissue
Culture & Herbal research, Animal Cell Culture, Bioinformatics, Microbiology
and Analytical services. Currently, their revenue is more than $4 Million.

7. Falguni Nayar: The Founder of Nykaa

• Valued at an estimate of $1.2 billion Nykaa is a beauty and wellness e-commerce, premier
platform for women. They are known for authentic products and trustworthy brand names. They
boast about their retail partnerships with top-notcpersonal care corporations like Unilever, P&G,
L‘Oreal, Beiersdorf, Johnson &Johnson.
\

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8. Farah Nathani Menzies: Co-Founder of The Mumum Co.

This woman-led startup focused on helping people get the right nutrition and
build a healthier life.

9. Isha Choudhry: Co-Founder ZoloStays

• Zolo Stay helps students find accommodation with food. Today, Zoho Stays has
carved its place in the co-living space in India. It has over 600 employees across
five cities. Just recently Zolo Stays has raised a funding of $56 million in Series C
round from investors like Investcorp, Nexus Venture Partners and more. The total
funding raised by the organisation today stands at $90 million. The company
announced they will use this series of funding to strengthen their technology, lock
in more inventory and strengthen their AI platforms.

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 10. Khushboo Jain: Co-Founder and COO, ImpactGuru.com

• Impact Guru is a crowd-funding platform that uses tech for good. It provides the complete
crowdfunding solution to empower individuals, NGOs and social serial enterprises. It was launched
by Maneka Gandhi, the Union Cabinet minister for Women and child department in 2015. Today, Impact
Guru has raised over ₹ 150crores (US$21 million) for NGOs and social enterprises in various countries.

11. Kiran Mazumdar Shaw: The founder of Biocon Limited

• Biocon Limited is an Indian biopharmaceutical company based in Bangalore, India.

The Company manufactures generic active pharmaceutical ingredients that are
sold in over 120 countries across the globe, including the developed markets of
the United States and Europe.

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12. Meghna Agarwal: Co-Founder- IndiQube

• IndiQube is a chain of coworking spaces that provide entrepreneurs with the right
environment to work in without worrying about everyday office hassles. IndiQube
has carved out its niche by offering flexible work options and facilities.

13. Radhika Ghai Aggarwal: Co-Founder & CMO, Shopclues.com

• Currently, Shopclues is India‘s first and largest fully managed marketplace with
more than 7 million visitors every month. It is currently in nine thousand cities,
towns and villages in India. Shopclues is known to provide utility items for the
kitchen, home, fashion and electronics. Though the company has seen
controversies regarding fake products, it is still well-loved and a great market
place for several eCommerce brands.

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14. Richa kar: Co-founder & Ex-CEO, Zivame

• Zivame started as a marketplace to be a selection for lingerie wear, however, they

started building their own lingerie wear to earn bigger margins.

15. Priyanshi Choubey: Co-founder of InstaCar

• InstaCar is a Taxi rental platform. It allows its users to hail intercity taxi
reservations. The brand focuses on reliability, user safety and the quality of the
car. The startup also provides pick up and drop services for children. The startup
claims to have 30k subscribers on their platform.

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 16. Vineeta Singh

 Vineeta Singh is the co-founder and CEO of SUGAR Cosmetics, an Indian makeup and
beauty brand known for its trendy products and vibrant colors.

 She has been instrumental in revolutionizing the beauty industry in India by creating a brand
that caters to the diverse needs of Indian consumers.

 Singh is recognized for her entrepreneurial spirit and dedication to empowering women
through her brand, which promotes self-expression and confidence.

 Under her leadership, SUGAR Cosmetics has expanded its presence both online and offline,
becoming a popular choice among makeup enthusiasts in India and beyond.

17. Ghazal Alagh

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 Ghazal Alagh is the co-founder of Mamaearth, a popular brand offering toxin-free and
natural products for babies and adults in India.

 She's known for her commitment to creating safe, chemical-free, and environmentally
conscious personal care products, catering to the needs of families.

 Ghazal Alagh has been instrumental in steering Mamaearth's growth, emphasizing

sustainability and natural ingredients in their product formulations.

 Under her leadership, Mamaearth has gained significant traction and popularity, becoming a
trusted brand among consumers seeking safe and eco-friendly personal care alternatives.

18. Namita Thapar

 Namita Thapar holds the position of Executive Director at Emcure Pharmaceuticals, a

prominent Indian pharmaceutical company known for its focus on developing affordable and
high-quality medicines.

 She is instrumental in driving Emcure's strategic initiatives, overseeing various aspects of the
company's operations, including business development, innovation, and growth strategies.

 Thapar has been actively involved in steering Emcure's expansion into international markets,
contributing to the company's global presence in the pharmaceutical industry.

 She's known for her leadership skills and contributions to Emcure's efforts in research,
development, and the production of pharmaceutical products, catering to various therapeutic
segments.

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Ministers of India
Prime Minister of India: Narendra Modi Prime Minister
1. Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances, and Pensions
2. Department of Space
3. Department of Atomic Energy
4. All important policy issues and all other portfolios not allocated to any Minister

Cabinet Minister
Shri Amit Shah. 1. Ministry of Home Affairs
2. Ministry of Cooperation
Shri Rajnath Singh. Ministry of Defence
Shri Nitin Jairam Gadkari. Ministry of Road Transport and Highways
Shri Narayan Tatu Rane. Ministry of Micro, Small and Medium
Enterprises
Smt. Nirmala Sitharaman. 1. Ministry of Finance
2. Ministry of Corporate Affairs
Shri Sarbanada Sonowal. 1. Ministry of Ports, Shipping and
Waterways
2. Ministry of AYUSH
Dr. Virendra Kumar. Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment
Dr. Subrahmanyam Jaishankar. Ministry of External Affairs
Shri Arjun Munda. 1. Ministry of Tribal Affairs
2. Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare
Smt. Smriti Zubin Irani. 1. Ministry of Women and Child
Development
2. Ministry of Minority Affairs
Mansukh Mandaviya. 1. Ministry of Health and Family Welfare
2. Ministry of Chemical Fertilizers
Shri Ashwini Vaishnav. 1. Ministry of Railways
2. Ministry of Communications
3. Ministry of Electronics and
Information Technology
Shri Piyush Goyal. 1. Ministry of Textiles
2. Ministry of Commerce and Industry
3. Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food
and Public Distribution
Shri Dharmendra Pradhan. 1. Ministry of Education
2. Ministry of Skill Development and
Entrepreneurship

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Shri Pralhad Joshi.
Shri Jyotiraditya Scindia.
Shri Giriraj Singh.
Shri Gajendra Singh Shekhawat.
Shri Pashu Pati Kumar Paras.
Shri Kiren Rijiju
Shri Raj Kumar Singh.
Shri Hardeep Singh Puri.
Shri Bhupender Yadav.
Dr. Mahendra Nath Pandey.
Shri Parshottam Rupala.
Shri G. Kishan Reddy.
Shri Anurag Singh Thakur.
1. Ministry of Parliamentary Affairs
2. Ministry of Coal
3. Ministry of Mines
1. Ministry of Civil Aviation
2. Ministry of Steel
1. Ministry of Rural Development
2. Ministry of Panchayati Raj
Ministry of Jal Shakti
Ministry of Food Processing Industries
Ministry of Earth Sciences
1. Ministry of Power
2. Ministry of New and Renewable Energy
1. Ministry of Petroleum and Natural
Gas
2. Ministry of Housing and Urban
Affairs
1. Ministry or Environment, Forest and
Climate Change
2. Ministry of Labour and Employment
Ministry of Heavy Industries
Ministry of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry and
Dairying
1. Ministry of Culture
2. Ministry of Tourism
3. Ministry of Development of North
Eastern Region
1. Ministry of Information and Broadcasting
2. Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports
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Ministry and responsibility
Prime Minister of India
He is the head of government or the real executive in the Indian system. President appoints
the prime minister however no system of appointment is given in the constitution. However, by
convention of a parliamentary democracy the leader of the largest party of parliament becomes
the PM.
The president can exercise discretion when no party has clear majority. He appoints a person and
asks him to prove his majority in the house. If the PM dies and no successor is in sight then
again, the president can appoint a suitable person at his discretion as caretaker for continuity.
However, if the winning party has a candidate then the president has no choice. To be a PM, a
person need not be an MP but he has to become one within 6 months of being appointed or else
his appointment become void. Though the PM occupies his post during the pleasure of the
president he can‘t be removed till he commands the majority in the house.
As per the Govt of India (Allocation of business) Rules created by the president, different
departments were created to handle governments business. Ministers and subject distribution
were done to each ministry by the president on advice of the prime minister.
Powers of the PM
▪ As head of the council of ministers he recommends people to be appointed as ministers to the
president.
▪ He allocates and reshuffles portfolios amongst them. He can ask the minister to resign or tell
the president to dismiss him.
▪ He supervises activities of all ministers. His resignation or death leads to dissolution of the
council of ministers.
▪ He communicates to the president all matters related to administration of the union and
proposed legislations.
▪ He furnishes information required by the president relating to administration of the union or
proposed legislations.
▪ He submits to the consideration of the council of ministers any matter on which decision has
been taken by an individual minister but the Council of Ministers hasn‘t considered it.
▪ He is the leader of the lower house. He can advise president to summon or prorogue the house
sessions. He can advise dissolution of Lok Sabha to the president anytime. He announces
government policies on the floor of the house.
▪ He is advisor of president regarding appointments to various regulators and constitutional
bodies of the union.
▪ He heads the national development council, national integration council, interstate council, Niti
Aayog, national water resource council.

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Council of Ministers
The PM + Council of ministers are the real executives of the union. They aid and advice the
president in the exercise of his functions but such advice is binding on the president. No court
shall inquire into the advice given by the Council of ministers to the President which means they
are liable for official acts of the president done on their advice. Constitution however doesn‘t
grant any immunity either for personal or official acts hence ministers can be treated like
ordinary citizens.
The total strength of the PM + Council of ministers shall not exceed 15% of the strength of the
Lok Sabha [91st amendment]. The person who has been disqualified on grounds of defection
shall also be disqualified to be appointed as the PM [91st amendment].

Council of ministers is collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha. A minister who isn‘t a MP
for six consecutive months shall cease to be the minister. A minister can take part in proceeding
of both houses as he is member of the government but can vote only in the house of which he‘s a
member.
Collective responsibility: This means that entire Council of ministers is a team that sinks or
swims together. So, if the Lok Sabha passes a no confidence motion against the Council of
ministers then all have to resign. Only the Lok Sabha can pass the motion of no confidence; it
can‘t be against a single minister but the entire Council of ministers only. This is due to the
provision in the constitution saying:
"Council of ministers is collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha." Three
categories of Council of Ministers:
▪ Cabinet: They attend cabinet meetings and play important role in central government.
▪ Minister of state: They can be independent in charge of department that aren‘t attached to
cabinet ministries or in charge of specific department part of a ministry /specific work in a
ministry which is headed by a cabinet minister.
▪ Deputy Minister: They are attached to cabinet ministers or ministers of state and assist them in
their work.
The last two categories don‘t form part of cabinet meetings. Cabinet isn‘t mentioned in the
original text of the constitution but only in 44th amendment it was inserted in article 352.
Cabinet ministers are also part of cabinet committees which are created to sort out issue or make
policy recommendations to the cabinet.
Minister of Home Affairs
The Minister of Home Affairs (or simply, the Home Minister) is the head of the Ministry of
Home Affairs of the Government of India. One of the senior-most offices in the Union Cabinet,
the chief responsibility of the Home Minister is the maintenance of India's internal security; the
country's large police force comes under his ambit. Occasionally, he is assisted by the Minister of
State of Home Affairs and the lower ranked Deputy Minister of Home Affairs.

28
Minister of External Affairs
The Minister of External Affairs (or simply foreign minister) is the head of the Ministry of
External Affairs of the Government of India. One of the senior-most offices in the Union
Cabinet, the chief responsibility of the Foreign Minister is to represent India and its government
in the international community. The foreign minister also plays an important role in determining
Indian foreign policy. Occasionally, the foreign minister is assisted by a Minister of State for
External Affairs or the lower-ranked Deputy Minister of External Affairs. Minister: Dr.
Subrahmanyam Jaishankar

Ministry of Finance
The Minister of Finance (or simply, finance minister) is the head of the Ministry of Finance of
the Government of India. One of the senior-most offices in the Union Cabinet, the finance
minister is responsible for the fiscal policy of the government. As part of this, a key duty of the
Finance Minister is to present the annual Union Budget in Parliament, which details the
government's plan for taxation and spending in the coming financial year. Through the Budget,
the finance minister also outlines the allocations to different ministries and departments.
Occasionally,he is assisted by the Minister of State for Finance and the lower-ranked
Deputy Minister ofFinance.

Minister of Defence
The Minister of Defence is the head of the Ministry of Defence of the Government of India.
They are often assisted by a Minister of State for Defence and less-commonly, the lower-ranked
Deputy Minister of Defence. The defence minister additionally serves as President of the
Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses, and as Chancellor of the Defence Institute of
Advanced Technology and of the National Defence University.

Ministry of Railways
The Minister of Railways is the head of the Ministry of Railways of the Government of India.
The railway minister is usually accorded a cabinet rank, and is responsible for Indian Railways,
one of the largest employers in the world. An important responsibility of the railway minister is
to present in Parliament the Railway Budget, the Annual Financial Statement of Indian Railways.

Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs

Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA), Government of India, is the apex body for
formulation and administration of the rules and regulations and laws relating to the housing and
urban development in India. The ministry was under the charge of Venkaiah Naidu and was
given to Hardeep Singh Puri when Naidu was elected Vice President of India.[1] The Ministry
became independent from Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation in 2004,[2] but
29
was re-merged with it in 2017.

Minister of Road Transport and Highways

The Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, a ministry of the Government of India, is the
apex body for formulation and administration of the rules, regulations and laws relating to road
transport, and transport research, in order to increase the mobility and efficiency of the road
transport system in India. Road transport is a critical infrastructure for economic development of
the country. It influences the pace, structure and pattern of development. In India, roads are used
to transport over 60% of the total goods and 85% of the passenger traffic. Hence, development of
this sector is of paramount importance for the India and accounts for a significant part in the
budget

Ministry of Coal
The Ministry of Coal is charged with exploration of coal and lignite reserves in India, production,
supply, distribution and price of coal through the government-owned corporations Coal India
Limited and its subsidiaries, as well as Neyveli Lignite Corporation. The Ministry of
Coal also manages the Union Government's 49 percent equity participation in Singareni
Collieries Company, a public sector undertaking that is a joint venture with Government of
Telangana. Government of Telangana holds 51% equity and Government of India holds 49%
equity.

Ministry of Textiles
The Ministry of Textiles is responsible for the formulation of policy, planning, development,
export promotion and regulation of the textile industry in India. This includes all natural,
artificial, and cellulosic fibres that go into the making of textiles, clothing and Handicraft

Ministry of Minority Affairs

The Ministry of Minority Affairs is a ministry of the Government of India established in 2006. It
is the apex body for the central government's regulatory and developmental programmes for the
minority religious communities in India, which include Muslims, Sikhs, Christians, Buddhists,
Zoroastrians (Parsis) and Jains notified as minority communities as notified by GOI in Gazette
under Section 2 (c) of the National Commission for Minorities Act, 1992.

Ministry of Information and Broadcasting

The Minister of Information and Broadcasting is the head of the Ministry of Information and
Broadcasting and one of the cabinet ministers of the Government of India.

30
Ministry of Law and Justice
The Ministry of Law and Justice in the Government of India is a cabinet ministry which deals
with the management of the legal affairs, legislative activities and administration of justice in
India through its three departments namely the Legislative Department and the Department of
Legal Affairs and Department of Justice respectively. The Department of Legal Affairs is
concerned with advising the various Ministries of the Central Government while the Legislative
Department is concerned with drafting of principal legislation for the Central Government. The
ministry is headed by a cabinet rank minister appointed by the President of India on the
recommendation of the Prime Minister of India

Minister of Drinking Water and Sanitation

The Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation is a ministry of the Government of India. In
1999, the Department of Drinking Water Supply (DDWS) was formed under Ministry of Rural
Development, for focused attention on drinking water and sanitation. Later was renamed as
Department of Drinking Water and Sanitation in 2010 and in 2011, it was conferred the Ministry
status, keeping in view the extreme importance given to the sector by the United Progressive
Alliance government. The Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation is the nodal department for
the overall policy, planning, funding and coordination of programmes of drinking water and
sanitation in the country.

Minister of Electronics and Information Technology

The Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY) is a part of the Union
Government of the Republic of India. It was carved out of Ministry of Communications and
Information Technology on 19 July 2016. Minister: Shri Ashwini Vaishnaw

Minister of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation

The Ministry of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation is the apex body
for formulation and administration of rules and regulations relating to the development and
regulation of the water resources in India. The Ministry was formed in January 1985 following
the bifurcation of the then Ministry of Irrigation and Power, when the Department of Irrigation
was re-constituted as the Ministry of Water Resources. In July 2014, the Ministry was renamed
to ―Ministry of Water Resources, River Development & Ganga Rejuvenation‖, making it the
National Ganga River Basin Authority for conservation, development, management, and
abatement of pollution in the river Ganges and its tributaries

Ministry of Parliamentary Affairs

The Ministry of Parliamentary Affairs is an Indian government ministry. It handles affairs
relating to the Parliament of India, and works as a link between the two chambers, the Lok Sabha
31
("House of the People," the lower house) and the Rajya Sabha ("Council of States," the upper
house). It was created in 1949 as a department but later became a full ministry. The Minister of
Parliamentary Affairs holds cabinet rank as a member of the Council of Ministers Minister: Shri
Pralhad Joshi

Ministry of Health and Family Welfare

The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare is an Indian government ministry charged with
health policy in India. It is also responsible for all government programs relating to family
planning in India. Minister: Dr. Mansukh Mandaviya

Ministry of Human Resource Development

The Ministry of Human Resource Development, formerly Ministry of Education (until 25
September 1985), is responsible for the development of human resources in India. The Ministry
is divided into two departments: The Department of School Education and Literacy, which deals
with primary, secondary and higher secondary education, adult education and literacy, and the
Department of Higher Education, which deals with university education, technical education,
scholarship etc. The erstwhile Ministry of Education now functions under these two departments,
as of 26 September 1985.

Ministry of Commerce and Industry (India)

The Ministry of Commerce and Industry administers two departments, the Department of
Commerce and the Department of Industrial Policy & Promotion. The head of the Ministry is a
Minister of Cabinet rank

Ministry of Labour and Employment

The Minister of Labour and Employment is the head of the Ministry of Labour and Employment
and one of the cabinet ministers of the Government of India.

32
Parliament of India
Lok Sabha
Introduction
The Lok Sabha (House of the People) is the Lower house of India's bicameral Parliament.
Members of the Lok Sabha are elected by adult universal suffrage and a first-past-the-post
system to represent their respective constituencies, and they hold their seats for five years or until
the body is dissolved by the President on the advice of the council of ministers. The house meets
in the Lok Sabha Chambers of the Sansad Bhavan in New Delhi.
The maximum strength of the House allotted by the Constitution of India is 552. Atotal of 131
seats (24.03%) are reserved for representatives of Scheduled Castes (84) and Scheduled Tribes
(47). The quorum for the House is 10% of the total membership. The Lok
Sabha, unless sooner dissolved, continues to operate for five years from the date appointed for its
first meeting. However, while a proclamation of emergency is in operation, this period may be
extended by Parliament by law. An exercise to redraw Lok Sabha constituencies' boundaries is
carried out by the Boundary Delimitation Commission of India every decade based on the Indian
census, last of which was conducted in 2001. This exercise earlier also included redistribution of
seats among states based on demographic changes but that provision of the mandate of the
commission was suspended in 1976 following a constitutional amendment to incentivise the
family planning programme which was being implemented. The 16th Lok Sabha was elected in
May 2014 and is the latest to date.
The Lok Sabha has its own television channel, Lok Sabha TV, headquartered within the premises
of Parliament.

Salient Features of Lok Sabha Legislative

Powers:
An ordinary bill can become law only after it has been passed by both the Houses of Parliament.
It can be introduced either in the Lok Sabha or the Rajya Sabha. When a bill is introduced and
passed by the Lok Sabha, it is sent to the Rajya Sabha. After it has secured the approval of Rajya
Sabha, it goes to the President for his signature.
After this it becomes a law. Although ordinary bills can be introduced in either of the two houses
of Parliament, almost 90% of the bills are actually introduced in the Lok Sabha. In case the Rajya
Sabha rejects a bill passed by the Lok Sabha and returns it with or without some amendments,
the Lok Sabha reconsiders the bill.
If the Lok Sabha re-passes it and the Rajya Sabha is still not prepared to pass it, a deadlock
occurs. If this deadlock remains unresolved for six months, the President summons a joint sitting
of the two Houses. The decision of the joint sitting is accepted by both the Houses.

