1-Module-1 - Introduction To Design-25-04-2023

Module -1
Module-1
Introduction to Design Process
Module-1
Introduction to Design Process
Simple Design
Module -1
Image courtesy: NPTEL

Design of Machine Elements
VB Bhandari
https://gradeup.co/theories-of-failures-i- Design of Machine Elements
2bcb95d0-83cf-11e6-890c-51e8ac482cfb VB Bhandari
Classification of Design based on methods

VB Bhandari
Design process
‘Design’ is the act of formalizing an idea
or concept into concrete information.
It includes the processes of conception,
invention, visualization, calculation,
refinement and specification of details
that determine the form of a product

VB Bhandari
DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

VB Bhandari

VB Bhandari

BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF
Machine Design
the following steps are generally followed:
1.Problem to be solved or desired purpose of the machine is completely and
clearly stated.
2.Possible mechanisms that will provide the desired motion or set of motions are
selected.
3.Forces acting on and energy transmitted by each element of the machine
are determined.
4.Best suitable material is selected for each of the machine element.
5.Allowable values of stress and deflection are determined for each machine
element, depending upon its material and functional requirements.
6.Size and shape of each machine element is determined so that it can
withstand the applied loads without failure.
7.Dimensions of the machine elements are modified considering manufacturing
aspects.
8.Assembly and detailed drawings of the machine are made with complete
specification of materials and manufacturing methods Design of Machine Elements
VB Bhandari
BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF
MACHINE ELEMENTS/
Design consideration
1. Strength
2. Rigidity
3. Wear Resistance
4. Minimum Dimensions and weight
5. Manufacturability
6. Safety
7. Conformance to standards
8. Reliability
9. Maintainability
10. Minimum Life-cycle cost

VB Bhandari
different types of loads that may be acting
because of energy, torque or power
transmission, their self weight, frictional
resistance, inertia or centrifugal forces or due to
temperature gradient
Static load is the load which does not change

in magnitude or direction and gradually
increases to a steady value e.g. dead weight of
machine elements.
Dynamic load is the load which changes in
magnitude or direction or both with respect
to time e.g. load acting on the connecting rod
of an internal combustion engine.
Impact load (load applied with certain
velocity) and shock load (suddenly applied
load) are also types of dynamic load.
VB Bhandari
http://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/page/vi
ew.php?id=125511
Clip art, cutting, hair cut, surgical
Selection of Materials
1. Performance Requirements: for examples, loads acting on
the member, size & weight constraints, environmental
conditions, desired reliability & durability etc.,
2. Material Properties:
1. Physical (melting point, co-efficient of thermal
expansion, thermal conductivity, specific heat, specific
gravity, electrical conductivity, magnetic properties etc.),
2. Chemical (corrosion resistance, reactivity with acids,
bases, water etc.),
3. Mechanical (hardness, toughness, ductility, malleability
etc.) or
4. Manufacturing (castability, weldability, formability,
machinability etc.).
3. Manufacturing Aspects
4. Availability & Cost
VB Bhandari
Mechanical Failure
Wall Mount Adjustable Bicycle Rack Holder Hook For Road Bike
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qbv2rOE
MyiA
`
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=455zbZvtL
G0
https://www.slideshare.net/deepak_223/lectu
re-2-principal-stress-and-strain
Necking
Ductile fracture of Al-Mg-Si alloy Brittle fracture of Cast Iron
Why ductile materials fail in 45° plane? Why brittle materials fail in 0° plane?
• Ductile materials generally fail in shear.
• Brittle materials are weaker in tension than in shear.
• When ductile material made of circular shaft is subjected to
torsion breaks along a plane perpendicular to it's longitudinal
axis and
• the brittle material break along surfaces forming angle 45° with
the longitudinal axis
From book Mechanics of Materials by

