COMPRESSIBILITY OF

SOILS
INTRODUCTION
When a load is acting on a soil, the soil is compressed, thereby causing its volume to
decrease. This decrease in volume results from reduction of void ratio of the soil by
extruding of water and air from the soil. If the saturated soil is subjected to the
weight of a structure and water is subsequently squeezed out, the resulting soil
compression can cause undue building settlement. Cohesionless soils usually
compress relatively quickly and settlement will undergo during the construction
phase whereas cohesive soil compress much more slowly because the expulsion of
water from the small soil pores is so slow. Hence, the settlement of a structure built
on this soil may not occur until some time after the structure is loaded. Total
settlement involves two phase process, the immediate and consolidation settlement.
Immediate settlement occurs very rapidly within hours after the structure is loaded,
where as consolidation settlement occurs over an extended period of time (months
or years). Consolidation settlement is also divided intro primary consolidation and
secondary consolidation (or creep).
SETTLEMENT OF FOUNDATIONS
Settlement is direct result of the decrease in the soil volume. Total settlement of a
footing on clay maybe considered to consists of three parts.
𝑆1 = immediate elastic settlement
𝑆𝑐 = settlement due to primary consolidation of clay
𝑆𝑠 = settlement due to secondary consolidation of clay
S = total settlement
S = 𝑆1 + 𝑆𝑐 + 𝑆𝑠
IMMEDIATE ELASTIC SETTLEMENT
Immediately upon application of load on the footing, elastic compression of the underlying soil
takes place causing a settlement of the footing. However, this amount of settlement is usually very
small and can be neglected for all practical purposes. When a saturated compressible clay layer is
subjected to a stress increase, elastic settlement occurs immediately.
1−𝑢2 1−𝑢2
𝑆1 = 𝐶𝑠 𝑞𝐵( ) or 𝑆1 = 𝑞𝐵( )𝐼𝑝
𝐸𝑠 𝐸𝑠

Where:
𝑆1 = elastic settlement
𝐶𝑠 = shape and foundation rigidity factor
𝑃
q = 2 = 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑
𝐵
P = load carried by the footing
B = width of foundation or diameter of circular foundation
𝜇 = Poisson’s ration of soil
IMMEDIATE ELASTIC SETTLEMENT
𝐸𝑠 = Modulus Elasticity of Soil
𝐼𝑝 = Influence Factor
PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT
𝑒𝑜 − 𝑒 𝐻
𝑆𝑐 =
1 + 𝑒𝑜
Where:
𝑆𝑐 = primary consolidation settlement
𝑒𝑜 = initial void ratio of soil in situ
𝑒 = void ratio of soil corresponding to the total pressure
H = thickness of clay
PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT
For normally consolidated clay
𝐶𝑐 𝐻 𝑃𝑜 + ∆𝑃
𝑆𝑐 = log( )
1 + 𝑒𝑜 𝑃𝑜
Where:
𝐶𝑐 = 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 0.009(LL-10)
∆𝑃 = average increase of effective stress on clay layer
𝑃𝑜 = 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑑 −
ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑦 𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝑔𝑒𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
Pc = pre-consolidation pressure, that is maximum effective pressure that the soil is
subjected to in the past
OVER CONSOLIDATED CLAY
When 𝑃𝑐 > 𝑃𝑜 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝑃𝑐
Over consolidated ratio (OCR) =
𝑃𝑜

a. When 𝑃𝑜 + ∆𝑃 < 𝑃𝑐
𝐶𝑠 𝐻 𝑃 +∆𝑃
𝑆𝑐 = log( 𝑜 )
1+𝑒𝑜 𝑃𝑜

𝐶𝑠 = 1/5 to 1/10 of 𝐶𝐶 (swell index)

b. When 𝑃𝑜 + ∆𝑃 > 𝑃𝑐
𝐶𝑐 𝐻 𝑃 +∆𝑃 𝐶𝑠 𝐻 𝑃
𝑆𝑐 = log( 𝑜 ) + log( 𝑐 )
1+𝑒𝑜 𝑃𝑐 1+𝑒𝑜 𝑃𝑜
SECONDARY CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT
Secondary settlement is the additional settlement that occurs at a constant value of
effective stress after excess pore water pressure has been dissipated. The process
typically continues slowly for a long period of time. Secondary settlement is usually
small compared to primary consolidation settlement.
