1.1 Introduction To Data Communication

DEPARTMENT NAME:MASTER OF COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
Class: I MCA Batch: 2023-2025

Course code:23CAR08 Course Title: DATA COMMUNICATION
AND NETWORKS
UNIT I NETWORK FUNDAMENTALS 9
Introduction - Network Models: OSI Model - TCP/ IP Protocol Suite – Addressing. Data and
Signals: Analog and Digital Signals - Transmission Impairment.
Introduction:
 Communication means sharing information.
 The term telecommunication, which includes telephony, telegraphy, and television,
means communication at a distance (tele is Greek for "far").
 The word data refers to information presented in whatever form is agreed upon by
the parties creating and using the data.
 Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some
form of transmission medium such as a wire cable.
 The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four fundamental
characteristics:
1. Delivery. The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data
must be received by the intended device or user and only by that device or user.
2. Accuracy. The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have
been altered in transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
3. Timeliness. The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data
delivered late are useless. In the case of video and audio, timely delivery means
delivering data as they are produced, in the same order that they are produced,
and without significant delay. This kind of delivery is called real-time transmission.
4. Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven
delay in the delivery of audio or video packets.
For example, let us assume that video packets are sent every 3D ms. If
some of the packets arrive with 3D-ms delay and others with 4D-ms delay, an
uneven quality in the video is the result
Prepared By: T.Santhini AP/CA Page 1

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Components :
A data communications system has five components:
a. Message. The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular

forms of information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
b. Sender. The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a
computer, workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
c. Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a
computer, workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on. Some examples
of transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable,
and radio waves.
d. Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It
represents an agreement between the communicating devices. Without a protocol,
two devices may be connected but not communicating, just as a person speaking
French cannot be understood by a person who speaks only Japanese.
Data Representation :
Information today comes in different forms such as text, numbers, images, audio, and video.
1.Text.
 In data communications, text is represented as a bit pattern, a sequence of bits (0s
or 1s).

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 Different sets of bit patterns have been designed to represent text symbols. Each set
is called a code, and the process of representing symbols is called coding.
2. Numbers
 Numbers are also represented by bit patterns. However, a code such as ASCII
is not used to represent numbers; the number is directly converted to a binary number to
simplify mathematical operations.
3. Images
 Images are also represented by bit patterns. In its simplest form, an image is
composed of a matrix of pixels (picture elements), where each pixel is a small dot. The
size of the pixel depends on the resolution. For example, an image can be divided into
1000 pixels or 10,000 pixels.
 There are several methods to represent color images. One method is called RGB, so
called because each color is made of a combination of three primary colors: red,
green, and blue. The intensity of each color is measured, and a bit pattern is assigned
to it.
 Another method is called YCM, in which a color is made of a combination of three
other primary colors: yellow, cyan, and magenta.
4.Audio
 Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or music.

 Audio is by nature different from text, numbers, or images.
 It is continuous, not discrete.
5.Video
Video refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture or movie.
Video can either be produced as a continuous entity (e.g., by a TV camera), or it can
be a combination of images, each a discrete entity, arranged to convey the idea of motion.
Data Flow :
Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex.
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Simplex:
In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only
one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive.
Half-Duplex:
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same
time. : When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa .
Full-Duplex:
In full-duplex mode (also called duplex), both stations can transmit and receive
simultaneously.
1.2 NETWORKS
 A network is a set of devices connected by communication links.

 A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or
receiving data generated by other nodes on the network.

AND NETWORKS
Distributed Processing
Most networks use distributed processing, in which a task is divided among multiple
computers. Instead of one single large machine being responsible for all aspects of a
process, separate computers handle a subset.
Network Criteria
A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most important of
these are performance, reliability, and security.
Performance
Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and response
time. Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from one device to
another.
Reliability
In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by the frequency of

failure, the time it takes a link to recover from a failure, and the network's robustness in a
catastrophe.
Security
Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access, protecting
data from damage and development, and implementing policies and procedures for recovery
from breaches and data losses.
Physical Structure
Physical Structures Before discussing networks, we need to define some network

attributes. Type of Connection
A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a communications

pathway that transfers data from one device to another.
For visualization purposes, it is simplest to imagine any link as a line drawn between
two points.