Beer and Johnston.
As you can see, when you have a stress in x-
direction, a stress in y-direction, and a shear
stress, you can convert the stress to a new
arbitrary axis (x' and y') with a different normal
and shear stress. Basic statics can resolve these
force
If the primary failure method is shear failure, such as the case for most ductile
materials, then this occurs when we look at the axis where θ=0, and the stress is
entirely in shear. However, if we look at the axis where θ=45°, then the stress is
all in tension normal stress. In this case, when the material fails easily in tension,
it will fail in this direction
Elementary Equations
For Direct loading or Axial loading
For transverse loading
For tangential loading or twisting
Where I and J  Resistance properties of cross sectional area
I  Area moment of inertia of the cross section about the axes lying on the section
(i.e. xx and yy)
J  Polar moment of inertia about the axis perpendicular to the section

Direct load Shear Stress

VB Bhandari
Bending load
Shear Stress

VB Bhandari
Torsional load

VB Bhandari
Source: Khurmi & Gupta
For design purpose, it is very important to know the state of stress
so as to determine the critical planes, the respective critical
stresses and relate them to the strength of the material
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9-
EZ3eyFsBk
https://www.slideshare.net/shaikhsaif/failure-
mechanism-in-ductile-brittle-material
But in actual practice, the components are
mostly subjected to combination of loads e.g.
transmission shaft is subjected to bending
and torsion at the same time.
https://www.slideshare.net/deepak_223/lecture-3-mohrs-circle-and-
theory-of-failure-8827044?next_slideshow=1
https://www.slideshare.net/deepak_223/lectu
re-3-mohrs-circle-and-theory-of-failure-
8827044?next_slideshow=1
Types of Loading
Pure shear
Normal stress σn = τ sin 2θ  At θ = 45° σn = σmax = τ
Shear stress τ = τ cos 2θ  At θ = 0°, τ max = τ
 Under pure shear, ductile materials will fail in 0° plane and brittle materials will fail
in 45° plane. Because, at 0° plane shear stress is maximum and at 45° plane normal
stress is maximum.
Stress transformations
Mechanics of Materials. Beer, Johnston, DeWolf and Updike
• Most general state of stress at a point may be

represented by 6 components,

How are the components of the stress
changed under transformation of axes ?

We will look at plane stresses.

Stress transformation

Stress transformation

Solving the equations we get
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6mWlkqf
Ajz8 Source: Khurmi & Gupta
Principal stresses

Maximum shearing stress

Z=I/y
I=(π/64 )d^4
Y=d/2
J=(π/32 )d^4
R=d/2
T/J= Cɵ/l=𝜏/𝑅
https://www.slideshare.net/musadoto/machin
e-design-question-bank
https://www.slideshare.net/ASHOKKUMAR270
88700/me6503-design-of-machine-elements-
y=2t/2=t
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =(𝜎1 − 𝜎2 )/2
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜏𝑦𝑒𝑖𝑙𝑑 /fs

𝜏𝑦𝑒𝑖𝑙𝑑 = 𝜎𝑦𝑒𝑖𝑙𝑑 /2
In the tension test, the specimen is
subjected to uniaxial stress (𝜎1 ) and
𝜎2 = 0).
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =𝜎1 /2
When the specimen starts yielding (𝜎1 =
Syt), the above equation is written as
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =𝑠𝑦𝑡 /2
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =𝑆𝑦𝑡 /2
Therefore, the maximum shear stress

theory predicts that the yield strength in
shear is half of the yield strength in
tension,
𝑆𝑠𝑦 = 0.5 𝑆𝑦𝑡

Eccentric loading
Eccentric load on bolts Eccentric load on crane hook
Eccentric load on column

Eccentric load on hydraulic punching
press
Eccentric Loading
If the line of action of a load is not passing through the Centroid of
the machine component, then that is knows as eccentric load.
There are different kinds of stresses will be induced during

eccentric loading
For eccentric axial load,
 Direct stress and bending stress
 To find out the magnitude of resultant stress, these combination of

stresses have to be super imposed.
For eccentric plane load,
 Direct shear and torsional shear stress