Executive Powers:
For all its work, the Council of Ministers is collectively responsible before the Lok Sabha. The
leader of the majority in the Lok Sabha becomes the Prime Minister. Most of the ministers are
from the Lok Sabha. The ministers remain in office so long as they enjoy the confidence of
majority in the Lok Sabha.
The Lok Sabha can remove the ministry from office by passing a vote of no- confidence against
33
it. Thus, the life and death of the Ministry depends upon the Lok Sabha. The Lok Sabha maintains
a continuous control over the Council of Ministers.
MPs can ask questions from ministers about their policies and activities of administration. They
can criticise their policies. They can move and adopt several types of resolutions and motions
(adjournment motion, call attention motion, censure motion and no-confidence motion) and can
reject any bill of the government. If the Lok Sabha:

• Rejects any policy or decision of the Cabinet,

• Or disapproves the budget or a bill of the government, or
• Passes a vote of no- confidence against the Prime Minister, it is taken to be a vote of
noconfidence against the entire Council of Ministers and it resigns en masse.
Financial Powers:
The Lok Sabha has vast financial powers. A money bill can be introduced only in the Lok Sabha.
After having been passed by it, the money bill goes to the Rajya Sabha. Such a bill can be
delayed by the Rajya Sabha for a maximum period of 14 days.
If the Rajya Sabha fails to pass a money bill and 14 days elapse from the date of the submission of
the bill to it, the money bill is deemed to have been passed by both the houses of Parliament. It is
sent to the President for his signature.
In case of any dispute as to whether a particular bill is a money bill or not, the Speaker of the Lok
Sabha gives the decision. His decision is final and it cannot be challenged in any court or even in
the Rajya Sabha or the Lok Sabha. Thus, we can any that the Lok Sabha has the final control
over the finances of state. No tax can be levied or collected or changed or abolished without the
approval of the Lok Sabha. The fiscal policies of the government cannot be implemented without
the consent of the Lok Sabha.

Judicial Powers:
The Lok Sabha also performs some judicial functions. The impeachment proceedings can be
taken up against the President either in the Lok Sabha or the Rajya Sabha. The President can be
removed from office only when an impeachment resolution is adopted by each of the two Houses
with a 2/3 majority of its members.
The Lok Sabha also investigates the charges prepared by the Rajya Sabha against the
VicePresident of India. The Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha can together pass a resolution for
the removal of any judge of the Supreme Court or of a State High Court.
Both the Houses can jointly pass a special address and present it to the President for the removal
of some high officers of the state like the Attorney General, the Chief Election Commissioner
and the Comptroller and Auditor General of India. Lok Sabha can also take action against any
member or any citizen who is held to be guilty of committing contempt of the House.

Electoral Functions:
The Lok Sabha also performs some electoral functions. The elected members of the Lok Sabha
take part in the election of the President. Members of the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha
together elect the Vice-President of India. The members of the Lok Sabha also elect a Speaker
and a Deputy Speaker from amongst themselves.

34
Some Other Powers of Lok Sabha
The Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha jointly perform the following functions:
Approval of the ordinances issued by the President
▪ Change of the boundaries of the states. State, creation of new states and change in the name of
any state.
▪ Changes in the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court and the High Courts.
▪ Changes the qualifications of the members of the Parliament and State Legislatures.
▪ Revising the salary and allowances of the members of Parliament,
▪ The setting up of Joint Public Service Commission for two or more states.
▪ Passing of a resolution for abolishing or creating the upper chamber of a state legislature, ▪
Approval of a Declaration of Emergency.
Procedure in the House of Lok Sabha: The Rules of Procedure and Conduct of Business in
Lok Sabha and Directions issued by the Speaker from time to time there under regulate the
procedure in Lok Sabha. The items of business, notice of which is received from the Ministers/
Private Members and admitted by the Speaker, are included in the daily List of Business which is
printed and circulated to members in advance. For various items of business to be taken up in the
House the time is allotted by the House on the recommendations of the Business Advisory
Committee. The Speaker presides over the sessions of the House and regulates procedure.
Miscellaneous
Sessions and Time of Sittings: Three sessions of Lok Sabha take place in a year:
▪ Budget session: February to May.
▪ Monsoon session: July to September.
▪ Winter session: November to mid-December.
When in session, Lok Sabha holds its sittings usually from 11 A.M. to 1 P.M. and from 2 P.M. to
6 P.M. On some days the sittings are continuously held without observing lunch break and are
also extended beyond 6 P.M. depending upon the business before the House. Lok Sabha does not
ordinarily sit on Saturdays and Sundays and other closed holidays.

Question Hour: The first hour of every sitting is called Question Hour. Asking questions in
Parliament is the free and unfettered right of members, and during Question Hour they may ask
questions of ministers on different aspects of administration and government policy in the
national and international spheres. Every minister whose turn it is to answer to questions has to
stand up and answer for his department's acts of omission or commission.
Questions are of three types - Starred, Untarred and Short Notice. A Starred Question is one to
which a member desires an oral answer in the House and which is distinguished by an asterisk
mark. An unstirred Question is one which is not called for oral answer in the house and on which
35
no supplementary questions can consequently be asked. An answer to such a question is given in
writing. Minimum period of notice for starred/ unstirred question is 10 clear days. If the
questions given notice of are admitted by the Speaker, they are listed and printed for answer on
the dates allotted to the Ministries to which the subject matter of the question pertains. The
normal period of notice does not apply to short notice questions which relate to matters of urgent
public importance. However, a Short Notice Question may be answered only on short notice if
so, permitted by the Speaker and the Minister concerned is prepared to answer it at shorter
notice. A short notice question is taken up for answer immediately after the Question Hour,
popularly known as Zero Hour.

Zero Hour: The time immediately following the Question Hour has come to be known as "Zero
Hour". It starts at around 12 noon (hence the name) and members can, with prior notice to the
Speaker, raise issues of importance during this time. Typically, discussions on important Bills,
the Budget, and other issues of national importance take place from 2pm onwards.
Business After Question Hour: After the Question Hour, the House takes up miscellaneous
items of work before proceeding to the main business of the day. These may consist of one or
more of the following: - Adjournment Motions, Questions involving breaches of Privileges,
Papers to be laid on the Table, Communication of any messages from Rajya Sabha, Intimations
regarding President's assent to Bills, Calling Attention Notices, Matters under Rule 377,
Presentation of Reports of Parliamentary Committee, Presentation of Petitions, - miscellaneous
statements by Ministers, Motions regarding elections to Committees, Bills to be withdrawn or
introduced.
Half-An-Hour Discussion: A Half-an-Hour Discussion can be raised on a matter of sufficient
public importance which has been the subject of a recent question in Lok Sabha irrespective of
the fact whether the question was answered orally or the answer was laid on the Table of the
House and the answer which needs elucidation on a matter of fact. Normally not more than half
an hour is allowed for such a discussion. Usually, half-an-hour discussion is listed on Mondays,
Wednesdays and Fridays only, in one session, a member is allowed to raise not more than two
half-an-hour discussions. During the discussion, the member who has given notice makes a short
statement and not more than four members who have intimated earlier and have secured one of
the four places in the ballot are permitted to ask a question each for further elucidating any
matter of fact. Thereafter, the Minister concerned replies. There is no formal motion before the
House nor voting.
Discussion on Matters of Urgent Public Importance: Members may raise discussions on
matters of urgent public importance with the permission of the Speaker. Such discussions may
take place on two days in a week. No formal motion is moved in the House nor is there any
voting on such a discussion.

Debate in the House: After the member who initiates discussion on an item of business has
spoken, other members can speak on that item of business in such order as the Speaker may call
upon them. Only one member can speak at a time and all speeches are directed to the Chair. A
matter requiring the decision of the House is decided by means of a question put by the Speaker
on a motion made by a member.
36
Division: A division is one of the forms in which the decision of the House is ascertained.
Normally, when a motion is put to the House members for and against it indicate their opinion by
saying "Aye" or "No" from their seats. The Chair goes by the voices and declares that the motion
is either accepted or rejected by the House. If a member challenges the decision, the Chair orders
that the lobbies be cleared. Then the division bell is rung and an entire network of bells installed
in the various parts and rooms in Parliament House and Parliament House Annexe rings
continuously for three and a half minutes. Members and Ministers rush to the Chamber from all
sides. After the bell stops, all the doors to the Chamber are closed and nobody can enter or leave
the Chamber till the division is over. Then the Chair puts the question for second time and
declares whether in its opinion the "Ayes" or the "Noes", have it. If the opinion so declared is
again challenged, the Chair asks the votes to be recorded by operating the Automatic Vote
Recording Equipment.

Automatic Vote Recording System: With the announcement of the Speaker for recording the
votes, the Secretary- General presses the button of a keyboard. Then a gong sound serving as a
signal to members for casting their votes.
For casting a vote each member present in the Chamber has to press a switch and then operate
one of the three push buttons fixed in his seat. The push switch must be kept pressed
simultaneously until the gong sounds for the second time after 10 seconds. There are two
Indicator Boards installed in the wall on either side of the Speaker's Chair in the Chamber. Each
vote cast by a member is flashed here. Immediately after the votes are cast, they are totaled
mechanically, and the details of the results are flashed on the Result Indicator Boards installed in
the railings of the Speaker's and Diplomatic Galleries. Divisions are normally held with the aid
of the Automatic Vote Recording Equipment. Where so directed by the Speaker in terms of
relevant provision in the Rules of Procedure etc. in Lok Sabha, Divisions may be held either by
distribution of 'Aye'/'No' and 'Abstention' slips to members in the House or by the members
recording their votes by going into the lobbies. There is an Indicator Board in the machine room
showing the name of each member.
The result of Division and vote cast by each member with the aid of Automatic Vote Recording
Equipment appear on this Board also. Immediately a photograph of the Indicator Board is taken.
Later the Photograph is enlarged and the names of members who voted 'Ayes' and for 'Noes' are
determined with the help of the photograph and incorporated in Lok Sabha Debates.

Publication of Debates: Three versions of Lok Sabha Debates are prepared viz., the Hindi
version, the English version and the Original version. Only the Hindi and English versions are
printed. The Original version, in cyclostyled form, is kept in the Parliament Library for record
and reference. The Hindi version all Questions asked and Answers given thereto in Hindi and the
speeches made in Hindi as also verbatim Hindi translation of Questions and Answers and of
speeches made in English or in regional languages. The English version contains Lok Sabha
proceedings in English and the English translation of the proceedings which take place in Hindi
or in any regional language. The Original version, however, contains proceedings in Hindi or in
English as they actually take place in the House and also the English/Hindi translation of
speeches made in regional languages. If conflicting legislation is enacted by the two Houses, a
37
joint sitting is held to resolve the differences. In such a session, the members of the Lok Sabha
would generally prevail, since the Lok Sabha includes more than twice as many members as the
Rajya Sabha

38
Officers of Lok Sabha
Speaker and Deputy Speaker
As per Article 93 of Indian Constitution, the Lok Sabha has a Speaker and a Deputy Speaker. In
the Lok Sabha, the lower House of the Indian Parliament, both presiding officers—the Speaker
and the Deputy Speaker- are elected from among its members by a simple majority of members
present and voting in the House. As such, no specific qualifications are prescribed for being
elected the Speaker. The Constitution only requires that Speaker should be a member of the
House. But an understanding of the Constitution and the laws of the country and the rules of
procedure and conventions of Parliament is considered a major asset for the holder of the office
of the Speaker.
Vacation and resignation of, and removal from, the offices of Speaker and Deputy Speaker is
mentioned under As per Article 93 of Indian Constitution. A Speaker or a Deputy Speaker,
should vacate his/her office,
 if he/she ceases to be a member of the House of the People,
 he/she resigns,
 removed from his office by a resolution of the House of the People passed by a majority.
The Speaker of Lok Sabha is at once a member of the House as also its Presiding Officer. The
Speaker of the Lok Sabha conducts the business in the house. He/she decides whether a bill is a
money bill or not. He/she maintains discipline and decorum in the house and can punish a
member for their unruly behavior by suspending them. He/she permits the moving of various
kinds of motions and resolutions like the motion of no confidence, motion of adjournment,
motion of censure and calling attention notice as per the rules. The Speaker decides on the
agenda to be taken up for discussion during the meeting. It is the Speaker of the Lok Sabha who
presides over joint sittings called in the event of disagreement between the two Houses on a
legislative measure. Following the 52nd Constitution amendment, the Speaker is vested with the
power relating to the disqualification of a member of the Lok Sabha on grounds of defection. The
Speaker makes obituary references in the House, formal references to important national and
international events and the valedictory address at the conclusion of every Session of the Lok
Sabha and also when the term of the House expires. Though a member of the House, the Speaker
does not vote in the House except on those rare occasions when there is a tie at the end of a
decision. Till date, the Speaker of the Lok Sabha has not been called upon to exercise this unique
casting vote. While the office of Speaker is vacant due to absence/resignation/removal, the duties
of the office shall be performed by the Deputy Speaker or, if the office of Deputy Speaker is also
vacant, by such member of the House of the People as the President may appoint for the purpose.
Shri G.V. Mavalankar was the first Speaker of Lok Sabha (15 May 1952- 27 February 1956) and
Shri M. Ananthasayanam Ayyangar was the first Deputy Speaker of Lok Sabha (30 May 1952 –
7 March 1956). In the 16th Lok Sabha, Sumitra Mahajan was elected as the speaker on 3 June
2014, and is its second woman speaker and Shri M. Thambidurai as the deputy speaker. The Lok
Sabha has also a separate non-elected Secretariat staff.

39
Rajya Sabha
Introduction
The Rajya Sabha or Council of States is the upper house of the Parliament of India.
Membership of Rajya Sabha is limited by the Constitution to a maximum of 250 members, and
current laws have provision for 245 members. Most of the members of the House are indirectly
elected by state and territorial legislatures using single transferable votes, while the President can
appoint 12 members for their contributions to art, literature, science, and social services.
Members sit for staggered six-year terms, with one third of the members retiring every two years.
The Rajya Sabha meets in continuous sessions, and unlike the Lok Sabha, the lower house of
Parliament, is not subject to dissolution. However, the Rajya Sabha, like the Lok Sabha can be
prorogued by the President. The Rajya Sabha has equal footing in all areas of legislation with
Lok Sabha, except in the area of supply, where the Lok Sabha has overriding powers. In the case
of conflicting legislation, a joint sitting of the two houses can be held. However, since the Lok
Sabha has twice as many members as the Rajya Sabha, the former would normally hold the
greater power. Joint sittings of the Houses of Parliament of India are rare, and in the history of
the Republic, only three such joint-sessions have been held; the latest one for the passage of the
2002 Prevention of Terrorism Act.
The Vice-President of India (currently, Venkaiah Naidu) is the ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya
Sabha, who presides over its sessions. The Deputy Chairman, who is elected from amongst the
house's members, takes care of the day-to-day matters of the house in the absence of the
Chairman.

Salient Features of Rajya Sabha

Rajya Sabha has co-equal and co-extensive powers with the Lok Sabha except the financial
matters. Any bill, except a money bill, can be initiated in the Rajya Sabha and can become an
Act only when assented to by both the Houses. In case of disagreement between the two, the
President is authorized to summon a joint sitting of both the Houses. If the bill is accepted by the
majority of the total members of the two Houses, it becomes an Act. Similarly, if the bill is
passed by one House and sent to the other, remains unconsidered in the latter for more than 6
months, the former can call for a joint meeting of the two Houses.

Financial Powers
A money bill can be introduced only in the Lok Sabha. When it has passed, it is sent to the Rajya
Sabha for its re-consideration, which it must make within 14 days. If it takes no action within this
period, it becomes a law as passed by the Lok Sabha. If it makes some amendments, which may
or may not be accepted by the lower chamber. It means that Rajya Sabha is less powerful
chamber than the Lok Sabha in financial matters.

Executive Powers
Central Ministers can sit in the Rajya Sabha, which can put questions to them. But they need not
resign if censured by its members as they will in the Lok Sabha. It means that the chamber has
no power of controlling the executive.

40
Judicial Powers
Like the Lok Sabha, it too has the power of initiating, investigating and deciding the
impeachment charges against the President and Vice-President. It can by an address, move for
the removal of a judge of the Supreme Court or a High Court along with the Lok Sabha.

Miscellaneous
 It shares with the Lok Sabha the power of amending the constitution
 It shares with the Lok Sabha the power of electing the President of India
 It shares with the Lok Sabha the power of electing and dismissing the Vice-President of
India
 It alone has the power to legislate in national interest any matter mentioned in the State
List
 It has the power of approving or disapproving the President's proclamation

41
Miscellaneous

The Mandal Commission case

The Mandal Commission, or the Second Backward Classes Commission (sbcc), was established
in India on 1 January 1979 by the Janata Party government under Prime Minister Morarji Desai
with a mandate to "identify the socially or educationally backward classes" of India. It was
headed by B.P. Mandal an Indian parliamentarian from Bihar, to consider the question of
reservations for people to redress caste discrimination, and used eleven social, economic, and
educational indicators to determine backwardness. In 1980, the Commission's report upheld the
affirmative action practice under Indian law by recommending that members of Other Backward
Classes (OBC) be granted reservations to 27 per cent of jobs under the Central government and
public sector undertakings. The Report came into 1990 august under V.P Singh.

The Writs
The Indian Constitution empowers the Supreme Court to issue writs for enforcement of any of
the fundamental rights conferred by Part III of Indian Constitution under Article 32. Thus, the
power to issue writs is primarily a provision made to make available the Right to Constitutional
Remedies to every citizen. The Right to Constitutional Remedies, as we know, is a guarantor of
all other fundamental rights available to the people of India. In addition to the above, the
Constitution also provides for the Parliament to confer on the Supreme Court power to issue
writs, for purposes other than those mentioned above. Similarly, High Courts in India are also
empowered to issue writs for the enforcement of any of the rights conferred by Part III and for
any other purpose. Types of writs: - Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Prohibition, Certiorari and Quo
Warranto.

• Habeas Corpus (You may have the body)

 To release a person who has been detained unlawfully whether in prison or in
private custody.
• Mandamus (We command)
 To secure the performance of public duties by lower court, tribunal or public
authority.
• Prohibition
 To prohibit an inferior court from continuing the proceedings in a particular case
where it has no jurisdiction to try.
• Certiorari (To be certified)
 To quash the order already passed by an inferior court, tribunal or quasi-judicial
authority.
• Quo warranto (What is your authority)
 To restrain a person from holding a public office which he is not entitled.
Until the Golak Nath case, Supreme Court held that no part of our Constitution was
unamendable. In Golak Nath‘s case (1967) a majority of six judges, in a special bench of eleven

42
overruled the previous decisions and held that if any of such rights is to be amended, a new
constituent Assembly must be convened for making a new constitution or radically changing it.
Constitution (24th Amendment) Act, 1971, held that an amendment of the constitution passed in
accordance with Art.368, will not be law within the meaning of Art.13 and the validity of a
constitution Amendment Act shall not be questioned on the ground that it takes away or affects a
fundamental right. Validity of the 24th Constitution Amendment Act itself was challenged in the
case of Keshavananda Bharati. In the case of Keshavananda Bharati, the supreme court its own
decision given in the case of Golak Nath and held that the Parliament could amend any provision
of the constitution including fundamental rights in accordance with.

Difference between policy and public policy

A policy is a deliberate system of principles to guide decisions and achieve rational outcomes. A
policy is a statement of intent, and is implemented as a procedure or protocol. Policies are
generally adopted by the Board of or senior governance body within an organization whereas
procedures or protocols would be developed and adopted by senior executive officers. Policies
can assist in both subjective and objective decision making. Policies to assist in subjective
decision making would usually assist senior management with decisions that must consider the
relative merits of a number of factors before making decisions and as a result are often hard to
objectively test e.g. work-life balance policy. In contrast policies to assist in objective decision
making are usually operational in nature and can be objectively tested e.g. password policy. The
term may apply to government, private sector organizations and groups, as well as individuals.
Public policy, on the other hand, is the principled guide to action taken by the administrative
executive branches of the state with regard to a class of issues in a manner consistent with law
and institutional customs. The foundation of public policy is composed of national constitutional
laws and regulations. Further substrates include both judicial interpretations and regulations
which are generally authorized by legislation. Public policy is considered strong when it solves
problems efficiently and effectively, serves justice, supports governmental institutions and
policies, and encourages active citizenship.
Public policy is also defined as a system of "courses of action, regulatory measures, laws, and
funding priorities concerning a given topic promulgated by a governmental entity or its
representatives.‖ Public policy is commonly embodied in "constitutions, legislative acts, and
judicial decisions.