𝐶𝛼 𝐻 𝑇2
𝑆𝑠 = log( )
1 + 𝑒𝑝 𝑇1
Where:
𝑆𝑠 = secondary settlement
𝐶𝛼 = secondary compression index = 0.03𝐶𝑐 to 0.06𝐶𝑐
𝑒𝑝 = 𝑒𝑜 − ∆𝑒 = void ratio at the end of primary consolidation
𝑃𝑜 + ∆𝑃
∆𝑒 = 𝐶𝑐 log( )
𝑃𝑜
SECONDARY CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT
𝑒𝑜 = in situ void ratio
𝑇2 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑇1 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
TIME RATE OF CONSOLIDATION
▪ Compression Index (Cc)
𝑒1 − 𝑒2
𝐶𝐶 =
𝑃
log( 2 )
𝑃1
𝑒1 = void ratio at a pressure 𝑃1
𝑒2 = void ratio at a pressure 𝑃2

▪ Coefficient of Compressibility
It is the ratio between the change in void ratio and the change in effective stress for
the given increment.
TIME RATE OF CONSOLIDATION
▪ Coefficient of Compressibility
It is the ratio between the change in void ratio and the change in effective stress for
the given increment.
𝑒1 − 𝑒2 𝑚2
𝑎𝑣 = = 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛
𝑃2 − 𝑃1 𝑘𝑁
▪ Coefficient of Volume Compressibility
𝑒1 − 𝑒2 𝑎𝑣
𝑚𝑣 = =
(𝑃2 − 𝑃1 )(1 + 𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑒 ) (1 + 𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑒 )
𝑒1 + 𝑒2
𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
2
TIME RATE OF CONSOLIDATION
▪ Coefficient of Consolidation (Cv)
𝐾
𝐶𝑣 =
𝑚𝑣 𝛾𝑤
K = coefficient of permeability
𝑚𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝛾𝑤 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
TIME RATE OF CONSOLIDATION
▪ Time Factor (Tv)
𝐶𝑣 𝑡
𝑇𝑣 =
(𝐻𝑑𝑟 )2
𝐶𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑡 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐻𝑑𝑟 = 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦
TIME RATE OF CONSOLIDATION
▪ Degree of Consolidation for the entire depth of clay later at anytime “t”
𝑆𝑐𝑡
𝑈=
𝑆𝑐
U = degree of consolidation
𝑆𝑐𝑡 = 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 "𝑡“
𝑆𝑐 = 𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
TIME RATE OF CONSOLIDATION
▪ Degree of Consolidation for the entire depth of distance “z” at anytime “t”
1 − 𝑈𝑧
𝑈=
𝑈𝑜
U = degree of consolidation
𝑈𝑧 = 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 “𝑡"
𝑈𝑜 = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
TIME RATE OF CONSOLIDATION
▪ Relation of time and degree of consolidation
𝑡1 𝑈12
= 2
𝑡2 𝑈2
▪ Preconsolidation Pressure (Pc’) for overconsolidated clay
𝑒𝑜
1.22 − − 0.0463 log 𝑃𝑜′
𝑒𝐿
log 𝑃𝑐′ =
0.188
Pc’ = preconsolidation pressure in kPa
𝑒𝑜 = 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑢 𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑒𝐿 = 𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡
𝐿𝐿
𝑒𝐿 = ( )𝐺
100 𝑠
TIME RATE OF CONSOLIDATION
𝐺𝑠 = 𝑠𝑝𝑔𝑟. 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝑃𝑜′ = 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑢 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
▪ For normally consolidated clay:
Nagaraj and Morthy (1985)
𝑒
= 1.122 − 0.2343 log 𝑃𝑜
𝑒𝐿
𝐿𝐿
𝑒𝐿 = ( )𝐺
100 𝑠
TIME RATE OF CONSOLIDATION
▪ Surcharge needed to eliminate the entire primary settlement for a period of time
“t” by pre compression.