Theories of Failure
 Predicting failure in the members subjected to uniaxial stress is very

simple and straightforward. Because all failure criterions are reaching
the critical limit at an instant.
 But, in multi axial loading the prediction of failure is much

complicated. Because, predicting the cause of failure i.e. which
quantity of failure criterion is causing failure is difficult to find.
Thus, theories were formulated to predict this issue, which are known
as failure theories.
Real life examples for Combined loading
Torsion and bending
Crank Shaft
Side thrust from cylinder
wall, force due to piston
Thrust and torsional shear

Connecting rod
Lifting Jack
Axial, bending and Torsion
Coupling
Propeller shaft
Tensile and direct shear
Why failure theories? 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =(𝜎1 − 𝜎2 )/2
Principal stress < Yield stress [safe]

but, Shear stress exceeds its limit.
Ductile fracture Brittle fracture
Shear plane Normal plane

Purpose of Tensile test
1 2
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D8U4G5kcpcM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=67fSwIjYJ-E
3 4
Simple Tension Test
 In simple tension test, all five quantities reaches its critical

values simultaneously (at a single instant).
Any one of the following will cause failure.
• Principal normal stress yield stress σmax = σy or σu
• Principal shear stress yield shear stress τmax = σy /2
• Principal strain energy strain energy at yield point Utotal = ½ [σy εy]
• Principal strain strain at yield point εmax = σy /E (or) σu /E
• Distortion energy distortion energy at yield point

𝟏+ 𝝁
Udistortion = [σy2]
𝟑𝑬
Theories of elastic failure
provide a relationship between
the strength of machine
component subjected to
complex state of stresses with
the mechanical properties
obtained in tension test
Theories of Elastic Failure
The failures of such components are broadly classified into two
groups—
Elastic failure and yielding
Fracture
Elastic failure results in excessive elastic deformation, which makes

the machine component unfit to perform its function satisfactorily.
Yielding results in excessive plastic deformation after the yield point

stress is reached,
while fracture results in breaking the component into two or more

pieces.
Theories of failure discussed are applicable to elastic failure of

machine parts.
Maximum Principal or Normal Stress Theory
(M.P.S.T) (Rankine’s Theory)
According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a

member when the maximum principal or normal stress in a bi-axial
stress system reaches the limiting strength of the material in a simple
tension test.
This theory is based on failure in tension or compression and ignores

the possibility of failure due to shearing stress, therefore it is not used
for ductile materials.
For Brittle materials which are relatively strong in shear but weak in
tension or compression, this theory is generally used.
Max principal stress [σ1] ≥ [σy] yield stress

(In a multi axial loading) (In a simple tension test)
σ2
σ1
Maximum Shear Stress Theory (M.S.ST)
σ2
σ1
Maximum Distortion Energy Theory (Hencky
and Von Mises Theory)
According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member when
the distortion strain energy (shear strain energy) per unit volume in a biaxial stress
system reaches the limiting distortion energy (distortion energy per unit volume) as
determined from a simple tension test.
Total strain energy U = Uv + Ud Ud = U - Uv
For triaxial loading, the distortion energy
Ud = (1+µ) / 6E [(σ1 - σ2) 2 + (σ2 - σ3)2 + (σ3 – σ1)2]
For uniaxial tension test
Ud = (1+µ) / 6E [(σ1 2 – σ2)2] Ud = (1+µ) / 3E [σy2]
[When σ1 reaches σy]

=
Thus, the left side of the Equation is a single, equivalent, or effective

stress for the entire general state of stress given by σ1, σ2, and σ3.
This effective stress is usually called the von Mises stress, σ′, named
after Dr. R. von Mises, who contributed to the theory.
Distortion energy theory is based on
the concept of relative sliding of
material’s atoms within their lattice
structure, caused by shear stress
and accompanied by shape
distortion of the element
What is VonMises Stress?
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧 𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐔 = 𝛔𝟏 𝛜𝟏 + 𝛔𝟐 𝛜𝟐 + 𝛔𝟑 𝛜𝟑
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
Where ε1, ε2, ε3 are strain three principal directions