Niti Aayog
The National Institution for Transforming India Aayog or NITI Aayog, is a Government of India
policy think-tank established by Prime Minister Narendra Modi to replace the Planning
Commission. It came into existence on 1st January 2015.
The stated aim for NITI Aayog's creation is to foster involvement and participation in the
economic policy-making process by the State Governments of India. It has adopted a "bottomup"
approach in planning which is a remarkable contrast to the Planning Commission's tradition of

43
"top-down" decision-making. One of the important mandates of NITI Aayog is to bring
cooperative competitive federalism and to improve centre state relation. This is well reflected
when Indian Prime Minister appointed three sub-groups of chief ministers for making
recommendations in three important areas (centrally sponsored schemes, skill development and
Swachh Bharat). NITI Aayog will provide opportunities, that the previous Planning Commission
structure lacked, to represent the economic interests of the State Governments and Union
Territories of India.
The Prime Minister will serve as Chairperson for NITI Aayog. The Union Government of India
announced formation of NITI Aayog on 1 January 2015, and the first meeting of NITI Aayog
was held on 8 February 2015. "NITI Blogs", which provide public access to articles, field reports
and work in progress as well as the published opinions of NITI officials, are available to the
public on the Aayog website.
India's Finance Minister Arun Jaitley made the following observation on the necessity of creating
NITI Aayog:
"The 65-year-old Planning Commission had become a redundant organisation. It was relevant in
a command economy structure, but not any longer. India is a diversified country and its states are
in various phases of economic development along with their own strengths and weaknesses. In
this context, a ‗one size fits all‘ approach to economic planning is obsolete. It cannot make India
competitive in today‘s global economy.‖ The various members of NITI Aayog are:

• Chairperson: Prime Minister of India

• CEO: Shri B.V.R. Subrahmanyam
• Vice Chairperson: Suman Beri
• Ex-Officio Members: Rajnath Singh, Arun Jaitley, Piyush Goyal and Radha Mohan
Singh
• Special Invitees: Nitin Gadkari, Smriti Zubin Irani and Thawar Chand Gehlot
• Full-time Members: Bibek Debroy (Economist), V. K. Saraswat (former DRDO Chief),
Ramesh Chand (Agriculture Expert) & Dr. V.K Paul
• Governing Council: All Chief Ministers and Lieutenant Governors of States and Union
Territories

44
Powers and duties of President of India
Duties
The primary duty of the President is to preserve, protect and defend the constitution and the law
of India as made part of his oath (Article 60 of Indian constitution). The President is the common
head of all independent constitutional entities. All his actions, recommendations (Article 3,
Article 111, etc.) and supervisory powers (Article 78 c, Article 108, Article 111, etc.) over the
executive and legislative entities of India shall be used in accordance to uphold the constitution.
There is no bar on the actions of the President to contest in the court of law.

Legislative Powers
Legislative power is constitutionally vested by the Parliament of India of which the president is
the head, to facilitate the law-making process as per the constitution (Article 78, Article 86, etc.).
The President summons both the Houses (the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha) of the Parliament
and prorogues them. He can dissolve the Lok Sabha. As per Article 74, the President shall abide
by the aid and advice of the Council of Ministers headed by the Prime Minister, provided the
given advice is in accordance with the constitution. Article 143 gave power to the president to
consult the Supreme Court about the constitutional validity of any issue.
The President inaugurates Parliament by addressing it after the general elections and also at the
beginning of the first session each year; this is mentioned in Article 87(1). The Presidential
address on these occasions is generally meant to outline the new policies of the government. All
bills passed by the Parliament can become laws only after receiving the assent of the President.
After a bill is presented to him, the President shall declare either that he assents to the Bill, or
that he withholds his assent from it. As a third option, he can return a bill to Parliament, if it is
not a money bill or a constitutional amendment bill, for reconsideration. When, after
reconsideration, the bill is passed and presented to the President, with or without amendments,
the President cannot withhold his assent from it. The President can also withhold his assent to a
bill when it is initially presented to him (rather than return it to Parliament) thereby exercising a
pocket veto. When either of the two Houses of the Parliament of India is not in session, and if the
government feels the need for an immediate procedure, the President can promulgate ordinances
which have the same force and effect as laws passed by Parliament. These are in the nature of
interim or temporary legislation and their continuance is subject to parliamentary approval.
Ordinances remain valid for no more than six weeks from the date the Parliament is convened
unless approved by it earlier. Under article 123, President as the upholder of the constitution
shall be satisfied that immediate action is mandatory as advised by the central cabinet and he is
confident that the government commands majority support in the Parliament needed for the
passing of the ordinance into an act and Parliament can be summoned to deliberate on the
passing of the ordinance as soon as possible. The promulgated ordinance is treated as an act of
Parliament when in force and it is the responsibility of the President to withdraw the ordinance as
soon as the reasons for promulgation of the ordinance are no longer applicable. Bringing laws in
the form of ordinances has become a routine matter by the government and President, but the
provisions made in Article 123 are meant for mitigating unusual circumstances where immediate
action is inevitable when the extant constitutional provisions are inadequate.
The President should take moral responsibility when an ordinance elapses automatically or is not
approved by the Parliament. The President is liable for prosecution for his wrong deeds.

45
Executive Powers
As per Article 53, the executive power of the country is vested in the President and is exercised
by President either directly or through officers subordinate to him in accordance with the
Constitution. Union cabinet with Prime Minister as its head, should aid and advice the President
in performing his functions. As per Article 74 (2), the council of ministers or Prime Minister are
not accountable legally to the advice tendered to the President but it is the sole responsibility of
the President to ensure compliance with the constitution in performing his duties.

Appointment Powers
The President appoints, as Prime Minister, the person most likely to command the support of the
majority in the Lok Sabha (usually the leader of the majority party or coalition). The President
then appoints the other members of the Council of Ministers, distributing portfolios to them on
the advice of the Prime Minister. The Council of Ministers remains in power at the 'pleasure' of
the President. The President appoints 12 members of the Rajya Sabha from amongst persons who
have special knowledge or practical experience in respect of such matters as literature, science,
art and social service.
The President appoints 12 members of the Rajya Sabha from amongst persons who have special
knowledge or practical experience in respect of such matters as literature, science, art and social
service. The President is responsible for making a wide variety of appointments. These include:
▪ Governors of States
▪ The Chief Justice, other judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts of India
▪ The Chief Minister of the National capital territory of Delhi (Article 239 AA 5 of the
constitution)
▪ The Attorney General
▪ The Comptroller and Auditor General
▪ The Chief Election Commissioner and other Election Commissioners
▪ The Chairman and other Members of the Union Public Service Commission
▪ Vice Chancellor of the central university and academic staff of the central university through
his nominee
▪ Ambassadors and High Commissioners to other countries (only through the list of names given
by the Prime Minister).

Financial Powers

▪ A money bill can be introduced in the Parliament only with the President‘s recommendation.
▪ The President lays the Annual Financial Statement, i.e. the Union budget, before the
Parliament.
▪ The President can take advances out of the Contingency Fund of India to meet unforeseen
46
expenses.
▪ The President constitutes a Finance commission after every five years to recommend the
distribution of the taxes between the centre and the States.
Judicial Powers
The President appoints the Chief Justice of the Union Judiciary and other judges on the advice of
the Chief Justice. He dismisses the judges if and only if the two Houses of the Parliament pass
resolutions to that effect by a two-thirds majority of the members present. According to Article
143 of Indian Constitution, if the President considers a question of law or a matter of public
importance has arisen, he can ask for the advisory opinion of the Supreme Court.

Diplomatic Powers
All international treaties and agreements are negotiated and concluded on behalf of the President.
However, in practice, such negotiations are usually carried out by the Prime Minister along with
his Cabinet (especially the Foreign Minister). Also, such treaties are subject to the approval of
the Parliament. The President represents India in international forums and affairs where such a
function is chiefly ceremonial. The President may also send and receive diplomats, i.e. the
officers from the Indian Foreign Service. The President is the first citizen of the country.

Military Powers
The President is the Supreme Commander of the Indian Armed Forces. The President can declare
war or conclude peace, on the advice of the Union Council of Ministers headed by the Prime
Minister. All-important treaties and contracts are made in the President's name. He also appoints
the chiefs of the service branches of the armed forces.

Pardoning Powers
As mentioned in Article 72 of the Indian Constitution, the President is empowered with the
powers to grant pardons in the following situations:
▪ Punishment is for an offence against Union Law
▪ Punishment is by a Military Court
▪ Sentence is that of death
The decisions involving pardoning and other rights by the President are independent of the
opinion of the Prime Minister or the Lok Sabha majority. In most cases, however, the President
exercises his executive powers on the advice of the Prime Minister and the cabinet.
Emergency Powers
The President can declare three types of emergencies: national, state and financial, under articles
352, 356 & 360 in addition to promulgating ordinances under article 123.

47
National emergency
A national emergency can be declared in the whole of India or a part of its territory for causes of
war or armed rebellion or an external aggression. Such an emergency was declared in India in
1962 (Indo-China war), 1971 (Indo-Pakistan war), and 1975 to 1977 (declared by Indira Gandhi.
Under Article 352 of the India Constitution, the President can declare such an emergency only on
the basis of a written request by the Cabinet Ministers headed by the Prime Minister. Such a
proclamation must be approved by the Parliament within one month. Such an emergency can be
imposed for six months. It can be extended by six months by repeated parliamentary
approvalthere is no maximum duration. In such an emergency, Fundamental Rights of Indian
citizens can be suspended. The six freedoms under Right to Freedom are automatically
suspended. However, the Right to Life and Personal Liberty cannot be suspended. (Article 21)
The President can make laws on the 66 subjects of the State List (which contains subjects on
which the state governments can make laws). Also, all money bills are referred to the President
for approval. The term of the Lok Sabha can be extended by a period of up to one year, but not
so as to extend the term of Parliament beyond six months after the end of the declared
emergency.
National Emergency has only been proclaimed in India twice till date. It was declared first in
1962 by President Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, during the Sino-Indian War. The second emergency
in India was from 1975-77 proclaimed by President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed, with Indira Gandhi
as Prime Minister.

State Emergency
If the President is fully satisfied, on the basis of the report of the Governor of the concerned state
or from other sources that the governance in a state cannot be carried out according to the
provisions in the Constitution, he can proclaim under Article 356 a state of emergency in the
state. Such an emergency must be approved by the Parliament within a period of 2 months.
Under Article 356 of the Indian Constitution, it can be imposed from six months to a maximum
period of three years with repeated parliamentary approval every six months. If the emergency
needs to be extended for more than three years, this can be achieved by a constitutional
amendment, as has happened in Punjab and Jammu and Kashmir. During such an emergency, the
President can take over the entire work of the executive, and the Governor administers the state
in the name of the President. The Legislative Assembly can be dissolved or may remain in
suspended animation. The Parliament makes laws on the 66 subjects of the state list (see
National emergency for explanation). A State Emergency can be imposed via the following:
▪ By Article 356 – If that state failed to run constitutionally, i.e. constitutional machinery has
failed.
▪ By Article 365 – If that state is not working according to the direction of the Union
Government issued as per the provisions of the constitution.

48
This type of emergency needs the approval of the parliament within 2 months. It can last up to a
maximum of three years via extensions after each 6-month period. However, after one year it can
be extended only if
▪ A state of National Emergency has been declared in the country or in the particular state.
▪ The Election Commission finds it difficult to organize an election in that state.
The Sarkaria Commission held that presidents have unconstitutionally misused the provision of
Article 356 many times for achieving political motives, by dismissing the state governments
although there was no constitutional break down in the states. During 2005, President's rule was
imposed in Bihar state, misusing Article 356 unconstitutionally to prevent the democratically
elected state legislators to form a government after the state elections.
There is no provision in the constitution to re-promulgate president's rule in a state when the
earlier promulgation ceased to operate for want of parliament‘s approval within two months
duration. During 2014 in Andhra Pradesh, president's rule was first imposed on March 1, 2014
and it ceased to operate on April 30, 2014. President's rule was promulgated after being fully
aware that the earliest parliament session is feasible in the end of May, 2014 after the general
elections. It was re imposed again unconstitutionally on April 28, 2014 by the president.

Financial emergency
Article 282 accords financial autonomy in spending the financial resources available with the
states for public purpose.
Under article 360 of the constitution, President can proclaim a financial emergency when the
financial stability or credit of the nation or of any part of its territory is threatened. However,
until now no guidelines defining the situation of financial emergency in the entire country or a
state or a union territory or a panchayat or a municipality or a corporation have been framed
either by the finance commission or by the central government. Such an emergency must be
approved by the Parliament within two months by simple majority. It has never been declared. A
state of financial emergency remains in force indefinitely until revoked by the President.
The President can reduce the salaries of all government officials, including judges of the
Supreme Court and High Courts, in cases of a financial emergency. All money bills passed by
the State legislatures are submitted to the President for approval. He can direct the state to
observe certain principles (economy measures) relating to financial matters.

49
Selection Process of the President of India Eligibility
Article 58 of the Constitution sets the principle qualifications one must meet to be eligible to the
office of the President. A President must be:
▪ A citizen of India
▪ Of 35 years of age or above
▪ Qualified to become a member of the Lok Sabha
▪ A person shall not be eligible for election as President if he holds any office of profit under the
Government of India or the Government of any State or under any local or other authority
subject to the control of any of the said Governments.
Certain office-holders, however, are permitted to stand as Presidential candidates. These are:
▪ The current Vice President.
▪ The Governor of any State.
▪ A Minister of the Union or of any State (Including Prime Minister and Chief Ministers).
In the event that the Vice President, a State Governor or a Minister is elected President, they are
considered to have vacated their previous office on the date they begin serving as President.
Under The Presidential and Vice-Presidential Elections Act, 1952, a candidate to be nominated
for the office of president needs 50 electors as proposers and 50 electors as seconders for his
name to appear on ballot.
Conditions For the Presidency
Certain conditions, as per Article 59 of the Constitution, debar an otherwise eligible citizen from
contesting the presidential elections. The conditions are:
▪ The President shall not be a member of either House of Parliament or of a House of the
Legislature of any State, and if a member of either House of Parliament or of a House of the
Legislature of any State be elected President, he shall be deemed to have vacated his seat in that
House on the date on which he enters upon his office as President.
▪ The President shall not hold any other office of profit.
▪ The President shall be entitled without payment of rent to the use of his official residences and
shall be also entitled to such emoluments, allowances and privileges as may be determined by
Parliament by law and until provision in that behalf is so made, such emoluments, allowances
and privileges as are specified in the Second Schedule.
▪ The emoluments and allowances of the President shall not be diminished during his term of
office

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Election Process
Elections in India are considered to be the very backbone of the Indian democracy. Being a
Parliamentary Republic, the citizens of India are trusted with the responsibility to choose the
head of the country as well as of the state. There are both General and State elections that are
held in the country based on the Federal structure of the Indian Republic. The elections in India
often transcend from being a mere political activity to a high publicized and often
sensationalized national event, with clear cultural ramifications. The entire nation seems to
suddenly come to life at the onset of the elections, particularly the General Elections. Even the
assembly elections, which determine the state government, are events of great significance. All
state elections are closely observed throughout the nation. Often the results of the state elections
are considered to be clear indications of the mood of the nation.

The Election Commission of India

The Election Commission is the apex body that conducts the elections in India. Both the general
and the assembly elections in India are held in accordance with the clear rules laid down by the
Election Commission of India. The Election Commission or the EC comprises high-ranking
government officials and is formed under the guidelines of the Indian Constitution. The EC is a
highly powerful body and is granted with a great degree of autonomous powers to successfully
conduct the elections. Even the judiciary resists from intervening while the electoral process is
on. The work of the Election Commission typically starts with the announcement of various
important dates and deadlines related to the election, including the dates for voter registration,
the filing of nominations, counting and results. Its activities continue throughout the time-period,
when the elections are conducted in the country. The fact that elections across the country are
held in phases and not at the same time extends the period of its work. The responsibilities of the
EC finally conclude with the submission of the results of the elections.

Election Process

Formation of Constituencies
The Constitution lays down that after the completion of each census the allocation of seats in the
51
 Lok Sabha to States shall be readjusted. Similarly, the constituencies for elections to the
legislative assemblies are also readjusted.
However, 42nd Amendment Act (1976) provided that until the figures for the first census after
the year 2000 have been published, it shall not be necessary to readjust the allocation of seats to
the States in the Lok Sabha.

Filling of Nominations

The nomination of candidates is an important part of the election process. The regulations require
that the candidate or the person who proposes his name file the nomination papers with the
Returning Officer. In order to be chosen a member of the Rajya Sabha or the State Legislative
Council, a person must be not less than 30 years of age.
For election to the Lok Sabha or the State Legislative Assembly, a person should have attained
an age of 25 years. A person is disqualified for being chosen as a member of any House,
 if he holds any office of profit under the Government of India or of any State (The offices
of Ministers or Deputy Ministers are not regarded as offices of profit for this purpose)
 if he is of unsound mind and stands so declared by a competent court
 if he is an un-discharged insolvent
 if he has ceased to be a citizen of India
 if he is so disqualified under any law made by Parliament.
The Representation of the People act, as amended from time to time disqualifies a person from
the membership of a Legislature:
 if he has been found guilty of certain election offenses or corrupt practices in election
 if he has been convicted and sentenced to transportation or to imprisonment for not less
than two years.
 if he has been dismissed from government service for corruption or disloyalty to the
State.
In 1988 many other offenses, such as cruelty towards women, were included among those which
would cause disqualification for standing for election. But none of these disqualifications
operates for a period of more than six years from the date of such conviction.
Scrutiny of Nominations
The Returning Officer scrutinizes the nomination papers very carefully. When someone is
dissatisfied, he is officially stopped from contesting election for six years. The candidates can
withdraw their nomination papers even after they have been found in order.
Every candidate standing for election to the Lok Sabha or to State Legislative Assembly has to
make a security deposit of Rs. 10,000 arid Rs. 5,000 respectively. In case the candidate belongs
to any of the Scheduled Castes or Tribes, the security deposit is reduced by half.
The security deposit of such candidates as having obtained less than one-sixth of the total number
of valid votes polled is forfeited.

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Election Campaign
Techniques of the election campaign and the tools employed by the parties and the independent
candidates are many:
Election Manifesto
The parties issue their Election Manifestoes. A Manifesto is a Statement of great significance. It
is ―a formal Statement of the Programme and objectives of a political party‖ It deals with issues
such as restructuring of Centre-State relations, guarantees to religious or linguistic minorities,
justice, and judicial reforms, fiscal reform, economic growth, social justice, problems of the
handicapped, health, nutrition, education, defense and world peace. The Manifesto contains
programs and promises, with a view to attracting the largest number of voters. There is a limit set
by the Election Commission to spend in their campaign. Election Commission recently raised the
expenditure limits for Lok Sabha elections from Rs 40 lakh to Rs 70 lakh for each Lok Sabha
constituency in bigger states and from Rs 22 lakh to Rs 54 lakh in smaller states.
(ii) Electioneering (Activities and Techniques to Persuade Voters):
The parties and the candidates usually make use of these techniques in order to carry their
message to the voters
(a) public meetings and rallies are organized and processions were taken out. The party leaders,
especially the crowd pullers, are assigned the task to address public meetings;
(b) the street corner meetings are held;
(c) the candidates, along with the influential persons of the area, do door-to- door canvassing;
(d) new slogans are coined to attract the masses;
(e) advertisements are released to the press (the popular daily and weekly newspapers); and
(f) the Radio and the Television are pressed into service to broadcast the speeches and
paneldiscussions of leaders of various parties.
Nowadays electronic media plays the most effective role in creating people‘s awareness about
programs of the political parties. The party leaders give a series of interviews to newspapers and
television agencies. Wide coverage is being given to all these events at regular intervals.

Polling Process
The election campaign must be stopped 48 hours before the time when poll concludes on the
polling day.
Presiding Officer supervises the whole of the polling process and ensures that all persons
working under him adhere to the electoral norms and practices.
The voter records his vote either by placing the seal-mark against the name of the candidate he
wants to vote for or by pressing the button of the voting machine.

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Counting of Votes and Declaration of Results
After the polling has ended the ballot boxes or the voting machines are sealed and carried under
custody to the counting stations. Then the process of counting the votes begins. In 1979, the
practice of booth-wise counting of ballot paper was revived.
It was done in the instance of the parties which insisted on knowing the voting pattern so that
they could woo the voters and work vigorously in the areas where they were weak. Booth-wise
counting was preferred for one more reason.
The parties felt that by doing so it would be easier to detect rigging and take necessary action.
However, there is no hard and fast rule as to the counting of votes and the Election authorities are
free to mix up the ballot papers from all the booths if they feel that it ensured secrecy with regard
to the pattern of voting. The candidate who obtains the highest number of votes is declared
elected.
Election Disputes
The Constitution had originally provided for the appointment of Election Tribunals for deciding
disputes arising in connection with elections. The Nineteenth Amendment Act (1966) abolished
this provision and laid down that the election disputes would be decided by the High Courts.
After every election a lot of disputes arises. The issue over the reliability of the electronic voting
machine (EVM), which has been in use in elections across India since 1999, has been brought up
repeatedly.
For a larger part, most parties have maintained that the machines have been rigged to favour
results towards the BJP. Both BJP and the Election Commission have continuously asserted that
the machines cannot be tampered with. Amidst controversy over the alleged tampering of
Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) in the Assembly elections this year, the Union Cabinet led
by Prime Minister Narendra Modi had earlier approved a proposal to buy 16,15,000 Voter
Verifiable Paper Audit Trail (VVPAT) units for use in the General Elections 2019. Each VVPAT
unit were to cost around Rs 19,650 and the total cost of procurement would be around Rs
3173.47 crore (excluding taxes and freight as applicable) over a period of two years.
A Voter-verified paper audit trail (VVPAT) unit provides feedback to voters using EVMs for
voting. The VVPAT functions as an independent verification system for EVMs and allows voters
to verify that their votes are cast as intended. It also serves as an additional barrier to changing or
destroying votes.

