Module -3

Module-3
Design of Mechanical Springs
 Module-3
Design of Mechanical Springs

https://blog.thepipingmart.com/other/uses-of-different-types-of-springs/
http://www.meca.insa-
toulouse.fr/~paredes/Springs2K/index.php?ide
=Cends&men=com
Module -3

https://www.slideshare.net/EuropeanSpring/s
pring-inventions-you-couldnt-live-without-
52094145

https://www.mechanicalbooster.com/2017/03
 A spring is defined as an
elastic machine element,
which deflects under the
action of the load and
returns to its original
shape when the load is
removed.

https://study.com/academy/lesson/helix-
angle-definition-formula-calculation.html
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=ew09QEHkG4E

https://www.motioncontroltips.com/types-of-
industrial-springs-compression-extension-
torsion/
Helical springs, compression as well as extension, have the
following advantages:
(i) They are easy to manufacture.
(ii) They are cheaper than other types of springs.
(iii) Their reliability is high.
(iv) The deflection of the spring is linearly proportional to the
force acting on the spring.
It is due to the above advantages that helical springs are
popular and extensively used in a number of applications.
free length = Solid length = Nt d
compressed length + δ where,
= solid length + total Nt = total number of coils
axial gap + δ
Solid Length: Solid length is defined as the axial length of the spring
which is so compressed that the adjacent coils touch each other
Compressed Length : Compressed length is defined as the axial length
of the spring, which is subjected to maximum compressive force. In this
case, the spring is subjected to maximum deflection δ.
Free Length: Free length is defined as the axial length of an unloaded
helical compression spring
Pitch of the coil : The pitch of the coil is defined as the axial distance
between adjacent coils in uncompressed state of spring. It is denoted by
p.
Stiffness: The stiffness of the spring (k) is defined as the force
required to produce unit deflection.
Active coils: Active coils are the coils in the spring which contribute
to spring action, support the external force and deflect under the
action of force.
Inactive coils: A portion of the end coils, which is in contact with the
seat, does not contribute to spring action and are called inactive coils.
These coils do not support the load and do not deflect under the action
 Compression springs
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_mgOjk5z
o2E

STYLES OF END
 Compression springs
• Four common end types are shown in the figure.

• The number of active coils Na in each case is given as,

• Na = Nt for plain ends, Na = Nt - 1 for plain ground ends,
• Na = Nt - 2 for squared ends and for squared and ground ends,
• where Nt is the total number of coils.
https://www.acxesspring.com/compression-
spring-end-types.html
 Compression springs
• Square (or Closed) end helical springs are the least expensive and
most widely used. However, they tend to buckle under the load.
• Square end springs can be Ground to improve their utility. Square
& Ground springs can be placed accurately so that they don't
buckle due to misalignment.
• Plain (or Open) end helical springs can be used in applications
where less solid height is needed or height tolerances are not very
stringent.
• Plain end springs when not ground tend to entangle when stored in
bulk & hence, at times, they are ground for easy storage & avoid
buckling as mentioned above.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wFhyZUv
ZSDA
 Design of Helical Springs
• Springs are generally used when a wide range of
force is required for a large deflection or when
energy is to be stored and released periodically.
• Springs are used to provide tensile, compressive
or twisting forces.
• A wide variety of springs are available in the
market.
• Helical and leaf springs are widely used. Other
types of springs are Belleville, spiral, ring and
volute springs.
Design of Helical Springs
 Helical springs
• Helical springs are wire-
form springs, i.e., they are
made from wire of circular
or square cross-section.
• Helical springs can be
compression, tension or
torsional springs.
 Helical Springs
• Figure shows a
helical compression
spring of circular
cross section
• loaded by a axial
force F. D is the
mean coil diameter
and d is the wire
diameter.
• The maximum stress in the
wire is the summation of
the direct shear stress due
to F and torsional shear
stress due to torsional load
T = FD/2 and is given by

Combined Torsional,
Direct Stress Pure Torsional Stress and Direct Shear
Stresses

stress distribution on the cross section of the wire

• The maximum stress for the wire is at the inner
fiber of the spring.
• The equation for shear stress on the cross section
of the wire is obtained by substituting T = FD/2, r
= d/2, J = πd4/32 and A = πd2/4 in the equation
C, a measure of curvature of the coil, is called the spring
index
 • Define shear stress correction factor

The modulus of rigidity (G) of these wires is 81370 N/mm2.