𝟏
∈𝟏 = [ 𝝈𝟏 − 𝝁 𝝈𝟐 + 𝝈𝟑 ]
𝑬
𝟏
∈𝟐 = [ 𝝈𝟐 − 𝝁 𝝈𝟏 + 𝝈𝟑 ]
𝑬
𝟏
∈𝟑 = [ 𝝈 𝟑 − 𝝁 𝝈𝟏 + 𝝈𝟐 ]
𝑬
Substituting the above equations,
𝟏
𝑼= [(𝝈𝟏𝟐 + 𝝈𝟐𝟐 + 𝝈𝟑𝟐 ) – 2μ (𝝈𝟏 𝝈𝟐 + 𝝈𝟐 𝝈𝟑 + 𝝈𝟑 𝝈𝟏 ) ]
𝟐𝑬
Total strain energy U = Uv + Ud
Therefore, the corresponding stresses are resolved into three
components
𝛔𝟏 = 𝛔𝟏𝐝 + 𝛔𝐕 ; 𝛔𝟐 = 𝛔𝟐𝐝 + 𝛔𝐕 ; 𝛔𝟑 = 𝛔𝟑𝐝 + 𝛔𝐕

∈𝟏𝐝 + ∈𝟐𝐝 + ∈𝟑𝐝 = 𝟎
𝟏
∈𝟏𝒅 = [𝝈 − 𝝁 𝝈𝟐𝒅 + 𝝈𝟑𝒅 ]
𝑬 𝟏𝒅
𝟏
∈𝟐𝒅 = [𝝈 − 𝝁 𝝈𝟏𝒅 + 𝝈𝟑𝒅 ]
𝑬 𝟐𝒅
𝟏
∈𝟑𝒅 = [𝝈 − 𝝁 𝝈𝟏𝒅 + 𝝈𝟐𝒅 ]
𝑬 𝟑𝒅
𝟏 − 𝟐𝝁 ( 𝝈𝟏𝒅 + 𝝈𝟐𝒅 + 𝝈𝟑𝒅 ) = 0 𝟏 − 𝟐𝝁 ≠ 𝟎
Therefore, ( 𝝈𝟏𝒅 + 𝝈𝟐𝒅 + 𝝈𝟑𝒅 ) = 0
𝝈𝟏 + 𝝈𝟐 + 𝝈𝟑 = 𝟑 𝝈𝑽
𝝈𝑽 𝝐𝑽
Strain energy for volume change Uv = 3
𝟐
𝟏
Volumetric Strain ∈𝑽 = [𝝈𝑽 − 𝝁 [𝝈𝑽 + 𝝈𝑽 ]
𝑬
(𝟏 −𝟐𝝁)𝝈𝑽
∈𝑽 =
𝑬
𝟑(𝟏 −𝟐𝝁 )𝝈𝑽 𝟐