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Types of Elections in India
Lok Sabha Elections
After every five years, the entire country gears up to decide their representatives in the Lower
House of Parliament. For Lok Sabha elections (or General Elections), the country is split into
different constituencies, and the winner is elected from each constituency.
As per Article 324 of the Indian Constitution, the power of superintendence, direction, and
control of the conduct of elections is vested with the Election Commission of India. In its efforts
to ensure smooth conduct of the mammoth electoral exercise, the commission is assisted by two
Deputy Election Commissioners, who are appointed from the national civil services.

Rajya Sabha Elections

Unlike Lok Sabha, the members of Rajya Sabha are not directly elected by the electorates. The
elections to the Upper House of the Parliament happen through the Legislative Assembly of each
state by using the single transferable vote system.
Out of the maximum strength of 250 members, 238 are elected by the legislative assemblies and
12 are nominated by the President of India. The representatives of states and Union Territories in
the Rajya Sabha are elected by the elected members of the Legislative Assemblies in accordance
with the system of proportional representation. With one-third of its members retiring every two
years, the elections to Rajya Sabha happen at respective intervals.

State Legislature Elections

Elections to the Legislative Assembly (Vidhan Sabha) are conducted in the same way the Lok
Sabha elections are carried out. Electorates consisting of citizens in a state above the age of 18
votes for their state representatives. Each legislative Assembly is formed for a five-year term
following which all seats again go to the polls.
The elections to Legislative Council (Vidhan Parishad) replicate the same process as that of
Rajya Sabha, wherein the representatives are chosen by the members of the lower house.
Besides, the Governor also nominates certain members from the field of art, science, literature,
social service, and co-operative movement. The elections to these legislative councils are held
under the system of proportional representation.
At the state level, the entire electoral process is monitored and supervised by the Election
Commission. The Chief Electoral Officer (CEO) of the state has the responsibility of ensuring
that the polling takes place as per the constitutional provisions. The CEO is helped by a team of
supporting staff.

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Presidential and Vice-Presidential Elections
The President is indirectly elected by an electoral college consisting of the elected members of
Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha and the members of the legislative assemblies of every state and union
territory. The presidential election is conducted before the present president‘s term gets over.
As per the provision of Article 55 of Indian Constitution, a uniformity has to be maintained in
the scale of representation of the different states. Hence, the election of the President is held in
accordance with the system of proportional representation and the voting happens through a
secret ballot. The Vice-President is elected by a direct vote of all members of Lok Sabha and
Rajya Sabha. The system of proportional representation is followed and the votes are cast
through a secret ballot. It‘s the Election Commission that conducts the election to the office of
the Vice-President.
Elections form the backbone of democracy wherein people elect their political representatives
and decide the composition of the government. Holding free and fair elections on a state and
national level is integral to upholding the principles of democratic set up in India. From
parliamentary elections to the presidential polls, India goes through the electoral process at
regular intervals.

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International Bodies

World Bank

The World Bank functions as an international organization that fights poverty by offering
developmental assistance to middle-income and low-income countries. By giving loans and
offering advice and training in both the private and public sectors, the World Bank aims to
eliminate poverty by helping people help themselves. Under the World Bank Group, there are
complimentary institutions that aid in its goals to provide assistance.
President: Ajay Bhanga Headquarters: Washington

UNESCO (United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization)

The main objective of UNESCO is to contribute to peace and security in the world by promoting
collaboration among nations through education, science, culture and communication in order to
further universal respect for justice, for the rule of law, and for the human rights and fundamental
freedoms which are affirmed for the peoples of the world, without distinction of race, sex,
language or religion, by the Charter of the United Nations.
In support of this objective, UNESCO's principal functions are:
▪ To promote intellectual co-operation and mutual understanding of peoples through all means of
mass communication;
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 ▪ To give fresh impulse to popular education and to the spread of culture;
▪ To maintain, increase and diffuse knowledge;
▪ To encourage scientific research and training;
▪ To apply sciences to ensure human development and the rational management of natural
resources.
Director-General (Head): Audrey Azoulay Headquarters: Paris

UNICEF (The United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund):

According to its mission statement, 'UNICEF is mandated by the United Nations General
Assembly to advocate for the protection of children's rights, to help meet their basic needs, and
to expand their opportunities to reach their full potential.' We can break UNICEF activities into
four broad areas. Let's take a look.
▪ Protection of children from violence, exploitation and abusive situations. Issues of concern
including child labor, child marriage, child recruitment into military, child trafficking, female
genital mutilation, landmines, and sexual violence
End preventable deaths and developmental problems of children through healthcare, nutrition,
water, and sanitation programs
▪ Support basic education and gender equality, including early childhood education, enhancing
the primary and secondary education quality, and ensuring equitable access to education for both
boys and girls
▪ Provide humanitarian aid during crisis and emergencies with a focus on saving the lives and
protecting the rights of children suffering through both natural disasters, such as tsunamis, and
man-made disasters. President: Ms. Marie-Louise Koch Wegter Headquarters: New
York.

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FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization):

Functions of FAO are as under:

▪ Help eliminate hunger, food insecurity and malnutrition.
▪ Make agriculture, forestry and fisheries more productive and sustainable.
▪ Reduce rural poverty.
▪ Enable inclusive and efficient agricultural and food systems.
▪ Increase the resilience of livelihoods to threats and crises.
President: Qu Dongyu Headquarters: Rome, Italy

WHO (World Health Organization):

The objective of WHO is the attainment by all peoples of the highest possible level of health.
Health, as defined in the WHO Constitution, is a state of complete physical, mental, and social
well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. In support of its main objective,
the organization has a wide range of functions, including the following:
▪ To act as the directing and coordinating authority on international health work;
▪ To promote technical cooperation;

59
▪ To assist Governments, upon request, in strengthening health services;
▪ To furnish appropriate technical assistance and, in emergencies, necessary aid, upon the request
or acceptance of Governments;
▪ To stimulate and advance work on the prevention and control of epidemic, endemic, and other
diseases;
▪ To promote, in cooperation with other specialized agencies where necessary, the improvement
of nutrition, housing, sanitation, recreation, economic or working conditions, and other aspects
of environmental hygiene;
▪ To promote and coordinate biomedical and health services research.
President: Tedros Adhanom Headquarters: Geneva, Switzerland

WTO (World Trade Organization):

At the heart of the Organization are the WTO agreements, negotiated and signed by the bulk of
the world‘s trading nations. The goal is to help producers of goods and services, exporters, and
importers conduct their business. The WTO‘s overriding objective is to help trade flow
smoothly, frets, fairly, and predictably.
With these objectives in mind, we can state the following six specific functions:
▪ It shall facilitate the implementation, administration and operation of the WTO trade
agreements, such as multilateral trade agreements, plurilateral trade agreements.
▪ It shall provide forum for negotiations among its members concerning their multilateral trade
relations.

▪ It shall administer the ‗Understanding on Rules and Procedures‘ so as to handle trade disputes.
▪ It shall monitor national trade policies.
▪ It shall provide technical assistance and training for members of the developing countries.
▪ It shall cooperate with various international organizations like the IMF and the WB with the
aim of achieving greater coherence in global economic policy-making.
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President: Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala

Headquarters: Geneva, Switzerland.

BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa):

It has following purposes:

▪ To enhance market access opportunities and facilitate market interlinkages;
▪ To promote mutual trade and investment and create a business-friendly environment for
investors and entrepreneurs in all BRICS countries;
▪ To enhance and diversify trade and investment cooperation that support value addition among
the BRICS countries;
▪ To strengthen macroeconomic policy coordination and build resilience to external economic
shocks;
▪ To strive for inclusive economic growth, in order to eradicate poverty, address unemployment
and promote social inclusion;
▪ To promote information exchange through BRICS Virtual Secretariat and BRICS Economic
Exchange Platform, as well as other agreed platforms;
▪ To consolidate efforts in order to ensure a better quality of growth by fostering innovative
economic development based on advanced technologies and skills development with a view to
build knowledge economies;
▪ To seek further interaction and cooperation with non-BRICS countries and international
organizations and forums. BRICS members will engage with the business communities in their
respective countries to implement the Strategy. They will encourage closer collaboration of
BRICS business communities.

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 SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation):

The objectives of SAARC, as defined in its charter, are as follows:

▪ Promote the welfare of the peoples of South Asia and improve their quality of life;
▪ Accelerate economic growth, social progress and cultural development in the region by
providing all individuals the opportunity to live in dignity and realize their full potential;
▪ Promote and strengthen collective self-reliance among the countries of South Asia;
▪ Contribute to mutual trust, understanding and appreciation of one another‘s problems;
▪ Promote active collaboration and mutual assistance in the economic, social, cultural, technical
and scientific fields;
▪ Strengthen co-operation with other developing countries;
▪ Strengthen co-operation among themselves in international forms on matters of common
interest; and
▪ Cooperate with international and regional organization with similar aims and purposes.
Headquarters: Kathmandu Chairperson: Esala Weerakoon

G20 (Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, France, Germany,

India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, South Korea, Mexico, Russia, Saudi Arabia, South Africa,
Turkey, the United Kingdom, the United States, and the European Union):

The objectives of the G20 are:

▪ Policy coordination among its members in order to achieve global economic stability and
sustainable growth;
▪ To promote financial regulations that reduce risks and prevent future financial crises; and ▪
To create a new international financial architecture.
Headquarters: Cancún, Mexico Chairperson: Narendra Modi
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G7 (Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom and the United States):
Since 1975, the group meets annually on summit site to discuss economic policies; since 1987,
the G7 finance ministers have met at least semi-annually, up to 4 times a year at stand-alone
meetings.
In 1996, the G7 launched an initiative for the 42 heavily indebted poor countries (HIPC).
In 1999, the G7 decided to get more directly involved in "managing the international monetary
system" through the Financial Stability Forum, formed earlier in 1999 and the G-20, established
following the summit, to "promote dialogue between major industrial and emerging market
countries". The G7 also announced their plan to cancel 90% of bilateral, and multilateral debt for
the HIPC, totalling $100 billion. In 2005 the G7 announced, debt reductions of "up to 100%" to
be negotiated on a "case by case" basis.
Chairman 2023: Fumio Kishida

NAM (Non-Aligned Movement):

Non-Aligned Movement has sought to "create an independent path in world politics that would
not result in member States becoming pawns in the struggles between the major powers." It
identifies the right of independent judgment, the struggle against imperialism and
neocolonialism, and the use of moderation in relations with all big powers as the three basic
elements that have influenced its approach. At present, an addition goal is facilitating a
restructuring of the international economic order.
Headquarters: Central Jakarta, Jakarta, Indonesia.
ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations):
The ASEAN Declaration states that the aims and purposes of the Association are:
▪ to accelerate the economic growth, social progress and cultural development in the region
through joint endeavors in the spirit of equality and partnership in order to strengthen the
foundation for a prosperous and peaceful community of Southeast Asian nations, and
▪ to promote regional peace and stability through abiding respect for justice and the rule of law in
the relationship among countries in the region and adherence to the principles of the United
Nations Charter. In 1995, the ASEAN Heads of State and Government re-affirmed that
―Cooperative peace and shared prosperity shall be the fundamental goals of ASEAN.‖
Headquarters: Jakarta, Indonesia.

Secretary-General: Dr. Kao Kim Hourn

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APEC (Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation):
Objectives:
▪ To Sustain the growth and development of the region for the common good its peoples and, in
this way, to contribute to the growth and development of the world economy.
To enhance the positive gains, both for the region and the world economy, resulting from
increasing economic interdependence, including by encouraging the flow of goods, services,
capital and technology.
▪ To develop and strengthen the open multilateral trading system in the interest of Asia-Pacific
and all other economies.
▪ To reduce barriers to trade in goods and services and investment among participants in a
manner consistent with GATT principles, where applicable, and without detriment to other
economies.
Headquarters: Singapore

OPEC (The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries)

The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) is a group of 15 countries that
produce about 45% of the world‘s oil and contain over 80% of its ―proven‖ reserves. It was first
established in Baghdad, Iraq, in 1961. OPEC is one of the most powerful international
organizations in the world and was a major player in the shift towards state control over natural
resources. OPEC was initially founded in 1960 by Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Iran, Kuwait, and
Venezuela. Qatar joined in 1961. OPEC has a very big influence on global oil prices. It plays a
crucial role in determining the economic health of many countries, including India. Membership
The OPEC Statute distinguishes between the Founder Members and Full Members – those
countries whose applications for membership have been accepted by the Conference.

▪ The Statute stipulates that ―any country with a substantial net export of crude petroleum, which
has fundamentally similar interests to those of Member Countries, may become a Full Member
of the Organization, if accepted by a majority of three-fourths of Full Members, including the
concurring votes of all Founder Members.‖.
▪ The Statute further provides for Associate Members which are those countries that do not
qualify for full membership, but are nevertheless admitted under such special conditions as may
be prescribed by the Conference.
Currently, the Organization has a total of 15 Member Countries. The current OPEC members are
the following: Algeria, Angola, Ecuador, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya,
Nigeria, Qatar, the Republic of the Congo, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, and Venezuela.
Indonesia is a former member, and Qatar will no longer be the member of OPEC starting on 1
January 2019.

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Current Issues
Qatar has announced that it would leave OPEC on January 1, 2019. The decision comes just days
before OPEC and its allies are scheduled to hold a meeting in Vienna, Austria. Qatar said it is
leaving OPEC in order to focus on gas production.
The decision to pull out after more than five decades comes at a turbulent time in Gulf politics,
with Doha under a boycott by former neighbouring allies including Saudi Arabia for 18 months.
Since June 2017, OPEC kingpin Saudi Arabia — along with three other Arab states — has cut
trade and transport ties with Qatar, accusing the country of supporting terrorism and its regional
rival Iran. Qatar denies the claims, saying the boycott hampers its national sovereignty.

United Nations
The term United Nations was coined by US president D. Roosevelt on 1st Jan 1942. Officially,
the organization came to existence in 1945. It replaced forerunner organization ‗The league of
Nations‘. United Nation consists of the following institutions: The General Assembly, the
Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Trusteeship Council, the International
Court of Justice, and the UN Secretariat. The implementation of the projects is accomplished by
establishing specific agencies. Among these, some of the best-known agencies are the
International Atomic Energy Agency, the Food and Agriculture Organization, UNESCO (United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization), the World Bank, and the World
Health Organization (WHO).
Commencement: 24 October 1945 General Secretary: Antonio Guterres
Headquarters: New York City India Representative: Ruchitra Kamboj Member Nations: 193

ILO (International Labour Organisation)

The ILO was founded in 1919, in the wake of a destructive war, to pursue a vision based on the
premise that universal, lasting peace can be established only if it is based on social justice. ILO
has 187-member states: 186 of the 193 UN member states plus the Cook Islands are members of
the ILO. This governing body is composed of 28 government representatives, 14 workers'
representatives, and 14 employers' representatives. Each member state has four representatives at
the conference: two government delegates, an employer delegate and a worker delegate. The ILO
organizes the International Labour Conference in Geneva every year in June, where conventions
and recommendations are crafted and adopted. ILO conventions are considered international
labour standards regardless of ratifications. When a convention comes into force, it creates a
legal obligation for ratifying nations to apply its provisions. Each member state has four
representatives at the conference: two government delegates, an employer delegate and a worker
delegate. All of them have individual voting rights, and all votes are equal, regardless of the

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 population of the delegate's member state. The ILO is a major provider of labour statistics.
Labour statistics are an important tool for its member states to monitor their progress toward
improving labour standards.
As part of their statistical work, ILO maintains several databases. This database covers 11 major
data series for over 200 countries. In addition, ILO publishes a number of compilations of labour
statistics, such as the Key Indicators of Labour Markets.
Head: Gilbert Fossoun Houngbo Headquarters: Geneva Member Nations: 187

Asian Development Bank

The idea behind laying foundation was to support economic development of Asia with south
Asian fund. Initially, loans were issued for agricultural and rural development. Later, the funds
were sanctioned to Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, Republic of Korea and the Philippines. During
1981- 90, Asian Development bank reengineered its position as high-development Agency.
Eighty percent of ADB‘s lending is concentrated on public sector lending in five areas-
Education, Environmental sustainability, Finance, Infrastructure, Private sector lending. India
stands 5th in terms of capital contribution with 5.38% of voting rights.

Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (QUAD)

The Quadrilateral Security Dialogue, commonly referred to as the Quad, is an alliance formed by
four democratic countries: the United States, Japan, India, and Australia. Established in 2007 and
revitalized in recent years, the Quad aims to foster cooperation and maintain a free, open, and
inclusive Indo-Pacific region. This strategic alliance focuses on shared values such as upholding a
rules-based international order, promoting maritime security, ensuring freedom of navigation, and
bolstering economic prosperity. The Quad member nations engage in regular consultations, joint
military exercises, and discussions on regional security, disaster relief, technology, and economic
partnerships, amplifying their collective efforts to address geopolitical challenges and promote
stability in the Indo-Pacific region.

North Atlantic Treaty Organization

NATO, born from the 1949 North Atlantic Treaty, stands as an organization dedicated to upholding
the freedom and security of its 30 member states. It operates both politically and militarily,
committed to safeguarding its members' well-being. Functioning as an intergovernmental body,
NATO's funding relies on contributions from member states, constituting less than 0.5 percent of
their combined defense budgets. While most of NATO's assets are overseen by individual nations,
the alliance retains control of select resources, utilizing them as needed. Throughout its history,
NATO has played a pivotal role in crisis management and UN peacekeeping missions,
demonstrating its commitment to global stability.

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International Solar alliance
The International Solar Alliance (ISA) is a coalition of countries aiming to collectively combat
climate change through solar energy adoption and sustainable development. Founded in 2015 by
India and France, this alliance brings together over 121 sunshine-rich countries, primarily located
between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn. The ISA focuses on leveraging solar power to
address energy access issues, promote renewable energy deployment, and facilitate technology-
sharing and capacity-building initiatives among member nations. By encouraging collaboration,
investments, and innovation in solar technologies, the ISA aims to accelerate the global transition
towards clean and affordable energy, aiming to reduce dependence on fossil fuels and mitigate the
impacts of climate change.

Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP)

The Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP) stands as one of the world's largest
free trade agreements, encompassing 15 Asia-Pacific nations. Signed in November 2020, this
landmark agreement involves 10 ASEAN member states—Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos,
Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam—alongside five of their
major trading partners: Australia, China, Japan, New Zealand, and South Korea. The RCEP aims to
create an integrated economic bloc, reducing tariffs, streamlining trade procedures, and enhancing
investment opportunities among member countries. Covering nearly a third of the global GDP and
population, the RCEP holds the potential to stimulate economic growth, foster regional cooperation,
and facilitate a more interconnected and prosperous Asia-Pacific region.

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Important National Bodies
The Reserve Bank of India
The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) serves as the country's central bank, entrusted with the
responsibility of regulating and controlling the monetary policy in India. Established in 1935, the
RBI operates as an autonomous body with the primary objectives of maintaining price stability,
ensuring financial stability, and facilitating economic growth. It formulates and executes monetary
policies, issues currency, regulates the banking sector, and supervises financial markets to foster a
stable and robust financial system. Additionally, the RBI plays a crucial role in managing India's
foreign exchange reserves and works to promote inclusive financial services and sustainable
economic development initiatives across the nation.
As the cornerstone of India's financial system, the RBI functions as a key institution in overseeing
the country's monetary policies and banking operations. Through its regulatory oversight, monetary
policy decisions, and efforts to maintain stability in financial markets, the RBI plays a pivotal role
in steering the Indian economy towards sustained growth while ensuring the integrity and resilience
of the financial sector.
HQ: Mumbai, Governor: Shaktikanta Das
The Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI)
SEBI, or the Securities and Exchange Board of India, stands as the regulatory authority overseeing
India's securities and capital markets. Established in 1988, SEBI operates as an independent and
autonomous body, entrusted with the task of ensuring fair, transparent, and orderly functioning of
the country's securities markets. It regulates various market participants, including stock exchanges,
brokers, and other intermediaries, aiming to protect the interests of investors while promoting
market development and stability. SEBI's mandate encompasses formulating regulations,
supervising exchanges, monitoring market activities, and enforcing measures to prevent fraudulent
practices, ultimately contributing to the integrity and efficiency of India's financial markets.
At the core of India's financial regulatory framework, SEBI plays a pivotal role in fostering investor
confidence, market integrity, and transparency. Through its vigilant oversight and enforcement of
rules and regulations, SEBI aims to maintain a level playing field, facilitate capital formation, and
safeguard the interests of investors in the securities market, thereby promoting sustainable growth
and stability in India's financial landscape.
HQ: Mumbai Chairperson: Madhabi Puri Buch

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The Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE)

The Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE) stands as one of Asia's oldest and prominent stock exchanges, tracing its
origins back to 1875. Based in Mumbai, India, the BSE serves as a key platform for trading various financial
instruments, including equities, derivatives, commodities, and currencies. It plays a crucial role in India's
financial ecosystem, providing a marketplace where companies list their stocks, allowing investors to buy and
sell securities. The BSE index, known as the Sensex, is a widely tracked benchmark index comprising top
companies listed on the exchange, reflecting the overall performance of the Indian stock market.

