eISSN 2345-0363

Journal of Water Security, 2018, Vol. 4

Article Number: jws2018001
DOI: https://doi.org/10.15544/jws.2018.001

POTENTIAL OF AQUATIC MACROPHYTES EICHHORNIA CRASSIPES, PISTIA

STRATIOTES AND SALVINIA MOLESTA IN PHYTOREMEDIATION OF
TEXTILE WASTEWATER

Sudharshi Wickramasinghe, Chandramali Kumari Jayawardana

Department of Natural Resources, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Sabaragamuwa University of Sri Lanka,
P.O. Box 02, 70140 Belihuloya, Sri Lanka. E-mail: jayawardanack@yahoo.com

Submitted 14 April 2018; accepted 12 June 2018

Abstract. Phytoremediation is an emerging low cost green technology, which uses plants for treating contaminant in the
environment. Phytoremediation potential of locally available aquatic plants Eichhornia crassipes (water hyacinth), Pistia
stratiotes (water lettuce) and Salvinia molesta (water fern) in the treatment process of textile wastewater was investi-
gated. The reduction efficiencies of chemical oxygen demand (COD), total solids (TS), total suspended solids (TSS), total
dissolved solids (TDS), nitrates, phosphates, heavy metals (Cd, Ni and Zn) and total and fecal coliform from the waste-
water by each plant species were estimated. Bioconcentration factors (BCF) and translocation factors (TF) of three plant
species for Cd, Ni and Zn were also estimated in order to identify their heavy metal absorption and translocation capacity.
The results of the study indicated that greater reduction of COD, nitrates, phosphates, total coliform and Zn from the ini-
tial wastewater by the three plant species. The results of the study also suggested that the selected aquatic plants are hy-
peraccumulators of Cd, Ni and Zn metals. The findings of this study suggest that E. crassipes, P. stratiotes and S. molesta
are potential aquatic plants for treating textile waste water.
Keywords: aquatic plants, Eichhornia crassipes, phytoremediation, Pistia stratiotes, Salvinia molesta, textile industry,
textile wastewater.

Introduction duction, relative higher capability of pollutant uptake, and

better purification effects due to direct contact with con-
The textile industry is one of the profitable industries in
taminated water (Singh et al., 2012). The potential of
Sri Lanka. However, large volumes of wastewater arising
aquatic macrophytes for treating wastewater has been
from these operations may cause significant environ-
investigated and reviewed extensively by many authors
mental problems and operational costs for the industry.
(Dhir et al., 2009; Dhote, Dixit, 2009; Mahamood et al.,
Textile wastewater is generally colored, highly alkaline,
2005; Dipu et al., 2011). Aquatic macrophyte E. cras-
and high COD, suspended solids (SS) and contain nitro-
sipes is reported to be effective in converting alkaline pH
gen, phosphates, toxic chemicals, oil and grease and sul-
of wastewater into a neutral level (Mahamood et al.,
phides etc. (Anjana, Thanga, 2011). Dyes present in tex-
2005; Dipu et al., 2011). A similar trend of pH variation
tile wastewater are recognized as toxic to humans and to
by E. crassipes was reported by Sidi, Tank (2014), during
aquatic biota (Sooknah, 2000). Therefore, discharge of
10 days experimental time period. 80% reduction of COD
inadequately treated wastewater to the environment could
in textile wastewater treated with E. crassipes within 18
pose significant environmental and human health issues
days was reported by Kulkarni et al. (2007). Effective-
(Mahamood et al., 2005). However, many small and me-
ness of macrophytes for the treatment of heavymetals in
dium scale industries in Sri Lanka find it difficult to make
the wastewater has been also reported by many authors
use of improved technology and allocate capital for waste
(Ajayi, Ogunbayo, 2012; Mohamad, 2008). Mohamad
treatment operations due to high costs involved in these
(2008) reported a rapid, heavy metal uptake by E. cras-
technologies. This situation often has led to the illegal
sipes during first four days of contact time, and subse-
release of untreated or partially treated wastewater to the
quent reduction during the following days. Vestena et al.
environment (Toprak, Anis, 2017). Therefore, identifica-
(2007) reported E. crassipes and S. auriculata absorbed
tion of potential eco-friendly, cost effective technologies
and accumulated large amounts of Cd, exhibiting their
to treat wastewater is essential for enabling these indus-
potential to be used as phytoremediators. Among floating
tries to better implement their wastewater treatment proc-
macrophytes, Salvinia sp. is reported to have higher affin-
esses.
ity to accumulate heavy metals in their root systems (Su-
Phytoremediation is an emerging low cost green
kumaran, 2013).
technology, which is adopted for treating contaminants in
Even though there is a considerable amount of lit-
the environment using plants (Pivertz, 2001). The term
erature available in the area of phytoremediation potential
“phytoremediation” is a generic term for the group of
of aquatic plants in the global context, a very little re-
technologies that use plants for remediating soils, sludge,
search has been carried out on the phytoremediation po-
sediments and water contaminated with organic and inor-
tential of floating aquatic plants in textile wastewater
ganic contaminants (Flathman, Lanza, 1998).
treatment in Sri Lanka. Many of these reported studies
Aquatic macrophytes are reported to be more effec-
are limited to investigating the phytoremediation poten-
tive in wastewater treatment in comparison to terrestrial
tial of aquatic plants such as reeds and sedges (Jay-
plants because of their faster growth, larger biomass pro-