 Selection of Spring index (C)
1. The spring index indicates the relative sharpness of the curvature of the
coil.
2. A low spring index means high sharpness of curvature.
3. When the spring index is low (C < 3), the actual stresses in the wire are
excessive due to curvature effect. Such a spring is difficult to manufacture
and special care in coiling is required to avoid cracking in some wires.
4. When the spring index is high (C > 15), it results in large variation in the
coil diameter. Such a spring is prone to buckling and also tangles easily
during handling.
5. A spring index from 4 to 12 is considered best from manufacturing
considerations.
6. Therefore, in practical applications, the spring index usually varies from 4
to 12.
7. However, a spring index in the range of 6 to 9 is still preferred particularly
for close tolerance springs and those subjected to cyclic loading.
 Curvature effect
• The above derivation for the stress at the cross
section of the wire is derived assuming a
straight wire (The torsional stress equation is
that of a straight shaft).
• In reality, the curvature of the spring effects
the stress distribution.
Curvature effect
• If we look at a small
segment of the spring
shown in the figure and
assume bc to be fixed
and a torsional force
acting on the cross
section at ad, we can see
that the shear strain on
the inner length ab is
more than that on the
outer length dc.

This phenomenon is termed as curvature effect. The larger the

spring index, the lower will be the curvature effect.
 Curvature effect
• Ks can be replaced by another factor which
takes the curvature effect into account –

KW is the Wahl factor and KB is the Bergstrasser factor. These factors

take into account the effect of direct shear stress and stress
concentration due to curvature effect respectively.
 Deflection of Helical Spring
• Deflection of helical spring can be obtained using
Castigliano’s theorem –
when forces act on elastic systems subject to small
displacements, the displacement corresponding to any
force, in the direction of the force, is equal to the partial
derivative of the total strain energy with respect to that
force.
 Deflection of Helical Spring
• The total strain energy in the case of a helical
spring is

where,
• torsional force T = FD/2,
• length of the spring l = πDN where N is the
number of active coils,
• J = πd4/32, and A = πd2/4.
Using these in the above equation, total strain
energy is given by
 Deflection of Helical Spring

• Differentiating with respect to force F to find

the deflection of the spring
 Deflection of Helical Spring

The spring rate or scale of the spring is defined

as k = F/y and is given by

There are two basic equations for

the design of helical springs, viz.,
1. load-stress equation
2. load-deflection equation
 Compression springs
• The above equations are derived assuming that the
load is axial.
• However, in practice this may not always be
possible as the end coils can produce an eccentric
effect which could cause the stress distribution to
differ from the one that is predicted using equations
derived above.
• The number of coils that contribute actively to the
total deflection depends on the end types.
Compression Springs - Buckling

A spring is a system whose function is to become deformed under the

action of a force or of a torque then to restore the energy stored with
the resumption of its initial form.
 Springs in series and springs in parallel
• Springs are connected
either in series or in
parallel. This type of
connections can be used
when it is required to
change the overall
deflection for a given
load or to achieve
different load
distribution for a given
deflection.
 Springs in series
• When springs are in series, the force acting on
each spring is the same and the total deflection is
given by
 Springs in parallel
• When springs are in parallel, the deflection of
each spring is the same and the total force is
distributed as
 Selection of material
The selection of material for the spring wire
depends upon the following factors:
(i) The load acting on the spring
(ii) The range of stress through which the spring operates
(iii) The limitations on mass and volume of spring
(iv) The expected fatigue life
(v) The environmental conditions in which the spring will
operate such as temperature and corrosive atmosphere
(vi) The severity of deformation encountered while making the
spring
 Spring Materials
• Patented and cold-drawn (unalloyed) steel
wires
• Unalloyed oil-hardened and tempered spring
steel wires and valve spring wires
• Alloyed oil-hardened and tempered steel wires
• Stainless steel wires
 Factor of safety
• Factor of safety in design of springs is generally 1.5 or less.
– A high factor of safety is not necessary since in most applications the
amount of deflection needed of the springs are well defined.
– In the case of helical compression springs, any overload will simply
close the gap between the coils without causing any dangerous increase
in stresses.
– In almost all applications, overload stops are provided which prevent
excessive deflections/stresses.
– Manufacturing process of the coil wire is carefully controlled implying
stress concentrations/failures due to manufacturing processes is
minimal or avoided.
 Factor of safety
• Factor of safety based on torsional yield
strength is taken as 1.5 for springs that are
subject to static force.