As a premier stock exchange, the BSE has fostered capital formation and investment opportunities for
businesses and investors alike. Over the years, it has evolved, embracing technology and implementing robust
trading systems to ensure efficiency, transparency, and liquidity in the market. With its extensive history and
continuous efforts to adapt to changing market dynamics, the BSE remains a cornerstone of India's financial
landscape, contributing significantly to the nation's economic growth and development.

HQ: Mumbai Chairman: SS Mundra, MD and CEO: Sundararaman Ramamurthy

The National Stock Exchange of India (NSE)

The National Stock Exchange of India (NSE) stands as one of the leading and technologically advanced stock
exchanges in the country. Established in 1992, the NSE has become a pivotal platform for trading various
financial instruments, including equities, derivatives, bonds, and exchange-traded funds (ETFs). Based in
Mumbai, it operates as a fully automated electronic exchange, known for its modern infrastructure, robust
trading systems, and stringent regulatory framework. The Nifty 50 index, maintained by NSE, comprises the
top 50 actively traded stocks and serves as a benchmark index for the Indian equity market, reflecting its
overall performance.

With a focus on innovation and efficiency, the NSE has played a significant role in transforming India's
financial markets. Its electronic trading platforms, stringent risk management practices, and investor-friendly
initiatives have contributed to enhancing market liquidity, transparency, and accessibility. The NSE continues
to be a vital contributor to the growth and development of India's financial ecosystem, providing a reliable and
dynamic platform for investors and companies to participate in the country's capital markets.

HQ: Mumbai Chairman: Girish Chandr Chaturvedi, MD and CEO: Ashish Chauhan

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Indian History
Introduction
The history of India includes the prehistoric settlements and societies in the Indian subcontinent;
the blending of the Indus Valley Civilization and Indo-Aryan culture into the Vedic Civilization
the development of Hinduism as a synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions the decline
of Śrauta sacrifices and the rise of the initiatory traditions of Buddhism, Jainism, Shaivism,
Vaishnavism and Shaktism the onset of a succession of powerful dynasties and empires for more
than two millennia throughout various geographic areas of the subcontinent, including the
growth of Muslim dynasties during the Medieval period intertwined with Hindu powers; the
advent of European traders resulting in the establishment of the British rule; and the subsequent
independence movement that led to the Partition of India and the creation of the Republic of
India.
Important Events
Here are some important events from the history of India:

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Indus Valley Civilization

The Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC) was a Bronze Age civilisation (3300–1300 BCE; mature
period 2600–1900 BCE) extending from what today is northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and
northwest India (see map). Along with Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia it was one of three early
civilisations of the Old World, and of the three the most widespread. It flourished in the basins of
the Indus River, one of the major rivers of Asia, and the Ghaggar-Hakra River, which once
coursed through northwest India and eastern Pakistan.
The Early Harappan Ravi Phase, named after the nearby Ravi River, lasted from circa 3300 BCE
until 2800 BCE. It is related to the Hakra Phase, identified in the Ghaggar-Hakra River Valley to
the west, and predates the Kot Diji Phase (2800–2600 BCE, Harappan 2), named after a site in
northern Sindh, Pakistan, near Mohenjo Daro. The earliest examples of the Indus script date to
the 3rd millennium BCE.
By 2600 BCE, the Early Harappan communities turned into large urban centres. Such urban
centres include Harappa, Ganeriwala, Mohenjo-Daro in modern-day Pakistan, and Dholavira,
Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, Rupar, and Lothal in modern-day India. In total, more than 1,052 cities
and settlements have been found, mainly in the general region of the Indus Rivers and their
tributaries.

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A sophisticated and technologically advanced urban culture is evident in the Indus Valley
Civilisation making them the first urban centres in the region. The quality of municipal town
planning suggests the knowledge of urban planning and efficient municipal governments which
placed a high priority on hygiene, or, alternatively, accessibility to the means of religious ritual.
As seen in Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro and the recently partially excavated Rakhigarhi, this urban
plan included the world's first known urban sanitation systems: see hydraulic engineering of the
Indus Valley Civilisation. Within the city, individual homes or groups of homes obtained water
from wells. From a room that appears to have been set aside for bathing, waste water was
directed to covered drains, which lined the major streets. Houses opened only to inner courtyards
and smaller lanes. The house-building in some villages in the region still resembles in some
respects the house-building of the Harappans.
The ancient Indus systems of sewerage and drainage that were developed and used in cities
throughout the Indus region were far more advanced than any found in contemporary urban sites
in the Middle East and even more efficient than those in many areas of Pakistan and India today.
The advanced architecture of the Harappans is shown by their impressive dockyards, granaries,
warehouses, brick platforms, and protective walls. The massive walls of Indus cities most likely
protected the Harappans from floods and may have dissuaded military conflicts.

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Foundation of Buddhism

Buddhism is a nontheistic religion or philosophy that encompasses a variety of traditions, beliefs

and spiritual practices largely based on teachings attributed to Gautama Buddha, commonly
known as the Buddha ("the awakened one"). According to Buddhist tradition, the Buddha lived
and taught in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent sometime between the 6th and 4th
centuries BCE. He is recognized by Buddhists as an awakened or enlightened teacher who shared
his insights to help sentient beings end their suffering through the elimination of ignorance and
craving.
Historically, the roots of Buddhism lie in the religious thought of ancient India during the second
half of the first millennium BCE. That was a period of social and religious turmoil, as there was
significant discontent with the sacrifices and rituals of Vedic Brahmanism. It was challenged by
numerous new ascetic religious and philosophical groups and teachings that broke with the
Brahmanic tradition and rejected the authority of the Vedas and the Brahmans. These groups,
whose members were known as shramanas, were a continuation of a non-Vedic strand of Indian
thought distinct from Indo-Aryan Brahmanism. Scholars have reasons to believe that ideas such
as samsara, karma (in the sense of the influence of morality on rebirth), and moksha originated in
the shramanas, and were later adopted by Brahmin orthodoxy. Ashoka Empire
Ashoka's name "Aśoka" means "painless, without sorrow" in Sanskrit (the a privativum and śoka
"pain, distress"). In his edicts, he is referred to as Devānāmpriya (Pali Devānaṃpiya or "The
Beloved of the Gods"), and Priyadarśin (Pali Piyadasī or "He who regards everyone with
affection"). His fondness for his name's connection to the Saraca asoca tree, or the "Ashoka tree"
is also referenced in the Ashokavadan
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In about 260 BCE, Ashoka waged a bitterly destructive war against the state of Kalinga (modern
Odisha). He conquered Kalinga, which none of his ancestors had done. He embraced Buddhism
after witnessing the mass deaths of the Kalinga War, which he himself had waged out of a desire
for conquest. "Ashoka reflected on the war in Kalinga, which reportedly had resulted in more
than 100,000 deaths and 150,000 deportations, ending at around 200,000 deaths." Ashoka
converted gradually to Buddhism beginning about 263 BCE. He was later dedicated to the
propagation of Buddhism across Asia, and established monuments marking several significant
sites in the life of Gautama Buddha. "Ashoka regarded Buddhism as a doctrine that could serve as
a cultural foundation for political unity." Ashoka is now remembered as a philanthropic
administrator. In the Kalinga edicts, he addresses his people as his "children", and mentions that
as a father he desires their good.
Ashoka's name "Aśoka" means "painless, without sorrow" in Sanskrit (the a privativum and śoka
"pain, distress"). In his edicts, he is referred to as Devānāmpriya (Pali Devānaṃpiya or "The
Beloved of the Gods"), and Priyadarśin (Pali Piyadasī or "He who regards everyone with
affection"). His fondness for his name's connection to the Saraca asoca tree, or the "Ashoka tree"
is also referenced in the Ashokavadana.

Battle of Panipat
First Battle of Panipat: The First Battle of Panipat, on 21 April 1526, was fought between the
invading forces of Babur and the Lodi Empire. It took place in north India and marked the
beginning of the Mughal Empire. This was one of the earliest battles involving gunpowder
firearms and field artillery.
Second Battle of Panipat: The Second Battle of Panipat was fought on November 5, 1556,
between the forces of Hemu, the Hindu ruler of north India from Delhi, and the army of Akbar. It
was a decisive victory for Akbar's generals Khan Zaman I and Bairam Khan.
Third Battle of Panipat: The Third Battle of Panipat took place on 14 January 1761, at Panipat,
about 60 miles (97 km) north of Delhi between a northern expeditionary force of the Maratha
Empire and the forces of the King of Afghanistan, Ahmad Shah Abdali, supported by two Indian
Muslim allies—the Rohilla Afghans of the Doab, and Shuja-ud-Daula, the Nawab of Awadh.
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Militarily, the battle pitted the French origin artillery and cavalry of the Marathas against the
heavy cavalry and mounted artillery (zamburak and jizail) of the Afghans and Rohillas led by
Ahmad Shah Abdali and Najib-ud-Daulah, both ethnic Afghans (the former is also known as
Ahmad Shah Abdali). The battle is considered one of the largest and most
eventful fought in the 18th century, and has perhaps the largest number of fatalities in a single
day reported in a classic formation battle between two armies.

Mughal Empire

In 1526, Babur, a Timurid descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan from Fergana Valley (modern
day Uzbekistan), swept across the Khyber Pass and established the Mughal Empire, which at its
zenith covered modern day Afghanistan, Pakistan, India and Bangladesh. However, his son
Humayun was defeated by the Afghan warrior Sher Shah Suri in the year 1540, and Humayun
was forced to retreat to Kabul. After Sher Shah's death, his son Islam Shah Suri and the Hindu
emperor Hemu Vikramaditya, who had won 22 battles against Afghan rebels and forces of
Akbar, from Punjab to Bengal and had established a secular rule in North India from Delhi till
1556 after winning Battle of Delhi. Akbar's forces defeated and killed Hemu in the Second Battle
of Panipat on 6 November 1556.
Akbar's son, Jahangir more or less followed father's policy. The Mughal dynasty ruled most of
the Indian subcontinent by 1600. The reign of Shah Jahan was the golden age of Mughal
architecture. He erected several large monuments, the most famous of which is the Taj Mahal at
Agra, as well as the Moti Masjid, Agra, the Red Fort, the Jama Masjid, Delhi, and the Lahore
Fort. The Mughal Empire reached the zenith of its territorial expanse during the reign of
Aurangzeb and also started its terminal decline in his reign due to Maratha military resurgence
under Shivaji. Historian Sir. J.N. Sarkar wrote, "All seemed to have been gained by Aurangzeb
now, but in reality all was lost." The same was echoed by Vincent Smith: "The Deccan proved
tobe the graveyard not only of Aurangzeb's body but also of his empire".

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Expansion of the Mughal Empire from 1526 to 1700.

The empire went into decline thereafter. The Mughals suffered several blows due to invasions
from Marathas and Afghans. During the decline of the Mughal Empire, several smaller states
rose to fill the power vacuum and themselves were contributing factors to the decline. In 1737,
the Maratha general Bajirao of the Maratha Empire invaded and plundered Delhi. Under the
general Amir Khan Umrao Al Udat, the Mughal Emperor sent 8,000 troops to drive away the
5,000 Maratha cavalry soldiers. Baji Rao, however, easily routed the novice Mughal general and
the rest of the imperial Mughal army fled. In 1737, in the final defeat of Mughal Empire, the
commander-in-chief of the Mughal Army, Nizam-ul-mulk, was routed at Bhopal by the Maratha
army. This essentially brought an end to the Mughal Empire. In 1739, Nader Shah, emperor of
Iran, defeated the Mughal army at the Battle of Karnal. After this victory, Nader captured and
sacked Delhi, carrying away many treasures, including the Peacock Throne. The Mughal dynasty
was reduced to puppet rulers by 1757. The remnants of the Mughal dynasty were finally defeated
during the Indian Rebellion of 1857, also called the 1857 War of Independence, and the remains
of the empire were formally taken over by the British while the Government of India Act 1858
let the British Crown assume direct control of India in the form of the new British Raj.

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The Mughals were perhaps the richest single dynasty to have ever existed. During the Mughal
era, the dominant political forces consisted of the Mughal Empire and its tributaries and, later on,
the rising successor states – including the Maratha Empire – which fought an increasingly weak
Mughal dynasty. The Mughals, while often employing brutal tactics to subjugate their empire,
had a policy of integration with Indian culture, which is what made them successful where the
short-lived Sultanates of Delhi had failed. This period marked vast social change in the
subcontinent as the Hindu majority were ruled over by the Mughal emperors, most of whom
showed religious tolerance, liberally patronising Hindu culture. The famous emperor Akbar, who
was the grandson of Babar, tried to establish a good relationship with the Hindus. However, later
emperors such as Aurangazeb tried to establish complete Muslim dominance, and as a result
several historical temples were destroyed during this period and taxes imposed on non-Muslims.
Akbar declared "Amari" or non-killing of animals in the holy days of Jainism. He rolled back the
jizya tax for non-Muslims. The Mughal emperors married local royalty, allied themselves with
local maharajas, and attempted to fuse their Turko-Persian culture with ancient Indian styles,
creating a unique Indo-Saracenic architecture. It was the erosion of this tradition coupled with
increased brutality and centralization that played a large part in the dynasty's downfall after
Aurangzeb, who unlike previous emperors, imposed relatively non-pluralistic policies on the
general population, which often inflamed the majority Hindu population.
Independence and partition
Along with the desire for independence, tensions between Hindus and Muslims had also been
developing over the years. The Muslims had always been a minority within the subcontinent, and
the prospect of an exclusively Hindu government made them wary of independence; they were as
inclined to mistrust Hindu rule as they were to resist the foreign Raj, although Gandhi called for
unity between the two groups in an astonishing display of leadership. The British, extremely
weakened by the Second World War, promised that they would leave and participated in the
formation of an interim government. The British Indian territories gained independence in 1947,
after being partitioned into the Union of India and Dominion of Pakistan. Following the
controversial division of pre-partition Punjab and Bengal, rioting broke out between Sikhs,
Hindus and Muslims in these provinces and spread to several other parts of India, leaving some
500,000 dead. Also, this period saw one of the largest mass migrations ever recorded in modern
history, with a total of 12 million Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims moving between the newly created
nations of India and Pakistan (which gained independence on 15 and 14 August 1947
respectively). In 1971, Bangladesh, formerly East Pakistan and East Bengal, seceded from
Pakistan. Sporadic small-scale violence took place around the country and the British arrested
tens of thousands of leaders, keeping them imprisoned until 1945. In terms of immediate
objectives Quit India failed because of heavy-handed suppression, weak coordination and the
lack of a clear-cut programme of action. However, the British government realised that India was
ungovernable in the long run due to the cost of World War II, and the question for post-war
became how to exit gracefully and peacefully.

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Indian Emergency
Economic and social problems, as well as allegations of corruption caused increasing political
unrest across India, culminating in the Bihar Movement. In 1974, the Allahabad High Court
found Indira Gandhi guilty of misusing government machinery for election purposes. Opposition
parties conducted nationwide strikes and protests demanding her immediate resignation. Various
political parties united under Jaya Prakash Narayan to resist what he termed Mrs. Gandhi's
dictatorship. Leading strikes across India that paralysed its economy and administration, Narayan
even called for the Army to oust Mrs. Gandhi. In 1975, Mrs. Gandhi advised President
Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed to declare a state of emergency under the Constitution, which allowed the
Central government to assume sweeping powers to defend law and order in the nation.
Explaining the breakdown of law and order and threat to national security as her primary
reasons, Mrs. Gandhi suspended many civil liberties and postponed elections at national and state
levels. Non-Congress governments in Indian states were dismissed, and nearly 1,000 opposition
political leaders and activists were imprisoned and programme of compulsory birth control
introduced. Strikes and public protests were outlawed in all forms.
India's economy benefited from an end to paralysing strikes and political disorder. India
announced a 20-point programme which enhanced agricultural and industrial production,
increasing national growth, productivity and job growth. But many organs of government and
many Congress politicians were accused of corruption and authoritarian conduct. Police officers
were accused of arresting and torturing innocent people. Indira's son and political advisor, Sanjay
Gandhi was accused of committing gross excesses - Sanjay was blamed for the Health Ministry
carrying out forced vasectomies of men and sterilisation of women as a
part of the initiative to control population growth, and for the demolition of slums in Delhi near
the Turkmen Gate, which left thousands of people dead and many more displaced.
Economic transformation
Under the policies initiated by Late Prime Minister Narasimha Rao and his Finance minister
Manmohan Singh, India's economy expanded rapidly. The Rao administration initiated the
privatisation of large, inefficient, and loss-inducing government corporations. The UF
government had attempted a progressive budget that encouraged reforms, but the 1997 Asian
financial crisis and political instability created economic stagnation. The Vajpayee
administration continued with privatisation, reduction of taxes, a sound fiscal policy aimed at
reducing deficits and debts, and increased initiatives for public works. Cities like Bangalore,
Hyderabad, Pune and Ahmedabad have risen in prominence and economic importance, becoming
centres of rising industries and destination for foreign investment and firms. Strategies like
forming Special Economic Zones - tax amenities, good communications infrastructure, low
regulation - to encourage industries has paid off in many parts of the country.
A rising generation of well-educated and skilled professionals in scientific sectors of industry
began propelling the Indian economy, as the information technology industry took hold across
India with the proliferation of computers. The new technologies increased the efficiency of
activity in almost every type of industry, which also benefitted from the availability of skilled
labor. Foreign investment and outsourcing of jobs to India's labor markets further enhanced
India's economic growth. A large middle-class has arisen across India, which has increased the
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demand, and thus production of a wide array of consumer goods. Unemployment is steadily
declining, and poverty has fallen to approximately 22%. Gross Domestic Product growth
increased to beyond 7%. While serious challenges remain, India is enjoying a period of
economic expansion that has propelled it to the forefront of the world economy, and has
correspondingly increased its influence in political and diplomatic terms.
Kargil War
The Kargil War, also known as the Kargil conflict, was an armed conflict between India and
Pakistan that took place between May and July 1999 in the Kargil district of Kashmir and
elsewhere along the Line of Control (LOC). In India, the conflict is also referred to as Operation
Vijay which was the name of the Indian operation to clear the Kargil sector.
The cause of the war was the infiltration of Pakistani soldiers and Kashmiri militants into
positions on the Indian side of the LOC, which serves as the de facto border between the two
states. During the initial stages of the war, Pakistan blamed the fighting entirely on independent
Kashmiri insurgents, but documents left behind by casualties and later statements by Pakistan's
Prime Minister and Chief of Army Staff showed involvement of Pakistani paramilitary forces,
led by General Ashraf Rashid. The Indian Army, later on supported by the Indian Air Force,
recaptured a majority of the positions on the Indian side of the LOC infiltrated by the Pakistani
troops and militants. With international diplomatic opposition, the Pakistani forces withdrew
from the remaining Indian positions along the LOC.
The war is one of the most recent examples of high-altitude warfare in mountainous terrain,
which posed significant logistical problems for the combating sides. It is one of the very few
instances of direct, conventional warfare between nuclear states (i.e., those possessing nuclear
weapons). India had conducted its first successful test in 1974; Pakistan, which had been
developing its nuclear capability in secret since around the same time, conducted its first known
tests in 1998, just two weeks after a second series of tests by India.