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Type of Connection:
A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a communications

pathway that transfers data from one device to another. For visualization purposes, it is
simplest to imagine any link as a line drawn between two points.
Point-to-Point :
A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire
capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices.
Multipoint :
A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which more than two specific
devices share a single link.
Topology:
Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are
interconnected to each other. There are two types of topology: physical and logical topology.
Types of Network Topology
Physical topology is the geometric representation of all the nodes in a network. There
are six types of network topology which are Bus Topology, Ring Topology, Tree Topology,
Star Topology, Mesh Topology, and Hybrid Topology.

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1) Bus Topology
o The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are connected through
a single cable known as a backbone cable.
o Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or directly
connected to the backbone cable.
o When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a message over the
network. All the stations available in the network will receive the message whether it
has been addressed or not.
o The bus topology is mainly used in 802.3 (ethernet) and 802.4 standard networks.
o The configuration of a bus topology is quite simpler as compared to other topologies.
o The backbone cable is considered as a "single lane" through which the message is
broadcast to all the stations.
o The most common access method of the bus topologies is CSMA (Carrier Sense
Multiple Access).
CSMA: It is a media access control used to control the data flow so that data integrity is
maintained, i.e., the packets do not get lost. There are two alternative ways of handling the
problems that occur when two nodes send the messages simultaneously.
o CSMA CD: CSMA CD (Collision detection) is an access method used to detect the
collision. Once the collision is detected, the sender will stop transmitting the data.
Therefore, it works on "recovery after the collision".
o CSMA CA: CSMA CA (Collision Avoidance) is an access method used to avoid the
collision by checking whether the transmission media is busy or not. If busy, then the
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sender waits until the media becomes idle. This technique effectively reduces the
possibility of the collision. It does not work on "recovery after the collision".
Advantages of Bus topology:
o Low-cost cable: In bus topology, nodes are directly connected to the cable without
passing through a hub. Therefore, the initial cost of installation is low.
o Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based
networks that support upto 10 Mbps.
o Familiar technology: Bus topology is a familiar technology as the installation and
troubleshooting techniques are well known, and hardware components are easily
available.
o Limited failure: A failure in one node will not have any effect on other nodes.
Disadvantages of Bus topology:
o Extensive cabling: A bus topology is quite simpler, but still it requires a lot of cabling.
o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the
cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the communication
for all the nodes.
o Signal interference: If two nodes send the messages simultaneously, then the
signals of both the nodes collide with each other.
o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down the
network.
o Attenuation: Attenuation is a loss of signal leads to communication issues. Repeaters
are used to regenerate the signal.
2) Ring Topology
o Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.

o The node that receives the message from the previous computer will retransmit to the
next node.
o The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.

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o The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless loop.
o It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node and having no
termination point.
o The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.
o The most common access method of the ring topology is token passing.
o Token passing: It is a network access method in which token is passed from
one node to another node.
o Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.
Working of Token passing
o A token moves around the network, and it is passed from computer to computer until it
reaches the destination.
o The sender modifies the token by putting the address along with the data.
o The data is passed from one device to another device until the destination address
matches. Once the token received by the destination device, then it sends the
acknowledgment to the sender.
o In a ring topology, a token is used as a carrier.
Advantages of Ring topology:
o Network Management: Faulty devices can be removed from the network without
bringing the network down.

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o Product availability: Many hardware and software tools for network operation and
monitoring are available.
o Cost: Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily available. Therefore, the
installation cost is very low.
o Reliable: It is a more reliable network because the communication system is not
dependent on the single host computer.
Disadvantages of Ring topology:
o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the

cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the communication
for all the nodes.
o Failure: The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the overall network.
o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down the
network.
o Delay: Communication delay is directly proportional to the number of nodes. Adding
new devices increases the communication delay.
3) Star Topology
o Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node is connected to

the central hub, switch or a central computer.
o The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral devices attached to the
server are known as clients.