Uv =
𝟐𝑬
𝟐
𝟏 −𝟐𝝁 𝝈𝟏 +𝝈𝟐 +𝝈𝟑
Uv =
𝟔𝑬
Ud = U - Uv
(𝟏+𝝁) 𝟐
Ud = [ 𝝈𝟏 − 𝝈𝟐 + 𝝈𝟐 − 𝝈𝟑 𝟐+ 𝝈𝟑 − 𝝈𝟏 𝟐]
𝟔𝑬
Distortion strain energy in triaxial loading
(𝟏+𝝁) 𝟐
Ud = [ 𝝈𝟏 − 𝝈 𝟐 + 𝝈𝟐 − 𝝈𝟑 𝟐+ 𝝈𝟑 − 𝝈𝟏 𝟐]
𝟔𝑬
In simple tension test, when yielding starts 𝝈𝟏 = 𝝈𝒚 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝝈𝟐 = 𝝈𝟑 = 𝟎
Distortion strain energy in uniaxial loading
(𝟏+𝝁) 𝟐
Ud = 𝝈𝒚
𝟑𝑬
Therefore, Failure criterion is,
(𝟏+𝝁) 𝟐 (𝟏+𝝁) 𝟐
𝟑𝑬
𝝈𝒚 = 𝟔𝑬
[ 𝝈𝟏 − 𝝈𝟐 + 𝝈𝟐 − 𝝈𝟑 𝟐+ 𝝈𝟑 − 𝝈𝟏 𝟐]
𝟐 𝟏 𝟐
𝝈𝒚 = [ 𝝈𝟏 − 𝝈𝟐 + 𝝈𝟐 − 𝝈𝟑 𝟐+ 𝝈𝟑 − 𝝈𝟏 𝟐]
𝟐
Maximum Principal Strain Theory (M.P.St.T)
(Saint Venant’s Theory)
According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member

when the maximum principal strain in a multi axial stress system reaches the
limiting value of strain (strain at yield point) as determined from a simple
tension test.
The strain in the direction of σ1 [ε1] =

 According to this theory of failure, σ1 could be increased to a value
somewhat higher than σy without causing yielding if the second normal stress
σ2 is a tensile stress. But if σ2 is a compressive stress the maximum value of σ1
that could be applied without causing yielding would be somewhat smaller
than σy.
 This theory is not applicable if the failure in elastic behavior is by yielding. It

is applicable when the conditions are such that failure occurs by brittle
fracture.
Maximum Strain Energy Theory (Haigh’s

Theory)
According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member

when the strain energy per unit volume in a biaxial stress system reaches the
limiting strain energy (strain energy at yield point) per unit volume as
determined from the simple tension test.
SELECTION AND USE OF FAILURE THEORIES
 Compressive strength >
tensile strength in brittle
materials.
 failure criterion should
show a difference in
tensile and compressive
strength.
 Brittle materials do not
yield and they fail by
fracture.
 Maximum principal
stress theory is the
proper choice for brittle
materials.
 Maximum shear stress theory and distortion energy theory are used for
ductile materials.
 For ductile materials, the most accurate way to design is to use distortion
energy theory of failure and the easiest way to design is to apply maximum
shear stress theory
FAILURES IN BOLT
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/arti
cle/abs/pii/S1350630707000945
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article
/abs/pii/S1350630707000945
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i9SJbCCo
ACg
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article
/pii/S0301679X19303846
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g_CdH3RJ https://www.slideshare.net/SEVUGARAJANKA
c04 RUPPAIA/failure-analysis-73531530
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GrIgQAAs
gptqNildV4 VsI
Definition of Transverse
load: Forces applied
perpendicularly to the
longitudinal axis of a
member. Transverse
loading causes the member
to bend and deflect from its
original position, with
internal tensile and
compressive strains
accompanying change in
curvature. Members
https://www.myodesie.com/wik subjected to bending
i/index/returnEntry/id/3036 by transverse loads are
classed as beams.
Transverse Shear
The shear stress due to bending is often referred to as transverse shear. Like the
normal stress there is a stress profile that is based off of the neutral axis of the
particular cross-sectional area. Unlike normal stress, the highest stress value
occurs at the neutral axis, while there is no stress on the walls.
https://www.slideshare.net/pradyumnanahak/
transverse-shear-stress
Theories of failure are those theories which help us to determine the safe
dimensions of a machine component when it is subjected to combined
stresses due to various loads acting on it during its functionality
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jURuwHdl
iYs
Stress Tensor
 To define a stress at any point in a member subjected to multi axial

loading, an infinitesimally small cube around a point is assumed to
indicate the stress components in three mutually perpendicular
planes.
Planar Assumptions
 All real world structures are three dimensional.