where Ssy is torsional yield stress.

 Factor of safety
• Assuming, yield strength in tension
Syt = 0.75Sut (Ultimate strength in tension) and
• Ssy = 0.577Syt .

---10.14

Indian standard 4454-1981 recommends

---10.15
 Procedure for design of springs
• There are numerous ways of creating spring design
strategies. One methodology is described below
1. Estimate the maximum spring force and required
deflection.
2. Select a material, find it’s ultimate shear stress (Sut )
and determine the permissible shear stress as τ = 0.3Sut
or 0.5Sut .
3. Assume a suitable value of spring index (C = D/d).
For industrial applications 8 < C < 10.
In valves and clutches C = 5 is chosen.
Spring index should never be less than 3.
4. Calculate Wahl factor.
 Procedure for design of springs
5. Determine wire diameter using
---10.13

6. Determine mean coil diameter using D =Cd.

7. Determine number of active coils (G = 81370 N/mm2
for steel).

8. Decide the coil end type depending on the application.

Determine the total number of coils Nt .
 Procedure for design of springs
• 9. Determine the solid length as Ntd.
• 10. Determine actual deflection using

• 11. Assume a gap of 0.5-2mm between adjacent coils, when

the spring is under the action of maximum load.
• Total gap between the coils is given by (Nt -1) x gap
between adjacent coils OR take the total gap as 15% of
maximum deflection.
 Procedure for design of springs
• 12. Determine free length as: solid length +
total gap + deflection.

• 13. Determine pitch

over an arbor
of the coil as

• 14. Determine rate of the spring as

 SPRING DESIGN—TRIAL AND
ERROR METHOD
The trial and error procedure consists of the following
steps:
– (i) Assume some wire diameter (d).
– (ii) Find out the corresponding tensile strength from Table
10.1 or 10.2 and using this value find out permissible stress
by Eq. (b).
– (iii) Find out induced stress by Eq. (d).
– (iv) Check up whether permissible stress is more than
induced stress. If not, increase the wire diameter and repeat
the above steps.
– (v) The above mentioned procedure is repeated till the
value of induced stress comes out to be less than
permissible stress.
SPRING DESIGN—TRIAL AND
ERROR METHOD
From expressions (c) and (e), it
is observed that permissible
stress is inversely proportional
to (1/d), while induced stress is
proportional to (1/d2).
Both stresses depend upon wire
diameter. Such problems can be
solved only by trial and error of
Eqs (b) and (d).
Examples based on Simple Analysis
Energy stored in the spring
Energy stored in the spring
 Examples Based on Trial and Error
Procedure
Example 10.11
An automotive single-plate clutch, with two pairs of friction
surfaces, transmits 300 N-m torque at 1500 rpm. The inner and
outer diameters of the friction disk are 170 and 270 mm
respectively. The coefficient of friction is 0.35. The normal force
on the friction surfaces is exerted by nine helical compression
springs, so that the clutch is always engaged. The clutch is
disengaged when the external force further compresses the
springs. The spring index is 5 and the number of active coils is 6.
The springs are made of patented and cold drawn steel wires of
Grade 2. (G = 81 370 N/mm2). The permissible shear stress for
the spring wire is 30% of the ultimate tensile strength. Design the
springs and specify their dimensions
 Helical springs subjected to fatigue
loading

Machine Design by Bhandari

(S’se) is the endurance limit in shear for
the stress variation from zero to some
maximum value.
Machine Design by R.S. Khurmi & G.K. Gupta
Spring Design for Fluctuating Stresses