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o Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.

o Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in a physical star topology.
o Star topology is the most popular topology in network implementation.
Advantages of Star topology
o Efficient troubleshooting: Troubleshooting is quite efficient in a star topology as

compared to bus topology. In a bus topology, the manager has to inspect the
kilometers of cable. In a star topology, all the stations are connected to the centralized
network. Therefore, the network administrator has to go to the single station to
troubleshoot the problem.
o Network control: Complex network control features can be easily implemented in the
star topology. Any changes made in the star topology are automatically
accommodated.
o Limited failure: As each station is connected to the central hub with its own cable,
therefore failure in one cable will not affect the entire network.
o Familiar technology: Star topology is a familiar technology as its tools are cost-
effective.
o Easily expandable: It is easily expandable as new stations can be added to the open
ports on the hub.
o Cost effective: Star topology networks are cost-effective as it uses inexpensive
coaxial cable.
o High data speeds: It supports a bandwidth of approx 100Mbps. Ethernet 100BaseT is
one of the most popular Star topology networks.
Disadvantages of Star topology
o A Central point of failure: If the central hub or switch goes down, then all the
connected nodes will not be able to communicate with each other.
o Cable: Sometimes cable routing becomes difficult when a significant amount of
routing is required.

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4) Tree topology
o Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and star topology.
o A tree topology is a type of structure in which all the computers are connected with
each other in hierarchical fashion.
o The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node, and all other nodes are
the descendants of the root node.
o There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data transmission. Thus, it
forms a parent-child hierarchy.
Advantages of Tree topology
o Support for broadband transmission: Tree topology is mainly used to provide

broadband transmission, i.e., signals are sent over long distances without being
attenuated.
o Easily expandable: We can add the new device to the existing network. Therefore,
we can say that tree topology is easily expandable.
o Easily manageable: In tree topology, the whole network is divided into segments
known as star networks which can be easily managed and maintained.
o Error detection: Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.
o Limited failure: The breakdown in one station does not affect the entire network.
o Point-to-point wiring: It has point-to-point wiring for individual segments.

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Disadvantages of Tree topology
o Difficult troubleshooting: If any fault occurs in the node, then it becomes difficult to
troubleshoot the problem.
o High cost: Devices required for broadband transmission are very costly.
o Failure: A tree topology mainly relies on main bus cable and failure in main bus cable
will damage the overall network.
o Reconfiguration difficult: If new devices are added, then it becomes difficult to
reconfigure.
5) Mesh topology
o Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers are

interconnected with each other through various redundant connections.
o There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.
o It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts as a central
point of communication.
o The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where communication failures
are a critical concern.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.
o Mesh topology can be formed by using the formula:
Number of cables = (n*(n-1))/2;
Where n is the number of nodes that represents the network.

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Computer Network Types
A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables the computer
to communicate with another computer and share their resources, data, and applications.
A computer network can be categorized by their size.
A computer network is mainly of four types:
o LAN(Local Area Network)

o MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
o WAN(Wide Area Network)
LAN(Local Area Network)

o Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small area
such as building, office.
o LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a communication
medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
o It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network
adapters, and ethernet cables.
o The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.
o Local Area Network provides higher security.

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MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)

o A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic area by
interconnecting a different LAN to form a larger network.
o Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private industries.
o In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone exchange
line.
o The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-3,
ADSL, etc.
o It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).

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Internet
o The Internet is a short form for an interconnected network.

o It has become a vital part of our lives, helping us connect with people worldwide.
o The Internet is made of a large number of independently operated networks. It is fully
distributed with no central control.
o Each independently-operated system is motivated to ensure that there is end-to-end
connectivity of every part of the network.
o The Internet is simply a wire that runs underground and allows two computers to
communicate with each other.
o A server is a particular computer that is connected directly to the Internet.
o When we talk about specific web pages, they are simply files that are stored on the
server‟s hard drive.
o Every server has a unique protocol address or an IP address.
o IP addresses are essential for computers to find each other.
History of the Internet
o The first question that pops into your mind is probably, “Who started the internet?”.
o The Internet was developed by Bob Kahn and Vint Cerf in the 1970s.
o They began the design of what we today know as the „internet.‟ It was the result of
another research experiment which was called ARPANET, which stands for Advanced
Research Projects Agency Network.
o This was initially supposed to be a communications system for the Defense Team of
the United States of America - a network that would also survive a nuclear attack.
o It eventually became a successful nationwide experimental packet network.
o But when was the first Internet started? It is believed that on 6 August 1991, when the
World Wide Web opened to the public.