Pre compression of soil is used to minimize post construction settlement for highly
compressible normally consolidated clay which produces depth and large
consolidation settlements as a result of construction of dams, highway embankments
and large buildings. If the temporary total surcharge load, ∆𝑃 + ∆𝑃𝑓 when applied on
the ground surface will produce a settlement equal to that if ∆𝑃 is only applied, that
is if ∆𝑃𝑓 is removed and only ∆𝑃 is acting, no appreciable settlement will occur, the
process is known as pre compression.
TIME RATE OF CONSOLIDATION
▪ Degree of Consolidation
∆𝑃
log(1 + )
𝑃𝑜
𝑈=
∆𝑃 ∆𝑃𝑓
log[1 + 1+ ]
𝑃𝑜 ∆𝑃
U = degree of consolidation
∆𝑃𝑓
= 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑜𝑓𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 "t" by
pre compression
∆𝑃 = 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 (𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑦 𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟)
TIME RATE OF CONSOLIDATION
EXAMPLE 1
A normally consolidated clay layer is 8 m thick and has an in situ void ratio of 0.862.
Consolidation tests and subsequent computations indicate that the void ratio of the
clay layer corresponding to the total pressure acting at the mid height of the
consolidation clay layer after construction of a commercial building is 0.836.
Compute the expected primary consolidation settlement. Answer: 111.7 mm
EXAMPLE 2
A 2.1 m layer of clay is buried beneath a 3 m stratum of very compact granular soil.
Compact san underlies the clay. The layer of granular soil is composed of material having
a unit weight of 20.46 kN/m3. The clay unit weight is 16.52 kN/m3. A laboratory
compression test on a sample of the clay indicates a compression index of 0.40 and a
natural void ratio of 1.30. A planned building loading will cause a 26.38 kPa stress
increase at the middle of the clay layer.
a. What amount of primary compression occurs in the clay for the indicated conditions?
Answer: 46 mm
b. How much primary compression of the clay layer would result if the groundwater
table was at the ground surface (all other conditions remain the same)?
Answer: 82 mm
a. How much clay layer compression would occur if the clay was an over consolidated
material, the past maximum pressure was 95.94 kPa and Cs value was 0.10? Assume a
deep water table. Answer: 22 mm
EXAMPLE 3
Assume a buried stratum of clay of 1.83 m thick will be subjected to a stress increase
of 33.6 kPa at the center of clay. The magnitude of the pre construction soil
overburden pressure Po = 48 kPa at the center of the clay layer. A laboratory
compression test indicates that the clay has a pre consolidation pressure of 72 kPa.
Compression index is 0.30 and the value of swell index is 0.05. Void ratio of clay is
1.50.
a. Compute the settlement due to primary compression of clay. Answer: 18.4mm
b. If full consolidation settlement (primary compression settlement) will require
approximately 8 years, compute the settlement due to secondary compression of
clay over a period of 20 year time span. Assume secondary compression index =
0.008. Answer: 2.36 mm
c. Estimate the total settlement to be expected over a 20 year time span
considering the effects of secondary compression. Answer: 20.76 mm
EXAMPLE 4 (CE BOARD MAY 2005, MAY
2008)
Two footings rests in a layer of sand 2.7 m thick. The bottom of the footings are 0.90m
below the ground surface. Beneath the sand layer is a 1.8 m clay later. Beneath the
clay layer is hard pan. The water table is at a depth of 1.8 m below the ground
surface.
a. Compute the stress increase at the center of clay layer assume that the pressure
beneath the footing is spread at an angle of 2 vertical to 1 horizontal.
Answer: 25.51 kPa
a. Determine the size of footing B so that the settlement in the clay layer is the same
beneath footings A and B. Footing A is 1.5 m square. Answer: 3.24 mm
b. Determine the settlement beneath footing A. Answer: 46.65 mm
EXAMPLE 5
A rigid 3 m square footing is constructed over a loose sand layer as shown. It carries
a total load of 710 kN.
a. Compute the elastic settlement of the 3 m footing if the Poisson’s ratio (𝜇𝑠 ) of soil
is 0.32, modulus of elasticity of soil 𝐸𝑠 = 16000 𝑘𝑃𝑎, influence factor 𝐼𝑝 = 0.88.