Battle of Plassey- 1757

The Battle of Plassey was a major battle that took place on 23 June 1757 at Palashi, Bengal. It
was well planned battle by the British on India. It was an important British East India Company
victory over the Nawab of Bengal and his French allies. It let the British East India Company
take control of a part of South Asia. They grew their area of control over a large part of the
Indies for the next hundred years.
The battle took place at Palashi, Bengal on the river banks of the Bhagirathi River. The fighting
took place about 150 kilometres (93 mi) north of Calcutta. This was near Murshidabad which
was the capital of Bengal at the time. Plassey is the anglicised version of Palashi. The battle was
between Siraj-ud-daulah, the last independent Nawab of Bengal, and the British East India
Company.
The battle took place after the attack and plunder of Calcutta by Siraj-ud-daulah and the Black
Hole tragedy. The British sent more soldiers under Colonel Robert Clive and Admiral Charles
Watson from Madras to Bengal. The British retook control of Calcutta. Clive then took control of
the French fort of Chandernagar. The troubles between Siraj-ud-daulah and the British led to the
Battle of Plassey. The battle was fought during the Seven Years' War (1756–63). The French
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East India Company sent a small group to fight against the British. Siraj-ud-Daulah had more
soldiers and chose to fight at Plassey. The British were worried about having fewer soldiers.
They formed a conspiracy with Siraj-ud-Daulah's demoted army leader Mir Jafar as well as
others such as Yar Lutuf Khan and Rai Durlabh. Mir Jafar, Rai Durlabh and Yar Lutuf Khan
brought their soldiers near Plassey but did not actually join the battle. Siraj-ud-Daulah's army
was beaten by about 3,000 soldiers of Col. Robert Clive. Part of the reason the British won was
because Siraj-ud-daulah fled from the battlefield and the worry caused by the close by soldiers
due to the conspiracy.
This is thought to be one of the most important battles for the control of South Asia by the
colonial powers. The British now had a large amount of influence over the Nawab. They also got
a lot of revenue from trade. The British used this revenue to increase their military power. They
pushed the other European colonial powers such as the Dutch and the French out of South Asia.
This was a sign of the expansion the British Empire in Asia.
Clive's victory had been made easy because of the treachery of Siraj-ud-Daulah's general, Mir
Jafar. The FICE rewarded him by making him the Nawab of Bengal.

Battle of Buxar
Introduction The Battle of Buxar was fought on 22 October 1764 between the forces under the
command of the British East India Company, led by Hector Munro, and the combined armies of
Mir Qasim, Nawab of Bengal till 1763; the Nawab of Awadh; and the Mughal Emperor Shah
Alam
The battle was fought at Buxar, a "small fortified town" within the territory of Bihar, located on
the banks of the Ganges river about 130 kilometres (81 mi) west of Patna; it was a decisive
victory for the British East India Company.
The Battle British troops engaged in the fighting numbered 7,072 comprising 857 British, 5297
Indian sepoys and 918 Indian cavalries. The alliance army‘s numbers were estimated to be over
40,000. By other sources, the combined army of the Mughals, Awadh and Mir Qasim consisting
of 40,000 men were defeated by British army consisting 10,000 men.
The Mughal camp was internally broken due to a quarrel between the Mughal Emperor Shah
Alam II and Shuja-ud-Daula the Nawab of Awadh; Mir Qasim was reluctant to engage the British
and went off collecting tribute. The lack of basic co-ordination among the three desperate allies
was responsible for their decisive debacle.
Mirza Najaf Khan commanded the right flank of the imperial army and was the first to advance
his forces against the anticipating Hector Munro at daybreak, the British lines quickly formed
within twenty minutes and reversed the advance of the Mughals. According to the British,
Durrani and Rohilla cavalry were also present and fought during the battle in various skirmishes.
But by midday the battle was over and Shuja-ud-Daula blew up large tumbrils and three massive
magazines of gunpowder. Leaving 6,000 fellow Mughal loyalists and 133 pieces of artillery on
the battlefield. Hector Munro divided his army into various columns and particularly pursued the
Mughal Grand Vizier Shuja-ud-Daula the Nawab of Awadh, who responded by blowing up his
boat-bridge after crossing the river, thus abandoning the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II and
members of his own regiment. Mir Qasim also fled with his 3 million rupees worth of Gemstones
and later even committed suicide. Mirza Najaf Khan reorganized formations around Shah Alam
II, who retreated and then chose to negotiate with the victorious British. British losses are said to
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have been 1,847 killed and wounded, while the three Indian allies accounted for 2,000 dead;
many more were wounded. The victors captured 133 pieces of artillery, 6,000 Mughals and over
1 million rupees of cash. Immediately after the battle Hector Munro decided to greatly assist the
Marathas, who were described as a "warlike race", well known for their relentless and
unwavering hatred towards the Mughal Empire and its Nawabs and the Sultanate of Mysore.

The Aftermath
The prime victim, Shah Alam II, signed the Treaty of Allahabad that secured Diwani Rights for
the Company to collect and manage the revenues of almost of real estate, which form parts of the
modern states of West Bengal, Odisha, Bihar, Jharkhand, and Uttar Pradesh, as es. Mir Qasim,
who was not a general, was quietly replaced. He also received a small share of the total land
revenue, initially fixed at 2 million rupees.
The Treaty of Allahabad heralded the establishment of the rule of the East India Company in
one-eighth of India proper with a single stroke. The battles of Plassey and Buxar secured a
permanent foothold for the British East India Company in the rich province of Bengal, and
secured its political ascendancy in the entire region. Buxar should be seen in conjunction with
the third battle of Panipat in January 1761 in terms of its impact on consolidating British
presence in north-east India. By the treaty of 1752, the Marathas had essentially taken over
administration of all the subahs of the Mughal empire, and had established their right to collect
Chauth across these subahs. In return, they would protect the north-west frontier of the Mughal
empire from Afghan invasion. This resulted in nine years of Maratha-Afghan struggle to
establish control over the empire, and the subah of Punjab, which was claimed by both.
However, due to the Marathas' defeat at the third battle of Panipat, and their subsequent ten-year
hiatus from North Indian affairs, the British were able to establish a foothold in North Indian
affairs. Buxar was an important step in that direction.
Nawab Shuja-ud-Daula was restored to Oudh, with a subsidiary force and guarantee of defence,
the emperor Shah Alam II solaced with Allahabad and a tribute and the frontier drawn at the
boundary of Bihar. For Bengal itself the Company took a decisive step.
In return for restoring Shah Alam II to Allahabad, the Company got from him the imperial grant
of the diwani or revenue authority in Bengal and Bihar. This had hitherto been enjoyed by the
nawab of Bengal. Thus, now there was a double government, the nawab retaining judicial and
police functions but the Company exercising the revenue power. The Company was
acclimatised, as it were, into the Indian scene by becoming the Mughal revenue agent for Bengal
and Bihar. There was as yet no thought of direct administration, and the revenue was collected
by a Company appointed deputy-nawab, Muhammad Reza Khan. But this arrangement made the
British East India Company the virtual ruler of Bengal, since it already possessed decisive
military power. All that was left to the Nawab was the control of the judicial administration. But
he was later forced to hand this over to the Company in 1793. Thus, the company's control was
virtually complete.
In spite of all this the East India Company was again on the verge of bankruptcy, which stirred the
British to a fresh effort at reform. On the one hand Warren Hastings was appointed with a mandate
for reform; on the other an appeal was made to the British state for a loan. The result was the
beginnings of state control of the Company and the thirteen-year governorship of Warren Hastings.
Hastings's first important work was that of an organiser. In the two and a half years before the
Regulating Act came into force he put in order the whole Bengal administration. The Indian
deputies who had collected the revenue on behalf of the Company were deposed and their places
81
taken by a Board of Revenue in Calcutta and English collectors in the districts. This was the real
beginning of British administration in India.
Shuja-ud-Daula served as the leading Nawab Vizier of the Mughal Empire, he was a lifelong of
Shah Alam II. It should also be noted that when the Marathas finally did send a large force back
into North India in 1771, they were able to persuade Shah Alam II to leave British protection and
enter Maratha protection. They then established Maratha regency over Delhi, which they
essentially held till their defeat in the Second Anglo-Maratha War of 1803.

Sepoy Mutiny of 1857 Introduction

The Sepoy Mutiny was a violent and very bloody uprising against British rule in India in 1857. It
is also known by other names: the Indian Mutiny, the Indian Rebellion of 1857, or the Indian
Revolt of 1857.
In Britain and in the West, it was almost always portrayed as a series of unreasonable and
bloodthirsty uprisings spurred by falsehoods about religious insensitivity.
In India, it has been viewed quite differently, and events of 1857 have been considered the first
outbreak of an independence movement against British rule.

Background of the rebellion

By the 1850s the East India Company controlled much of India. A private company which first
entered India to trade in the 1600s, the East India Company had eventually transformed into a
diplomatic and military operation. Large numbers of native soldiers, known as sepoys, were
employed by the company to maintain order and defend trading centers. The sepoys were
generally under the command of British officers. In the late 1700s and early 1800s, sepoys
tended to take great pride in their military prowess, and they exhibited enormous loyalty to their
British officers. But in the 1830s and 1840s tensions began to emerge. A number of Indians
began to suspect that the British intended to convert the Indian population to Christianity.
Increasing numbers of Christian missionaries began arriving in India, and this led to resentment.
There was also a general feeling that English officers were losing touch with the Indian troops
under them. Under a British policy called the "doctrine of lapse," the East India Company would
take control of Indian states where a local ruler had died without an heir. The system was subject
to abuse, and the company used it to annex territories in a questionable manner. And as the East
India Company annexed Indian states in the 1840s and 1850s, the Indian soldiers in the
company's employ began to feel offended.

Problems caused during the rebellion

The traditional story of the Sepoy Mutiny is that the introduction of a new cartridge for the
Enfield rifle provoked much of the trouble.
The cartridges were wrapped in paper, which had been coated in a grease which made the
cartridges easier to load in rifle barrels. Rumors began to spread that the grease used to make the
cartridges was derived from pigs and cows, which would be highly offensive to Muslims and
Hindus.
There is no doubt that conflict over the new rifle cartridges sparked the uprising in 1857, but the
reality is that social, political, and even technological reforms had set the stage for what
happened.

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Violence spread during the rebellion
On March 29, 1857, on the parade ground at Barrackpore, a sepoy named Mangal Pandey fired
the first shot of the uprising. His unit in the Bengal Army, which had refused to use the new rifle
cartridges, was about to be disarmed and punished. And Pandey shot a British sergeant-major and
a lieutenant.
In the altercation, Pandey was surrounded by British troops and shot himself in the chest. He
survived and was put on trial and hanged on April 8, 1857.
As the mutiny spread, the British began called mutineers "pandies." And Pandey, it should be
noted, is considered a hero in India, and has been portrayed as a freedom fighter in films and
even on an Indian postage stamp.

Major Incidents Throughout May and June 1857 more units of Indian troops mutinied against
the British. Sepoy units in the south of India remained loyal, but in the north, many units of the
Bengal Army turned on the British. And the uprising became extremely violent. Particular
incidents became notorious:

▪ Meerut and Delhi: In a large military camp (called a cantonment) at Meerut, near Delhi, a
number of sepoys refused to use the new rifle cartridges in early May 1857. The British stripped
them of their uniforms and put them in chains.

Other sepoys revolted on May 10, 1857, and things quickly became chaotic as mobs attacked
British civilians, including women and children.
Mutineers travelled the 40 miles to Delhi and soon the large city erupted in a violent revolt
against the British. A number of British civilians in the city were able to flee, but many were
slaughtered. And Delhi remained in rebel hands for months.
▪ Cawnpore: A particularly horrific incident known as the Cawnpore Massacre occurred when
British officers and civilians, leaving the city of Cawnpore (present day Kanpur) under a flag of
surrender were attacked.

The British men were killed, and about 210 British women and children were taken prisoner. A
local leader, Nana Sahib, ordered their death. When sepoys, abiding by their military training,
refused to kill the prisoners, butchers were recruited from local bazaars to do the killing. The
women, children, and infants were murdered, and their bodies thrown into a well. When the
British eventually took back Cawnpore and discovered the site of the massacre, it inflamed the
troops and led to vicious acts of retribution.

▪ Lucknow: At the town of Lucknow about 1,200 British officers and civilians fortified
themselves against 20,000 mutineers in the summer of 1857. By late September British forces
commanded by Sir Henry Havelock succeeded in breaking through. However, Havelock's forces
did not have the strength to evacuate the British at Lucknow, and were forced to join the
besieged garrison. Another British column, led by Sir Colin Campbell, eventually fought through
to Lucknow and were able to evacuate the women and children, and ultimately the entire
garrison.

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End of East India Company
Fighting in some places continued well into 1858, but the British were ultimately able to
establish control. As mutineers were captured, they were often killed on the spot. And many
were executed in dramatic fashion. Outraged by events such as the massacre of women and
children at Cawnpore, some British officers believed that hanging mutineers was too humane. In
some cases, they used an execution method of lashing a mutineer to the mouth of a cannon, and
then firing the cannon and literally blasting the man to pieces. Sepoys were forced to watch such
displays as it was believed it set an example of the horrific death that awaited mutineers. The
East India Company had been active in India for nearly 250 years, but the violence of the 1857
uprising led to the British government dissolving the company and taking direct control of India.
Following the fighting of 1857-58, India was legally considered a colony of Britain, ruled by a
viceroy. The uprising was officially declared over on July 8, 1859.

Rise of organised movements after the rebellion of 1857

The decades following the Rebellion were a period of growing political awareness, manifestation
of Indian public opinion and emergence of Indian leadership at both national and provincial
levels. Dadabhai Naoroji formed the East India Association in 1867 and Surendranath Banerjee
founded the Indian National Association in 1876. Inspired by a suggestion made by A.O. Hume,
a retired British civil servant, seventy-three Indian delegates met in Bombay in 1885 and founded
the Indian National Congress. They were mostly members of the upwardly mobile and successful
western educated provincial elites, engaged in professions such as law, teaching and journalism.
At its inception, the Congress had no well-defined ideology and commanded few of the resources
essential to a political organisation. Instead, it functioned more as a debating society that met
annually to express its loyalty to the British Raj and passed numerous resolutions on less
controversial issues such as civil rights or opportunities in government (especially in the civil
service). These resolutions were submitted to the Viceroy's government and occasionally to the
British Parliament, but the Congress's early gains were srit. Despite its claim to represent all
India, the Congress voiced the interests of urban elites; the number of participants from other
social and economic backgrounds remained negligible.
The influence of socio-religious groups such as Arya Samaj (started by Swami Dayanand
Saraswati) and Brahmo Samaj (founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy and others) became evident in
pioneering reforms of Indian society. The work of men like Swami Vivekananda, Ramakrishna
Paramhansa, Sri Aurobindo, V. O. Chidambaram Pillai, Subramanya Bharathy, Bankim Chandra
Chatterjee, Sir Syed
Ahmed Khan, Rabindranath Tagore and Dadabhai Naoroji, as well as women such as the Scots–
Irish Sister Nivedita, spread the passion for rejuvenation and freedom. The rediscovery of India's
indigenous history by several European and Indian scholars also fed into the rise of nationalism
among Indians.

Partition of Bengal
In July 1905, Lord Curzon, the Viceroy and Governor-General (1899–1905), ordered the
partition of the province of Bengal supposedly for improvements in administrative efficiency in
the huge and populous region. It also had justifications due to increasing conflicts between
Muslims and dominant Hindu regimes in Bengal. However, the Indians viewed the partition as
an attempt by the British to disrupt the growing national movement in Bengal and divide the

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Hindus and Muslims of the region. The Bengali Hindu intelligentsia exerted considerable
influence on local and national politics. The partition outraged Bengalis. Not only had the
government failed to consult Indian public opinion, but the action appeared to reflect the British
resolve to divide and rule. Widespread agitation ensued in the streets and in the press, and the
Congress advocated boycotting British products under the banner of swadeshi. Hindus showed
unity by tying Rakhi on each other's wrists and observing Arandhan (not cooking any food).
During this time, Bengali Hindu nationalists begin writing virulent newspaper articles and were
charged with sedition. Brahmabhandav Upadhyay, a Hindu newspaper editor who helped Tagore
establish his school at Shantiniketan, was imprisoned and the first martyr to die in British
custody in the 20th century struggle for self-rule.

First World War and its impact on India

The First World War began with an unprecedented outpouring of support towards Britain from
within the mainstream political leadership, contrary to initial British fears of an Indian revolt.
India contributed massively to the British war effort by providing men and resources. About 1.3
million Indian soldiers and labourers served in Europe, Africa and the Middle East, while both
the Indian government and the princes sent large supplies of food, money and ammunition.
However, Bengal and Punjab remained hotbeds of anti-colonial activities. Nationalism in
Bengal, increasingly closely linked with the unrests in Punjab, was significant enough to nearly
paralyse the regional administration, whilst failed conspiracies were made by revolutionaries to
trigger nationalist revolt in India.
None of the revolutionary conspiracies had significant impact inside India. The prospect of
subversive violence and its effect on the popular war effort drew support amongst Indian
population for special measures against anti-colonial activities in the form of Defence of India
act 1915, and no major mutinies occurred. However, the war-time conspiracies did lead to
profound fears of insurrection among British officials, preparing them to use extreme force to
frighten the Indians into submission.
In the aftermath of the First World War, high casualty rates, soaring inflation compounded by
heavy taxation, a widespread influenza epidemic and the disruption of trade during the war
escalated human suffering in India.
The pre-war nationalist movement revived as moderate and extremist groups within the Congress
submerged their differences in order to stand as a unified front. They argued their enormous
services to the British Empire during the war demanded a reward, and demonstrated the Indian
capacity for self-rule. In 1916, the Congress succeeded in forging the Lucknow Pact, a temporary
alliance with the Muslim League over the issues of devolution of political power and the future
of Islam in the region.

Non-Cooperation movement: 1920-1922 Introduction

Suspension of the Rowlatt Satyagraha by Gandhiji caused much resentment among some of the
national leaders. The repressive measures adopted by the British were also responsible for the
slow pace of the national movement. Meanwhile rise in the price level following the First World
War was also causing much hardship to the people. All these factors combined together to
inaugurate a new chapter in the freedom movement. Here was the beginning of the non-violent
Non-Cooperation movement under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi.

85
Causes and Objectives
The four underlying causes of the Non-Cooperation were: a. People's resentment against the
Rowlatt Act b. People's reaction to the ghastly massacre at the Jallianwalabag c. the demand for
Swaraj jointly raised by the Moderates under the Extremists and d. The possibility of a Hindu-
Muslim joint movement on the Khilafat question.
The Non-Cooperation movement launched on the basis of the above had three clear objectives in
view, namely: a. Remedy of the Punjab wrongs done by the British, b. Vindication of the
prestige of the Calipnate and c. Fulfillment of the demand for Swaraj.

Beginning of the movement

Gandhiji's programme of Non Co-operation had two distinct aspects. One was non co-operation
with the British in a non-violent way and this included renunciation of the titles conferred by the
British government, boycott of British courts, legislatures, etc.
The constructive or positive aspect of the Non Co-operation included establishment of National
School, promotion of Swadeshi and hand-spinning, to do away with untouchability, promotion of
communal harmony, etc. Gandhiji formally launched the Non Co-operation movement by
renouncing the honorific title 'Kaiser-i-Hind' conferred upon him by the British government.

The Chauri Chaura Incident

Intensity of the Non-Cooperation movement alarmed the British government so much that they
took recourse to repressive measures to suppress the peaceful volunteers. Despite Gandhiji's
appeal to the Satyagrahis to remain peaceful there had been clashes between the police and the
people in some places following police action beyond endurance. However, a violent incident
that took place at Chauri Chaura ultimately led to the suspension of the Non- Cooperation
Movement by Gandhiji. The incident was that in the village Chauri Chaura, near Gorakhpur in U
P., an infuriated mob set the Police Station on fire and as a result a number of constables were
burnt to death. This incident took place on 4 February, 1922.

Withdrawal of the movement

Gandhiji's movement was a nonviolent movement. There was no scope of violence in it
Realizing that his movement was drifting towards violence Gandhiji immediately declared its
withdrawal (1922). Though Gandhiji's decision was later on duly ratified by the Indian National
Congress yet at least to some the suspension of the movement appeared as a bolt from the blue.
This was how the first phase of the Non co-operation movement came to an end. The Non
Cooperation Movement of 1920 failed to achieve its immediate goal of establishing Swaraj in
India. But this apparent failure must not blind us about the immense impacts the movement had
on India and her people.

Movement for Purna Swaraj

Following the rejection of the recommendations of the Simon Commission by Indians, an
allparty conference was held at Bombay in May 1928. This was meant to instill a sense of
resistance among people. The conference appointed a drafting committee under Motilal Nehru to
draw up a constitution for India. The Calcutta session of the Indian National Congress asked the
British government to accord dominion status to India by December 1929, or a countrywide civil
disobedience movement would be launched. By 1929, however, in the midst of rising political
86
discontent and increasingly violent regional movements, the call for complete sovereignty and
end of British rule began to find increasing grounds within the Congress leadership. Under the
presidency of Jawaharlal Nehru at his historic Lahore session in December 1929, the Indian
National Congress adopted a resolution calling for complete self-rule and end of British rule. It
authorised the Working Committee to launch a civil disobedience movement throughout the
country. It was decided that 26 January 1930 should be observed all over India as the Purna
Swaraj (complete selfrule) Day. Many Indian political parties and Indian revolutionaries of a
wide spectrum united to observe the day with honour and pride.