 For planar to be valid both the geometry and the loads must be constant across the thickness.
When using plane strain, we assume that the depth is infinite. Thus the effects from
end conditions may be ignored.
Plane Stress
 All stresses act on the one plane – normally the XY

plane.
 Due to Poisson effect there will be strain in the Z

direction. But We assume that there is no stress in
the Z – direction.
 σx, τxz, τyz will all be zero.
Plane Strain
 All strains act on the one plane – normally the XY

plane. And hence there is no strain in the z-direction.
 σz will not equal to zero. Stress induced to prevent

displacement in z – direction.
 εx, εxz, εyz will all be zero.

 A thin planar structure with constant thickness and loading within the plane of the
structure (xy plane).
 A long structure with uniform cross section and transverse loading along its length (z –
direction).
1. Determine the wall thickness of a cylindrical vessel closed at
both ends from the following data:
Internal Pressure =20 N/mm2 Internal diameter =300 mm
Allowable tensile stress = 120 N/mm2
Use the a) Maximum Shear stress theory
b) Maximum distortion theory
c)Maximum strain theory Take 1/m=0.3
2. A steel bracket of machine component is made of C45 steel is
subjected to a pull to 6000 N acting at 45º to its horizontal axis. The
bracket has rectangular section whose breadth is twice the
thickness. Calculate the cross-section dimensions of the bracket if
the permissible stress of C45 material of the bracket is limited to 60
MPa.
15kN

3)
4. The stress induced at a critical point of a machine component

made of C45 steel as follows𝜎𝑥 =120N/mm2, 𝜎𝑦 =50N/mm2.
Calculate the factor of safety by
a) maximum normal stress theory
b) Maximum Shear stress theory
c) Maximum distortion theory

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Module -1

Image courtesy: NPTEL

Design of Machine Elements

Design of Machine Elements

Design of Machine Elements

Design of Machine Elements

Design of Machine Elements

Design of Machine Elements

Static load is the load which does not change

Ductile fracture of Al-Mg-Si alloy Brittle fracture of Cast Iron

From book Mechanics of Materials by

For Direct loading or Axial loading

For transverse loading

For tangential loading or twisting

Where I and J  Resistance properties of cross sectional area

J  Polar moment of inertia about the axis perpendicular to the section

Design of Machine Elements

Design of Machine Elements

Design of Machine Elements

Normal stress σn = τ sin 2θ  At θ = 45° σn = σmax = τ

Shear stress τ = τ cos 2θ  At θ = 0°, τ max = τ

• Most general state of stress at a point may be

Source: Khurmi & Gupta

Source: Khurmi & Gupta

Source: Khurmi & Gupta

Source: Khurmi & Gupta

Source: Khurmi & Gupta

Source: Khurmi & Gupta

Source: Khurmi & Gupta

𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜏𝑦𝑒𝑖𝑙𝑑 /fs

Therefore, the maximum shear stress

𝑆𝑠𝑦 = 0.5 𝑆𝑦𝑡

Eccentric load on column

There are different kinds of stresses will be induced during

For eccentric axial load,

 Direct stress and bending stress

 To find out the magnitude of resultant stress, these combination of

 Direct shear and torsional shear stress

 Predicting failure in the members subjected to uniaxial stress is very

 But, in multi axial loading the prediction of failure is much

Torsion and bending

Thrust and torsional shear

Axial, bending and Torsion

Principal stress < Yield stress [safe]

Shear plane Normal plane

 In simple tension test, all five quantities reaches its critical

Any one of the following will cause failure.

• Principal normal stress yield stress σmax = σy or σu

• Principal shear stress yield shear stress τmax = σy /2

• Principal strain strain at yield point εmax = σy /E (or) σu /E

• Distortion energy distortion energy at yield point

Elastic failure results in excessive elastic deformation, which makes

Yielding results in excessive plastic deformation after the yield point

while fracture results in breaking the component into two or more

Theories of failure discussed are applicable to elastic failure of

According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a

This theory is based on failure in tension or compression and ignores

Max principal stress [σ1] ≥ [σy] yield stress