Answer: 12 mm
b. Compute the primary consolidation settlement of the clay layer if it is normally
consolidated. Answer: 17mm
c. Compute the total consolidation settlement of the clay 5 yrs after the completion of
primary consolidation settlement. Time for completion of primary settlement is 2
years. Secondary compression index = 0.02. Answer: 49 mm
EXAMPLE 6
A square footing 3 m x 3 m carries a column load of 3500 kN resting on sand layer as
shown. Unit weight of sand above the water table is 17.31 kN/m3 and has a saturated
unit weight of 18.10 kN/m3 below the water table. The sand overlies a clay layer 1.2
m thick having a saturated unit weight of 16.50 kN/m3 and a void ratio of 1.70.
Compression Index:
Cs = 0.04
Cc = 0.35
Assume a vertical stress distribution of 2 vertical to 1 horizontal.
a. Compute the preconsolidation pressure Pc if the overconsolidation ratio is 2.0
Answer: 69.468 kPa
b. Compute the total effective stress at center of the clay layer. Answer: 154.764 kPa
c. Calculate the settlement due to consolidation of the clay layer which is
overconsolidated. Answer: 59.47 mm
EXAMPLE 7
The figure shown is a section of the soil profile under the foundation of the proposed
construction of highway bridge. A permanent surcharge ∆𝑃 = 50 𝑘𝑃𝑎 is applied at
the ground surface. The clay is normally consolidated. Coefficient of consolidation is
𝑚2
0.40 . Double drainage from the clay layer can therefor occur when construction
𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ
loads cause consolidation.
a. Compute the primary consolidation settlement of the clay layer without
precompression. Answer: 184mm
b. Compute the degree of consolidation if the entire primary consolidation
settlement will eliminated by precompression in 8 months. Answer: 65%
c. Compute the surcharge needed to eliminate the entire primary consolidation
settlement in 8 months by precompression. Answer: 37.16 kPa
EXAMPLE 7
EXAMPLE 8
The laboratory consolidation data for an undisturbed clay specimen are as follows:
𝑒1 = 1.12
𝑒2 = 0.90
𝑃1 = 90 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑃2 = 460 𝑘𝑃𝑎
a. Compute the value of the compression index. Answer: 0.31
b. Compute the value of the swell index assuming it is equal to 1/6 the value of the
compression index. Answer: 0.052
c. Compute the void ratio for a pressure of 600 kPa. Answer: 0.86
d. Compute the coefficient of compressibility. Answer: 0.0005946 m2/kN
e. Compute the value of the coefficient of volume compressibility.
Answer: 0.000295 m2/kN
EXAMPLE 9
From the soil profile shown, the ground surface is subjected to a uniformly
distributed load of 40 kPa. The thickness of the overconsolidated clay is 2.5m. The
insitu void ratio of the clay is 𝑒𝑜 = 0.80 with a liquid limit of 45%. Specific gravity of
1
clay is 2.71. Assume swell factor 𝐶𝑠 = 𝐶𝑐
6
The in situ effective burden pressure𝑃𝑜′ = 120 𝑘𝑃𝑎
a. Compute the pre consolidation pressure 𝑃𝑐′ . Answer = 92.9 kPa
b. Compute the primary consolidation settlement of the clay layer. Answer = 20mm
c. Compute the secondary consolidation settlement 6 years after the completion of
primary consolidation settlement. Time for completion of primary settlement is 1.8
years. Secondary compression index 𝐶𝛼 = 0.03. Answer = 23 mm
EXAMPLE 9
EXAMPLE 10
▪ A soil profile is shown in the figure. A uniformly distributed load of 50 kPa is
applied at the ground surface. The clay is normally consolidated.
a. Compute the compression index. Answer = 0.332
b. Compute the primary consolidation settlement. Answer = 159 mm
c. Compute the secondary settlement 8 years after the completion of primary
consolidation settlement. Time for completion of primary settlement is 2 years.
Assume secondary compression index 𝐶𝛼 = 0.025. Answer = 52 mm
EXAMPLE 10