Dandi March: 1930

The Salt Satyagraha started on March 12, 1930, with the undertaking of the Dandi Yatra (Dandi
March). It was the next significant non-violent protest against the British, after the
NonCooperation movement of 1920-22 and India's First War of Independence 1857.
The triggering factor for this movement was the British monopoly of salt trade in India and the
imposition of a salt tax. According to the contemporary British laws, the sale or production of
salt by anyone but the British government was a criminal offense. So, while Salt was readily and
freely accessible to labourers in the coastal areas, they were forced to pay money for it. Since
Salt is needed by all, irrespective of geography, class/caste, religious beliefs, and ethnic
backgrounds, Mahatma Gandhi chose it as the focal point for the Satyagraha (non-violent
protests).
The Dandi march was undertaken by Gandhiji and about 78 of his followers, starting from
Sabarmati Ashram near Ahmedabad. The Satyagrahis set out on foot, for the coastal village of
Dandi, Gujarat, about 240 miles away. The walk lasted for 23 days and passed through 48
villages. The marchers were received with great enthusiasm and the support from the masses was
very evident. During the course of the journey, thousands of Satyagrahis joined the walk,
including leaders like Sarojini Naidu.
The protestors arrived at the seashore on April 5. The following morning, on April 6, at 6:30 am,
Gandhiji offered a prayer, raised some mud and salt, and declared, "With this, I am shaking the
foundations of the British Empire." He then boiled it in seawater to make the commodity which
no Indian could legally produce—salt. He encouraged his followers to start making salt wherever
it was most convenient and comfortable to them.
This symbolic act of salt making sparked the larger Civil Disobedience Movement across the
nation. It had a significant impact on the British government and their attitudes towards Indians
and India‘s independence. For the first time, a large numbers of common Indians joined the fight
for independence, and it garnered worldwide attention.
The British considered the Dandi March and the making of salt by Gandhiji as a breach of the
salt laws. Consequently, he was arrested on the midnight of May 4, 1930. The Satyagraha against
the salt tax continued for almost a year, in which over 80,000 Indians were jailed. The movement
ended after almost a year with Gandhi's release from jail and negotiations with Viceroy Lord
Irwin.
While the movement did not result in any immediate concessions by the British, it marked a
major milestone and turning point in India‘s fight for freedom.
Gandhiji‘s philosophy and the Dandi March had a significant influence on American Civil Rights
activist, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and his fight for civil rights for blacks and other minority
groups in the 1960s.

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India in World War 2
During the Second World War, India was controlled by Britain, with the British holding
territories in India including over five hundred autonomous Princely States; British India
officially declared war on Nazi Germany in September 1939. The British Raj, as part of the
Allied Nations, sent over two and a half million volunteer soldiers to fight under British
command against the Axis powers. Additionally, several Indian Princely States provided large
donations to support the Allied campaign during the War. India also provided the base for
American operations in support of China in the China Burma India Theater.
Indians fought with distinction throughout the world, including in the European theaters of
Germany and Italy, the north African deserts against Rommel, in the West African campaign, in
the South Asian region defending India against the Japanese, and in the Southeast Asia region
fighting the Japanese in Burma. Indians also aided in liberating British colonies such as
Singapore and Hong Kong after the Japanese surrender in August 1945. Over 87,000 Indian
soldiers (including those from modern day Pakistan, Nepal, and Bangladesh) died in World War
2.
The Muslim League supported the British war effort while the largest and most influential
political party existing in India at the time, the Indian National Congress, demanded
independence before it would help Britain. London refused, and when Congress announced a
"Quit India" campaign in August 1942, its leaders were imprisoned by the British for the
duration. Meanwhile, under the leadership of Indian leader Subhas Chandra Bose and several
other Indian revolutionaries who were seeking independence from the British, Japan set up an
army of Indian POWs known as the Indian National Army.

Quit India movement: 1942

The Quit India Movement was the next major milestone after the Salt Satyagraha in the history
of Indian independence struggle. It was a civil disobedience movement launched in August 1942
with Gandhiji‘s call for immediate independence. It is also known as the Bharat Chodo Andolan
or the August Kranti.
This historical movement played out in the backdrop of World War II. The British government
entered India in the war unilaterally and without consultation with the Indian people. This
angered Indians terribly. In March 1942, faced with an increasingly dissatisfied sub-continent,
only reluctantly participating in the war, the British government sent a delegation to India under
Stafford Cripps, in what came to be known as the Cripps' Mission. The purpose of the mission
was to negotiate with the Indian National Congress a deal to obtain total co-operation during the
war, in return of progressive devolution and distribution of power from the crown and the
Viceroy to elected Indian legislature. The talks failed because they did not address the key
demand of a timetable of self-government and of definition of the powers to be relinquished. It
offered only limited dominion-status that was wholly unacceptable to the Indian movement. On
July 14, 1942, the Indian National Congress passed a resolution demanding complete
independence from Britain and massive civil disobedience. On August 8, 1942, the Quit India
Resolution was passed at the Bombay session of the All India Congress Committee. The British,
already alarmed by the advance of the Japanese army to the India/Burma border, responded the
next day by imprisoning Gandhi at the Aga Khan Palace in Pune. All the members of the
Congress Party's National Leadership were arrested and imprisoned at the Ahmednagar Fort.

88
Due to the arrest of major leaders, a young and till then relatively unknown Aruna Asaf Ali
presided over the AICC session on August 9, and hoisted the flag. Later, the Congress party was
banned. These actions only created sympathy for the cause among the population. Inspired by
Gandhiji‘s "Do or Die" speech, the common masses eagerly jumped into the movement, despite
lack of direct leadership. Large-scale protests and demonstrations were held all over the country.
Workers remained absent and strikes were called. Not all the demonstrations were peaceful. At
some places bombs exploded, government buildings were set on fire, electricity was cut, and
transport and communication lines were severed.
The British swiftly responded with mass detentions. A total of over 100,000 arrests were made
nationwide, mass fines were levied, and demonstrators were subjected to public flogging.
Hundreds of resisters and innocent people were killed by police and army fire. Many national
leaders went underground and continued their struggle by broadcasting messages over
clandestine radio stations, distributing pamphlets, and establishing parallel governments. The
British sense of crisis was strong enough that a battleship was specifically set aside to take
Gandhi and the Congress leaders out of India, possibly to South Africa or Yemen, but such a step
was ultimately not taken, out of fear of intensifying the revolt.
The entire Congress leadership was cut off from the rest of the world for over three years.
Gandhiji's wife, Kasturba Gandhi, and his personal secretary, Mahadev Desai, died in a short
space of months, and Gandhi's own health was failing. Despite this, Gandhi went on a 21-day
fast and maintained a superhuman resolve to continue his resistance. Although the British
released Gandhiji on account of his failing health in 1944, he kept up the resistance, demanding
the complete release of the Congress leadership.
By early 1944, India was mostly peaceful again, while the entire Congress leadership was
incarcerated. The movement died down, and when the British granted independence on August
15, 1947, they cited revolts and growing dissatisfaction among Royal Indian Armed Forces
during and after the war as the driving force behind Britain's decision to leave India. However,
the political experience gained by the Indian people through activities such as the Quit India
movement laid the foundation for the strongest enduring tradition of democracy and freedom in
post-colonial Africa and Asia.

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Indian Geography
Introduction
Sit by the ruins, and see the inscriptions carved on the walls of caves, and listen. Listen to the
seers and the folklorists, to the waters of the perennial rivers and the echoes from the immortal
gigantic mountains. Look at the personifications of prayer carved out of marble or stone, and lie
under a banyan tree, and listen - Listen to India.
India is the name given to the vast peninsula which the continent of Asia throws out to the south
of the magnificent mountain ranges that stretch in a sword like curve across the southern border
of Tibet. Shaped like an irregular quadrilateral, this large expanse of territory we call India,
deserves the name of a subcontinent. Ancient Geographers referred to India as being "constituted
with a four-fold conformation" (chatuh samasthana samsthitam), "on its South and West and East
is the Great Ocean, the Himavat range stretches along its north like the string of a bow".
The name Himavat in the above passage refers not only to the snow-capped ranges of the
Himalayas but also to their less elevated offshoots - the Patkai, Lushai and Chittagong Hills in
the east, and the Sulaiman and Kirthar ranges in the west. These go down to the Sea and separate
India from the wooded valley of Irrawady, on the one hand, and the hilly tableland of Iran, on the
other. The Himalayas standing tall in breathtaking splendour are radiant in myth and mystery.
These, the youngest and tallest mountain ranges, feed the Ganga with never-ending streams of
snow. The Himalayas are home to the people of Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal,
Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh.
Indians love these peaks because they are a part of every Indian's life. Indians revere the
mountains, as they would, the father. Even today, when urban India is racing against time, in the
caves of the snow-clad peaks, live hermits - seeking the divine. Not a surprise when you consider
that even this century has seen some great philosophers like Ramana Maharishi, Swami
Vivekananda, Ramakrishna Paramhansa and J. Krishnamurti.
Geographical Location and Topography
Located in the Southern part of Asia, India lies between 8°4' and 37°6' N Latitude and 68°7' and
97°25' E Longitude. This seventh largest country in the world spreads over an area of 3,166,414
sq. km., including Lakshadweep Island in the Arabian Sea and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands
in the Bay of Bengal. India is bounded by the Arabian Sea on its west and south west and the
Bay of Bengal on its east and south east and the Himalayan Mountain ranges borders the country
on its north. India shares its territorial border with Afghanistan, Pakistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan
and Bangladesh.
India is blessed with diverse topography—from mountains to plains, to plateaus, deserts, coasts
and islands. The Tropic of Cancer divides the country into two equal parts in the Northern and
Southern part, and the Vindhya Mountains cut right across the country, from West to East.

The Big ‗Four‘

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The Great Mountain Walls or the Mountain Ranges of the Himalayas
In the north the mighty Himalayas with its lofty mountain ranges and majestic peaks stretching
from East to West is protecting the country from external aggression like a gigantic sentinel. The
great mountain wall is about 2500 km. long and its width varies from 240 km. to 320 km. Mount
Everest is the highest peak known to be the highest in the world with a height of 29,142 feet.
The ranges of Himalayas can be divided into two groups. The high mountain portions are
covered with snow round the year. The holy rivers like the Gangas, the Jamuna and the
Brahmaputra have originated from the Snow Mountains. The Western off shoots of the
Himalayas consist of Hindu Kush, the safed Koh, the Sulaiman Koh, and the ‗Kirthar ranges‘.
The height of the mountain in these regions are corporately low, the area is dry with scanty
rainfall. In this belt there are several famous passes named the khyber, the Kuuram, the Tochi,
the Gomal and the Bolan passes. Most of these passes are situated in low lying ground and
thereby has made the country accessible to the foreign invaders.
The Eastern off shoots include the Khasi, the Lushai, the Jaintia, and the Naga Hills and are
extended up to the Bay of Bengal. The hilly area and around are covered with beautiful dance
forest with abundant rainfall. Its fertile area, rich forest and forest products have made the area
highly attractive. The protective character of the Himalayas has considerably guided the course
of the Indian history. The insurmountable height of the Himalayas well fortified by thick snow
and impossibility to establish any land route has made the Himalayas a formidable barrier. Such
a natural obstruction automatically, forbidding the invaders to cross the colossal mountain and
embark upon on expedition.
Simultaneously it is protecting India from cold winds and adversities of the Siberian desert.
Similarly, in the Eastern side dense forest, in-congenial climate and continuous rainfall is equally
preventing the outsiders from crossing the boundary. This natural frontier of India thus is giving
security but not immunity from invasion separating India from the rest of Asia by well-marked
boundary lines.
The low-lying mountain situated in the North-West with several convenient passes has provoked
the rapacious invaders and mercenaries from the Central Asia to cross the border and invade
India. Through these routes, the Greeks, the Persians, the Kushanas, the Hunas and the Mughals
came and indulged in bloody warfare and invasions. With the result a fusion with the existing
culture of the land and the alien culture have further, enriched the Indian Culture.
The Himalayas is the source of many useful and holy rivers like the Indus, the Gangas, the
Jamuna, the Brahmaputra, and their tributaries. The snow of the mountain and heavy rainfall are
responsible to ensure flow of sufficient water throughout the year through these rivers. The rivers
irrigate plains, make land fertile that ultimately add to the richness in agriculture and abundant
food supply.
The monsoon rising from the Indian ocean moving towards north-east, checked by eastern
offshoots of the Himalayas causes heavy rainfall around Assam Hills and being checked by
eastern hills thereby gives sufficient rainfall on the Indo-Gangetic plain. Thus it cannot be denied
that the fertility of the northern plain of India is mainly due to the impact of the Himalayan
region on the monsoon.
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The great Indo-Gangetic Plain or Northern Plain
It embraces the valleys of the Indus and the tributaries, the sandy deserts of Sind and Rajputana
as well as the fertile region watered by the Ganges, the Jamuna and the Brahmaputra. It has
always been the core of the Indian Continent. The plain formed by the deposit of rich soil
washed down during countless centuries from the vast Himalayan ranges on the north and from
the hills and uplands of the Deccan of the South.
The river system of Northern India namely the Indus and its tributaries—(the Sutlej, the Ravi, the
Beas, the Chenab and the Jhelum), the Ganges and its affluent (the Jamuna, the Chambal, the
Gomti, the Ghagra and the Sone) and the Brahmaputra and its feeders irrigate this wide plain.
These rivers played an important part in the evolution of Indian culture. It was in the valley of the
river Indus that the earliest civilization of India flourished (Mohanjodaro and Harappa). The
rivers of the Punjab and the Ganges determined also the nature and the course of the Aryan
settlements in India.
The vast natural resources of this plain explain the fertility and thereby the density of the
population of this region. The richness and fertility of land here also account for the multiplicity
of big urban centres and the centres of trade and the capitals of ancient Kingdoms. All these
factors have made this plain the lure of one invader after another.
This extensive northern plain is divided into three component parts by wedges projecting
northward from Rajasthan towards the west and the Santhal Parganas farther east. The Santhal
Paraganas separate the region of Bengal from the main Gangetic plain. In the south of Delhi lies
the waterless tract that creates a narrow corridor known in ancient India as Kurukshetra running
between the desert of Rajasthan and the Himalayas.
Due to the fertility of the region the inhabitants could get sufficient crops by minimum labour
and spending minimum amount. As a matter of fact the people were confident of their
comfortable livelihood. Thus they, had ample of time and opportunity to devote to art, literature,
and other kinds of progressive activities.
It is worth mentioning here that right from the Vedic age the people of this region patronized
creative and progressive art, and literature. Here famous poets, dramatists, philosophers like
Kalidas, Barahamihira, Vanabhata took birth and left marks of their talents in literary fields. It is
in this plain region many wars at Panipat and Kurukshetra were fought and the fate of India often
has been decided.
Rajputana worked as a torch bearer of the Indian freedom by the Rajput kings when they carved
out their independent states and fought back their foreign invaders with consummate Vigour.
Thus, the Indo-Gangetic plain contributed a maximum share in the process of cultural awakening
of India.

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The great Deccan Plateau
The Deccan Plateau lies in the south of Indo-Gangetic plain. On its north the Vindhya and the
Satpura ranges separates it from Indo-Gangetic plain and slope-down to the Cape Comerin. In
the east it starts from the Bay of Bengal and spreads right up to
Arabian Sea in the West. Rivers like the Godavari, the Krishna, the Kaveri, the Tungabhadra
have swept the land and made the plateau highly covetous.
The sharp geographical feature has- made the region distinctly different and considerably
influenced the course of our history. Geographical condition has created several natural barriers
which denied easy and smooth access from north to south. The Vindhynchal and the Satpura
range, the dense forest around it have virtually prevented free- entry into the plateau.
Seas on three sides acted as strong hurdle forbidding uninterrupted intercourse from outside.
Thus, the plateau practically remained isolated from the north and countries. However, it enjoyed
a special significance and proved useful in many ways in building Indian history.
At a time when the onslaught of the repeated foreign invasions, rise of Jainism and Buddhism in
one stage had cornered the Hinduism and brought it down, the South came forward as a Savior
and extended all possible patronage. In fact, in-spite of numerous odds the Hindu religion and
culture remained intact in this region and flourished tremendously. Incidentally both Jainism and
Buddhism failed to get desired response from the South and evidently the impervious Deccan
firmly held the blessings of Hindu religion and culture and overshadowed the religious
imperialism of the Jainism and Buddhism.
On the arrival of the Aryans in the northern plain the existing population was compelled to
migrate towards the Deccan plateau. Without surrendering or embracing the new culture the
migrants maintained their cultural identity. Even though the Aryan civilization appeared
vulnerable yet the Dravidians maintained their own cultural heritage and survived undisturbed.
Deccan is full of hills, mountains and forests that provided opportunity to build many hilly
unaccessible forts and hide-outs and roused patriotic spirit of the people to defend the
motherland. It has made the inhabitants hardy brave and expert in jungle warfare and strong
enough to outwit the invaders by the tactics of Guerrilla Warfare. Indeed, the geographical
conditions largely influenced the people to take up arms against the invaders and fight for liberty
and territorial integrity.
The natural outlet of seas on three sides has given scope to explore sea routes with other
countries and developed social economic and cultural ties with them. The Portuguese, the Dutch,
the Persians, the Arabians all utilised the seaports and hastened to the land for trade and
commerce.
Simultaneously the sea outlets gave away incentives to the people to sail across the sea and
establish prosperous colonies in Java, Sumatra, Burma and Cambodia etc. The geographical
demarcation between the North and the South was also responsible partly for generating two
distinctly separate and independent types of civilizations.
In fact, when crisis prevailed in the north the Hinduism and its culture were under suppression
the south extended her generous arms and embraced the discomfited Hinduism and its culture
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and saved them from sure ruin. Thus, the south played a vital role in preserving India‘s
originality and religious fervour of Hinduism.
The Coastal Ghats
The Coastal Ghats broadly forms the coast-belts of East and West of the Deccan Plateau. On the
eastern side of the plateau the hill range running from the north to the South almost parallel to
the coast line is known as the Eastern Ghats. On the West the mountain range running parallel to
the Arabian sea is known as the Western Ghats.
The length is about 1120 km. and 3000 to 8000 feet above sea level. The lofty cliff has given
positive advantages to build up a strong and formidable defence. This natural gift of nature has
virtually helped the Marathas to defy the fierce Mughals and assert their superiority. The narrow
strip of land sometimes not more than 32 km. in width stretching between coast and foot of the
Ghats is known as Konkan and Malabar.
It has a rich soil and is evergreen with rice plants and coconut trees. It is highly productive and
thickly populated. In the absence of modern communication facilities, it remained isolated for a
long time from the rest of the Deccan. Even now some of them practise customs found nowhere
else in India.
On the other hand in the far north on the Western Coast the Narmada and the Tapti have broken
through the Western scrap and cut wide valleys across them, making easy paths leading to the
north. It is in this region that great kingdoms and civilized people have lived from early ages.
On the eastern side, the Coastal land which lies below the Eastern Ghats is much broader. The
eastern scrap itself is of low elevation much less steep and it is broken in many places by the
valley of the Deccan Rivers flowing eastwards. This made the communication of the east coast
with the uplands of the Deccan easy. This resulted in building many cities,
flourishing civilizations and powerful kingdoms to exhibit the courage and gallantry of the Indian
Community.

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Geo-Facts
Which are the bordering countries of India?
Being a peninsular country, India is bordered mostly by water bodies of Arabian Sea towards its
southwest, Bay of Bengal towards its southeast and Indian Ocean towards its south. However,
the countries bordering the nation towards its north are Bhutan, China and Nepal, towards its east
are Myanmar and Bangladesh, and towards west is Pakistan.
How does the geography of India look like?
The peninsular country of India is rich in its varied geographical features. Indian geography has
been made beautiful by its running rivers, serene lakes, beautiful waterfalls, strong mountains,
vast coastal plains, sprinkled islands and surrounding oceans. The country is famously known as
―land of rivers‖ for possessing numerous rivers. Apart from these rivers flowing through the
different parts of the nation, India has got mountain ranges towards its north to the central
plateau region. The western and eastern coastal regions of the nation are surrounded by plain
lands.
Which is the highest point of India?
Kanchenjunga, situated at an altitude of 8, 598 m above the sea level is the highest point of India.
Which is the lowest point of India?
Kuttanad, in the state of Kerala, which is located at −2.2 m below the sea level, is the lowest
point of the nation.