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How Does the Internet Work?
o Computers that we use every day are called clients because they are indirectly
connected to the Internet through an internet service provider.
o When you open a webpage on your computer, you connect to the webpage, and then
you can access it.
o Computers break the information into smaller pieces called packets, which are
reassembled in their original order.
o If we put the right address on a packet and send it to any computer which is connected
as part of the internet, each computer would figure out which cable to send it down
next so that it would get to its destination.
o With several computers on a network, it may create confusion even with unique
addresses.
o This transfer of messages is handled by the Packet Routing Network, and hence a
router is required to set up.
o The Transfer Control Protocol is another system that makes sure no packet is lost or
left behind because it might create a disrupted message at the receiving end.
The below are the steps for how the message is transferred.
1. First, Computer1 sends a message by IP address to Computer2
2. The message sent by Computer1 is broken into small pieces- packets.
3. These small pieces- packets are transferred concerning Transfer Protocol so that the
quality is maintained.
4. Finally, these small pieces- packets reach Computer2 and are reassembled at their IP
address.
The Internet works in a more complex manner than these above-given steps, but this might
give a basic idea of how the internet works.
Father of the Internet: Tim Berners-Lee
o Tim Berners-Lee was the man, who led the development of the World Wide Web, the
defining of HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol), HTML (hypertext markup language)
used to create web pages, and URLs (Universal Resource Locators).

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o The development of WWW, HTTP, HTML and URLs took place between 1989 and
1991.
o Tim Berners-Lee was born in London and he graduated in Physics from Oxford
University in 1976. Currently, Tim Berners-Lee is the Director of the World Wide Web
Consortium, the group that sets technical standards for the web.
o Tim Berners-Lee, Vinton Cerf is also named as an internet daddy other than Tim
Berners-Lee.
o After being out for 10 years from high school, he began co-designing and co-
developing the protocols and structure of what became the internet.
Protocol and Standard in Computer Networks
o Computer networks are dependent on protocols and standards which plays a vital
role, which enables communication between different devices and systems with one
another and share data seamlessly.
o Network protocol ensures that different technologies and components of the network
are compatible with one another, reliable, and able to function together.
Overview of Protocol
o In Order to make communication successful between devices , some rules and

procedures should be agreed upon at the sending and receiving ends of the system.
o Such rules and procedures are called as Protocols .
o Different types of protocols are used for different types of communication.
Standards
Standards are the set of rules for data communication that are needed for exchange of
information among devices. It is important to follow Standards which are created by
various Standard Organization like IEEE , ISO , ANSI etc.

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Types of Standards
Standards are of two types :
 De Facto Standard.
 De Jure Standard.
De Facto Standard : The meaning of the work ” De Facto ” is ” By Fact ” or “By

Convention”.These are the standard s that have not been approved by any Organization ,
but have been adopted as Standards because of it‟s widespread use. Also , sometimes
these standards are often established by Manufacturers.
For example : Apple and Google are two companies which established their own rules
on their products which are different . Also they use some same standard rules for
manufacturing for their products.
De Jure Standard : The meaning of the word “De Jure” is “By Law” or
“By Regulations”.Thus , these are the standards that have been approved by officially
recognized body like ANSI , ISO , IEEE etc. These are the standard which are important to
follow if it is required or needed.
For example : All the data communication standard protocols like SMTP , TCP ,
IP , UDP etc. are important to follow the same when we needed them.
Types of Protocol
 Network Layer Protocols : Network layer protocols operate in the network layer which
is also known as the Layer 3 of the network architecture. Network layer protocols are
responsible for packet routing, forwarding and addressing of data packets throughout
the network . IP and ICMP are the network layer protocols.
 Transport layer Protocols : Transport layer protocols works in transport layer which
provides end-to-end service ensuring data transfer across apps on different
devices. TCP and UDP are the most popular transport layer protocols.
 Application Layer Protocol : Application layer protocol working in the application layer
of the network architecture provides communication between applications running on
different devices. The application layer protocols enable cross-device communication.
They format, exchange, and interpret application data. HTTP, FTP, and SMTP are
examples.
 Wireless Protocols : Wireless protocols basically used in wireless communication

which enables data transfer through wireless networks. Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, and LTE
protocols are examples.