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What constitutes the river system of India?
India, the land of rivers comprises of a network of some main rivers and their innumerable
tributaries and distributaries. The main rivers of the country are as follows:
▪ Ganga
▪ Brahmaputra
▪ Chenab
▪ Beas
▪ Ravi
▪ Jhelum
▪ Sutlej or Satluj
▪ Narmada
▪ Tapi or Tapti
▪ Krishna
▪ Godavari
▪ Kaveri
▪ Mahanadi
These rivers can be divided into two major river systems in India, which are mentioned below:
▪ The Himalayan River System
▪ The Peninsular River System
The river system of Himalaya can be further sub-divided into the following three river systems
found mainly towards north India:
▪ Ganga River System: This river system consists of river Ganga and its branches.
▪ Indus River System: The river system of Indus comprises of the network of the north Indian
rivers of Beas, Chenab, Ravi, Jhelum and Satluj or Sutlej.
▪ Brahmaputra River System: The river system of Brahmaputra includes mainly the river
Brahmaputra along with its tributaries.
The Peninsular River System of India has got rivers like Godavari, Kaveri, Krishna, Mahanadi,
Narmada, Tapti or Tapi, which originates and flows along with their branches across the
peninsular part of the country.
All these rivers originate from the following three main sources:
▪ The Himalayan ranges or the Karakoram ranges of north India
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▪ Sahyadri ranges or the Western Ghats of west India
▪ Chotanagpur plateau, Satpura ranges and Vindhya ranges of central India
Originating from the three watersheds mentioned earlier and running across the country of India,
these rivers along with their tributaries and distributaries flows to either the Bay of Bengal or the
Arabian Sea. Some of the rivers even flow towards the inner part of the country. Let us have a
look at the division of some of the main rivers of India according to their flowing basins:
Rivers, which have their flowing basin in Bay of Bengal: Some of the longest rivers of India
flowing towards the Bay of Bengal are:
▪ Brahmaputra
▪ Ganga
▪ Godavari
▪ Kaveri
▪ Krishna
▪ Mahanadi
▪ Meghna
Rivers, whose flowing basin is Arabian Sea: To name a few of the Indian rivers, which find their
destination into the Arabian Sea are:
▪ Narmada
▪ Indus
▪ Tapti
Rivers of India flowing within the country's inner part: Some of the rivers of India that flows
towards the central part of the country are as follows:
▪ Musi
▪ Ghaggar
▪ Samir
Besides these rivers of India, there are many other important rivers, which contribute to the
beauty of this land of rivers. The names of a few of those beautiful Indian rivers are mentioned
below:
▪ Bhadra
▪ Gandak
▪ Mahananda

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▪ Jaldhaka
▪ Ramganga
▪ Rupnarayan
▪ Yamuna
▪ Wainganga
State wise Important Rivers

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Which is the longest river of India?
Brahmaputra River, flowing over an area of 2, 900 km is the country's longest river.
How much rainfall is received by India?
The distinct season of monsoon sets in the country of India mainly during the month of June and
continues till September. Depending upon the weather condition of a particular year, the
monsoon might vary slightly. June's rainfall brings a great relief from the hot summer. 80 % of
the yearly rainfall gets caused by the south east trade winds originating from the Indian Ocean.
Rainfall caused by the south west monsoon gets divided into 2 branches, which are the Bay of
Bengal branch and the Arabian Sea branch. However, monsoon caused from the north eastern
part of the country sets in during the month of September. This kind of monsoon is mostly
experienced in winter.
The maximum annual precipitation of more than 2, 000 mm is received by the north eastern part
of the country, which includes the Himalayan range as well as the Western Ghats. Eastern India
receives medium annual rainfall that varies in between 1, 000 mm to 2, 000 mm. The region
covered by the Punjab plains and the western Deccan plateau experiences a lesser rainfall in a
year. There the annual rainfall ranges from 100 mm to 500 mm. Areas of Rajasthan, Kachchh
and Ladakh don't receive a lot of rainfall during the year.
Is India prone to floods?
The peninsular nature of India as well as the possession of innumerable rivers makes the country
quite prone to floods. Moreover, the huge rainfall at different parts of the nation contributes to the
massive floods. As per G. S. I. (Geological Survey of India), 12.5 % of the country's area is prone
to flood.
Which are the major flood prone areas of India?
The plain regions towards the northern part of the country are more prone to flood. However,
depending upon the different river systems of India, the flood prone areas of the country can be
categorized into the following three heads:
▪ Ganga Basin
▪ Barak Basin and Brahmaputra Basin
▪ River Basins located in the Deccan region and central India
Following are the states that can be regarded as the major flood prone areas of India:

▪ West Bengal
▪ Andhra Pradesh
▪ Orissa
▪ Kerala
▪ Assam
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▪ Gujrat
▪ Bihar
▪ Uttar Pradesh
▪ Punjab
▪ Haryana
Apart from these, other regions of the country, which are prone to flood, are the deltas and banks
of the rivers like Brahmaputra, Damodar, Gandak, Ganga, Ghaggar, Godavari, Mahanadi,
Mahananda, Mayurakshi, Kosi, Ravi, Sabarmati, Sutlej, Teesta, Yamuna – Sahibi.
How much area is covered by India?
The country of India spreads over an area of 3, 287, 263 sq. km. In spite of being seventh largest
in regards to the total covering area, the country occupies just 2.4 % of the total surface of the
earth. The land area of India amounts to around 6, 207 km., which is 90.44 % of the total area.
This total land area can be further measured on the basis of the following 2 aspects:
▪ Stretch in between north and south: 3, 214 km
▪ Stretch in between east and west: 2, 993 km
Among this, the forest areas of India sprawl over an area of 64, 113 sq. km. constituting 19.27 %
of the country's total area. 69 % of the total land area of India is covered by dry lands. The other
part of 9.56 % is water. Indian rivers are accountable for a total area of about 14, 500 km.
Apart from these, the political boundaries of the nation stretch over 15, 106.70 km area. More
details about area covered by the different parts of the national border of India can be gathered
from the information provided below:
▪ Border with Bangladesh: 4,096.70 km
▪ Border with Bhutan: 699 km
▪ Border with China (PRC): 3,488 km
▪ Border with Myanmar: 1,643 km
▪ Border with Nepal: 1,751 km
▪ Border with Pakistan: 3,323 km

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How rich is India in terms of greenery?
The country of India, being an agricultural land is blessed with lots of greenery. Besides this, the
country has got vast forest areas. Rich in varied species of flora and fauna, these lush green dense
forests help the country balance the natural ecosystem. Along with supporting biodiversity, some
of these forests accommodate a number of dangerous species that are on the way of extinction.
Following are the different ranges of dense forests that contribute to the natural beauty of India: ▪
Himalayan range's dry alpine scrub forest
▪ Rain forests located towards the north east Indian states, western coastal plains and the islands
of Andaman and Nicobar.
The country even houses some charming deciduous forests, semi-evergreen rain forests, thorn
forests, pine forests of the sub-tropical regions and many more.
The Climate of India
India has tropical monsoon type of climate. It is greatly influenced by the presence of the
Himalayas in the north as they block the cold the cold air masses from Central Asia. It is because
of them only that the monsoons have a watershed in India.
▪ The Tropic of Cancer divides India into two almost equal climatic zones, namely, the northern
zone and the southern zone. The warm temperate or the subtropical climate of the northern zone
gives it cold winter seasons and the hot summer seasons.
▪ The southern tropical climatic zone is warmer than the north and does not have a clear-cut
winter season.
▪ The northern zone does not have the midday sun vertically overhead during any part of the
year; the southern zone has the midday sun almost vertically overhead at least twice every year.
Climate Seasons in India
▪ In India, the year can be divided into four seasons, resulting from the monsoons which occur
mainly due to the differential heating of land and movement of the sun‘s vertical rays.
▪ The vertical rays of the sun advance towards Tropic of Cancer from mid-March, due to which
hot and dry weather arrives. As temperatures rise over most of northern and Central India, a vast
trough of low pressure is created. The highest temperature experienced in South is in April while
in North it is in May and June.
▪ This part of the year is marked by a dry spell and the north-western parts of the country
experience hot, dry winds, called loo. In this period, the country also experiences storms / dust
storms at various places.

▪ Tornado like dust storms in Punjab and Haryana, called ‗Andhis‘ in UP and ‗Kalbaisakhis‘ in
West Bengal. They involve strong convectional movements causing some precipitation.

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▪ The ‗Norwesters‘ originate over the Chhotanagpur Plateau and blow in the north-east direction
which brings about 50 cm of rainfall in Assam and about 10 cm rainfall in West Bengal and
Orissa. This rainfall is very useful for Assam tea and spring rice crops of West Bengal.

▪ Similarly, ‗Cherry Blossoms‘ are there in Karnataka, beneficial to coffee plantation and
‗Mango showers‘ in elsewhere South India, which are beneficial to mango crops.
▪ This weather is followed by hot, wet weather from June to September. In May, the south – west
monsoon sets in. The normal dates of onset of the monsoon are May 20 in the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands, June 3 in the Konkan, June 15 in Kolkata and June 29 in Delhi.
▪ The south – west monsoon enters the country in two currents, one blowing over the Bay of
Bengal and the other over the Arabian Sea. This monsoon causes rainfall over most of the
country (except Tamil Nadu and Thar Desert area). The S.W monsoon entering from Western
Ghats causes heavy rainfall over Kerala coast, but Tamil Nadu falls on the leeward side. In the
Thar area, the winds blow parallel to the Aravallis and do not cause rain. The Bay of Bengal
current causes heavy rainfall in the north east parts of the country and a part of it turns west
along the Himalayas over the Indo-Gangetic plains causing rainfall in this region. But the Bay of
Bengal current, by the time it reaches W Rajasthan, runs out of moisture.
▪ The Bay of Bengal branch after crossing the deltaic region enters the Khasi valley in
Meghalaya and gets entrapped in it due to funnel shape of the region. It strikes Cherrapunji in a
perpendicular direction causing heavies rainfall in Mawsinram (Approx. 1400 cm).

▪ From mid-Sept to mid-Dec, the monsoon retreats. As the sun‘s vertical rays start shifting
towards the Tropic of Capricorn, the low-pressure area starts moving south and winds finally
start blowing from land to sea. This is called north-east monsoon. The withdrawal of monsoon is
a much more gradual process than its onset. It causes rainfall in Tamil Nadu as the winds pick
some moisture from Bay of Bengal. This explains the phenomenon why Tamil Nadu remains dry
when the entire country receives rain and why it gets rain when practically the entire country is
dry.
▪ The cold and dry weather starts in early December. In this, the average temperature in south is
24-25c, and while in the north is 10-15c. In the latter part of December and in January, the dry
spell is broken by the westerly depressions (temperate cyclones) from Mediterranean Sea, which
causes some rain in north-west India.
▪ Almost all the precipitation in India is caused by the monsoons and it is primarily orographic in
nature. Cyclonic storms provide only a little rain, mainly in the north.
Climatic Regions of India
India can be divided into a number of climatic regions.
▪ Tropical Rain Forests in India: Found in the west coastal plains, the Western Ghats and parts of
Assam. Characterized by high temperatures throughout the year. Rainfall, though seasonal, is
heavy- about 200 cm annually during May-November.

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 ▪ Tropical Savanna Climate: In most of the peninsula region except the semi-arid zone in the
leeward side of the Western Ghats. It is characterized by long dry weather throughout winter and
early summer and high temperature (above 18.2c); annual rainfall varies from 76 cm in the west
to 150 cm in the east.
▪ Tropical Semi-Arid Steppe Climate: It prevails in the rain-shadow belt running southward from
Central Maharashtra to Tamil Nadu in the leeward side of the Western Ghats and the Cardamom
Hills. It is characterized by low rainfall which varies from 38 cm to 80 cm, high temperature
between 20 and 30.
▪ Tropical and Subtropical Steppes: Large areas in Punjab, Haryana and Kutch region.
Temperature varies from 12-35c. The maximum temperature reaches up to 49c. The annual
rainfall, varying from 30.5-63.5 cm, is also highly erratic.
Tropical desert: This climate extends over the western parts of Banner, Jaisalmer and Bikaner
districts of Rajasthan and parts of Kutch. It is characterized by scanty rainfall (30.5 cm), which is
highly erratic. Rains are mostly in the form of cloud-burst. Mean monthly temperature is
uniformly high (about 35c).
▪ Humid Subtropical Climate with Dry Winters: This area includes south of the Himalayas, east
of the tropical and subtropical steppes and north of tropical savannah. Winters are mild to severe
while summers are extremely hot. The annual rainfall varies from 63.5 cm to more than 254 cm,
most of it received during the south west monsoon season.
▪ Mountain Climate: Such type of climate is seen in mountainous regions which rise above 6,000
m or more such as the Himalayas and the Karakoram Range.

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Soils in India
Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has divided Indian soils into eight major groups:
Alluvial Soil in India
▪ They are by far the largest and the most important soil group of India. They are composed of
sediments deposited by rivers and the waves. Their chemical composition makes them one of the
most fertile in the world. Usually deficient in nitrogen and humus (thus fertilizers are needed).
▪ Occupy the plains (from Punjab to Assam) and also occur in the valleys of Narmada and Tapti
in M.P. & Gujarat, Mahanadi in the MP and Orissa, Godawari in A.R and Cauvery in T.N.
▪ Can be divided into Khadar (new) and Bhangar (older, more clayey and kankary) alluvium.
Black Soil in India
▪ Also called Regur and is ideal for cotton crop. These soils have been formed due to the
solidification of lava spread over large areas during volcanic activity in the Deccan Plateau,
thousands of years ago.
▪ They are black due to compounds of iron and aluminium (also because of titaniferous
magnetite).
▪ Mainly found in Deccan Plateau – Maharashtra, Gujarat, M.P, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu.
▪ Apart from cotton cultivation, these fertile soils are suitable for growing cereals, oilseeds, citrus
fruits and vegetables, tobacco and sugarcane.
▪ They have high moisture retention level.
▪ Lack in phosphorus, nitrogen and organic matter.

Red Soil in India

▪ They are mainly formed due to the decomposition of ancient crystalline rocks like granites and
gneisses and from rock types rich in minerals such as iron and magnesium. The term ‗red soil‘ is
due to the wide diffusion of iron oxides through the materials of the soil.
▪ Covers almost the whole of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, S.E. Maharashtra,
Chhatisgarh, parts of Orissa, Jharkhand and Bundelkhand.
▪ Generally deficient in nitrogen, humus and phosphorus, but rich in potash.
▪ Suitable for rice, millets, tobacco and vegetables (also groundnuts and potatoes at higher
elevations).
Laterite Soil in India
▪ Found in typical monsoon conditions – under conditions of high temperature and heavy rainfall
with alternate wet and dry periods. The alterations of wet and dry season leads to the leaching

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away of siliceous matter and lime of the rocks and a soil rich in oxides of iron and aluminium
compounds is left behind.
▪ Found in parts of Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, Rajmahal hills, Maharashtra, Karnataka,
Kerala, Orissa, West Bengal, Assam, Tamil Nadu, etc.
▪ Poor in nitrogen and minerals.
▪ Best for tea, coffee, rubber, cinchona, coconut and suitable for rice and millet cultivation if
manured.
Forest and Mountain Soils
▪ Such soils are mainly found on the hill slopes covered by forests. The formation of these soils
is mainly governed by the characteristic deposition of organic matter derived from forest growth.
▪ In the Himalayan region, such soils are mainly found in valley basins, depressions and less
steeply inclined slopes. Apart from the Himalayan region, the forest soils occur in higher hills in
south and the peninsular region.
▪ Very rich in humus but are deficient in Potash, phosphorous and lime and needs fertilizers.
▪ Plantation of tea, coffee, spices and tropical fruits.
Arid and Desert Soils
▪ A large part of the arid and semi-arid region in Rajasthan and adjoining areas of Punjab and
Haryana lying between the Indus and the Aravallis receiving less than 50 cm of annual rainfall is
affected by desert conditions.
▪ This area is covered by a mantle of sand which inhibits soil growth.
The phosphate content of these soils is as high as in normal alluvial soils. Nitrogen is originally
low but its deficiency is made up to some extent by the availability of nitrogen in the form of
nitrates. Thus, the presence of phosphates and nitrates make them fertile soils wherever moisture
is available.
▪ The changes in the cropping pattern in the Indira Gandhi Canal Command Area are a living
example of the utility of the desert soils.
Saline and Alkaline Soils

• In the drier parts of Bihar, Up Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan and Maharashtra, are the
saltimpregnated or alkaline soils. Known by different names: Reh, kallar, USAR, etc.
• Some of the salts are transported in solution by the rivers and canals, which percolates in the
sub-soils of the plains.

• The accumulation of salts makes the soil infertile and renders it unfit for agriculture.
Peaty and Marshy Soils
▪ Originate in the humid regions as a result of accumulation of large amounts of organic matter in
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the soil. They contain considerable amounts of soluble salts and 10 – 40% of organic matter.
▪ Peaty soils are found in Kottayam and Alappuzha districts of Kerala, where it is called Kari.
▪ Marshy soils, high in vegetable matter, are found in northern Bihar, coastal parts of Orissa,
Tamil Nadu and West Bengal and parts of UP
Soil Erosion in India
▪ Acute in hilly and dry regions
▪ Causes – depletion of forests, wrong use of lands such as cultivation on very steep slopes, cattle
rearing. It ultimately leads to Badland Topography.
▪ Remedy – Afforestation, contour cultivation etc.

Natural Vegetation in India

Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests
In areas over 250cm rainfall. In Western Ghats, hilly areas in N.E. India and Andaman and
Nicobar Islands. Trees are rosewood, shisham, ebony, ironwood, etc.
Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests
▪ In areas having rainfall between 100 – 200 cm. In peninsular region and along the foothills of
Himalayas in Shivaliks, Bhabhar and Tarai.
▪ The trees of these forests drop their leaves for about 6-8 weeks during the spring and early
summer when sufficient moisture isn‘t available. • Trees are teak, sal, bamboo, sandalwood,
rosewood, etc. Thorn Forests
▪ In areas having rainfall between 25 and 80cm. In arid regions of Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana
and Gujarat. • Trees are palm, acacia, etc.
Hill Forests
▪ In hills of S.India and the Himalayas.
▪ The type of trees depends upon the height of the mountain : Sal and bamboo below 1000 m;
oaks, chestnuts and other fruit trees, and chir forests between 1000 and 2000 m; pine, deodar,
silver fern and spruce between 1600 and 3300 m; above 3600 m alpine forests with trees like
silver firs, pines, birches, etc. Alpine forests give way to Alpine grasslands and scrubs as we
move up further.
Tidal or Mangrove Forests
▪ Also known as Littoral or Swamp Forests.
▪ Occur along the sea coast and in the estuaries of rivers, especially in Sunderbans and the
Andamans.

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▪ Most important tree is Sundari. It provides hard and durable timber which is used for
construction and building purposes as well as for making boats.
Note:
▪ According to the National Forest Policy, the minimum desired area which is considered safe for
a tropical country like India is about 33%.
▪ Madhya Pradesh has the largest area under forests followed by Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh,
Orissa and Arunachal Pradesh.
▪ As per percentage of forest area to total area, first is Andaman and Nicobar Islands, followed
by Mizoram, Manipur, Himachal Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Tripura and Nagaland. They are
in a very comfortable position as more than half of their area is under forests.
▪ Arunachal Pradesh has the highest per capita forest area.
▪ In Mangrove forests, West Bengal holds the first position, followed by Gujarat and Andaman
and Nicobar Islands.
▪ The lowest forest percentage is in Haryana and Punjab, because of the extensive agriculture.

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Biosphere Reserves in India

▪ The biosphere reserve program was launched by the UNESCO in 1971 under the aegis of its
Man and Biosphere (MAB) Program, to provide a global network of protected areas for
conserving natural communities.
In India, the first biosphere reserve – Nilgiri biosphere reserve – came into being in 1986. So
far, 14 biosphere reserves have been set up in the country.
▪ Nilgiri, Sunderbans, Manas and Gulf of Mannar have been recognized on World Network of
Biosphere Reserves by UNESCO.
Project Tiger
▪ It was launched on April 1, 1973 to ensure maintenance of viable population of the tigers in
India.
▪ There are 29 tiger reserves in the country
▪ Nagarjunasagar Tiger Reserve in AP is the largest, while Pench in Maharashtra is the smallest.
Bandipur in Karnataka was the first (1973-74), while Kaziranga is the latest (2006).
Project Elephant
▪ It was launched in February 1992, to assist States having wild elephants to ensure long term
survival of identified viable populations of elephants in their natural habitat.

▪ There are 14 Elephant Reserves in India. Cropping

Seasons in India:
Kharif Crops of India
▪ Sown in summers between May and July, and harvested after the rains, in September and
October.
▪ Eg: Rice, Jowar, Bajra, Maize, Cotton, Jute, Sugarcane, Tobacco, Groundnut, Pulses, etc.
Rabi Crops of India
▪ Sown at the beginning of winter and harvested before the onset of the summer season, between
Feb and April.
▪ Eg: Wheat, barley, oilseeds, gram, potatoes, etc.
Zayad Crops
▪ They are raised between April and June.
▪ E.g.: Melon, watermelon, cucumber, toris, leafy and other vegetables.

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Cash Crops of India (Commercial Crops)
▪ Grown mainly for the market, only a small portion of the product is consumed by the farmers
themselves (cotton, sugarcane etc.)

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