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 Routing Protocols : Routing protocol establishes the best/optimal network pathways

throughout the network for fastest data transmission. Routers share information to
develop and maintain routing tables. RIP, OSPF, and BGP are examples.
 Security Protocols : security protocol protects data confidentiality, integrity, and

authenticity while transmission of data over the network. They include SSL and TLS,
encryption methods, and authentication protocols for providing data security.
 Internet Protocols : IP identifies devices uniquely. Internet protocol provides data

communication through routing and forwarding data packets from one device to another
by unique addressing scheme.
Protocol and Standard Compliance in Network Security
Protocol and standard compliance protects data, resources, and networks. Protocol and
standard compliance are crucial to network security for these reasons:
 Interoperability : Protocols and standards allow devices and systems to communicate.

These protocols ensure network components can function together, avoiding risks and
security gaps produced by incompatible or unsupported systems.
 Security Baseline : Protocols and standards contain security principles and best
practices that help secure network infrastructure. These protocols allow organizations to
protect sensitive data via encryption, authentication, and access controls.
 Vulnerability Management : Network security protocols and standards help

organizations find and fix vulnerabilities. Many standards requires regular security
assessments, vulnerability scanning, and penetration testing to discover network
infrastructure flaws. Organizations can prevent cyberattacks and address vulnerabilities
by following these compliance criteria.
Internet Standards
o An Internet standard is a thoroughly tested specification that is useful to and adhered

o to by those who work with the Internet. It is a formalized regulation that must be
followed.
o There is a strict procedure by which a specification attains Internet standard status.
o A specification begins as an Internet draft. An Internet draft is a working document
o (a work in progress) with no official status and a 6-month lifetime.
o Upon recommendation from the Internet authorities, a draft may be published as a
Request for Comment (RFC).
o Each RFC is edited, assigned a number, and made available to all
interested parties. RFCs go through maturity levels and are categorized according to
their requirement level.

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DEPARTMENT NAME:MASTER OF COMPUTER APPLICATIONS

Class: I MCA Batch: 2023-2025

UNIT I NETWORK FUNDAMENTALS 9

Prepared By: T.Santhini AP/CA Page 1

a. Message. The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular

Prepared By: T.Santhini AP/CA Page 2

 Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or music.

 A network is a set of devices connected by communication links.

Prepared By: T.Santhini AP/CA Page 4

In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by the frequency of

Physical Structures Before discussing networks, we need to define some network

A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a communications

Prepared By: T.Santhini AP/CA Page 5

A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a communications

Types of Network Topology

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Advantages of Bus topology:

Disadvantages of Bus topology:

o Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.

Prepared By: T.Santhini AP/CA Page 8

o The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless loop.

Working of Token passing

Advantages of Ring topology:

Prepared By: T.Santhini AP/CA Page 9

Disadvantages of Ring topology:

o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the

o Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node is connected to

Prepared By: T.Santhini AP/CA Page 10

o Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.

Advantages of Star topology

o Efficient troubleshooting: Troubleshooting is quite efficient in a star topology as

Disadvantages of Star topology

Prepared By: T.Santhini AP/CA Page 11

Advantages of Tree topology

o Support for broadband transmission: Tree topology is mainly used to provide

Prepared By: T.Santhini AP/CA Page 12

Disadvantages of Tree topology

o Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers are

Where n is the number of nodes that represents the network.

Computer Network Types

A computer network can be categorized by their size.

A computer network is mainly of four types:

o LAN(Local Area Network)

LAN(Local Area Network)

Prepared By: T.Santhini AP/CA Page 14

MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)

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o The Internet is a short form for an interconnected network.

History of the Internet

Prepared By: T.Santhini AP/CA Page 16

How Does the Internet Work?

1. First, Computer1 sends a message by IP address to Computer2

2. The message sent by Computer1 is broken into small pieces- packets.

Father of the Internet: Tim Berners-Lee

Prepared By: T.Santhini AP/CA Page 17

Protocol and Standard in Computer Networks

o In Order to make communication successful between devices , some rules and

Prepared By: T.Santhini AP/CA Page 18