Copyright © 2018 The Authors. Published by Aleksandras Stulginskis University, Riga Technical University. This is an open–access article distrib-
uted under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY 4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any
medium, provided the original author and source are credited. The material cannot be used for commercial purposes.
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 Journal of Water Security, 2018, Vol. 4, jws2018001
aweera, Witharana, 2011; Pathiraja, Perera, 2012; Sasi-
kala et al., 2010). Despite the potentials of using aquatic
macrophytes in phytoremmodiation of toxic contaminants
they are generally considered a nuisance for proper func-
tion of water bodies and in most cases efforts are being
made to remove these plants from local water bodies due
to their fast growth rate. This situation may enhance
clogging effect in water intake system in irrigation tanks
and destruction of biodiversity in water bodies and finally
effect of health of aquatic system.
Therefore, present study is aimed at evaluating the
phytoremediation potential of floating aquatic plants,
Eichhornia crassipes, Pistia stratiotes and Salvinia mo-
lesta to treat textile waste water. The plants used in the
phytoremediation technique must have a considerable
capacity of metal absorption, its accumulation and
strength to decrease the treatment time (Mudgal et al.,
2010). Therefore, it was also aimed at evaluating the
pollutant removal efficiency and to explore the mecha-
nisms by which the heavy metals are removed by the
selected floating macrophytes.
Materials and Methods
Raw textile wastewater was freshly collected from a tex-
tile industry located in BOI zone, Biyagama, Sri Lanka.
Collected wastewater was immediately transported and
was stored under cold conditions (4°C) until used for the
experiment. The physical and chemical parameters of the
raw textile wastewater were measured suing standard
methods (APHA, 2005). According to the Bhavsar et al.
(2012), aquatic plants are intolerant to organic loads more
than 1000 mg/L COD. The COD values recorded in the
raw wastewater were 1004 mg/L. Hence the raw effluent
was diluted appropriately with freshwater to reduce COD
Mean concentrations of effluents among different
treatment groups after 14 days were compared using one-
way ANOVA. Data were checked for normality and for
homogeneity of variance before the analysis. Turkey's
post hoc test was conducted for pair wise comparisons.
SPSS Statistical software was used for the analysis of
data.
BCF and TF of each plant variety were calculated
using the following equations:
P action to degrade organic matter present in the wastewa-
BCF  (2)
E
where: BCF – bioconcentration factor; P – metal concen-
tration in plant tissues, mg/kg dry weight; E – metal con-
centration in the wastewater, mg/L.
As
TF  (3)
Ar
where: TF – transformation factor; As – amount of trace
element, accumulated in the shoots, mg/kg dry weight; Ar
– amount of trace element, accumulated in the roots,
mg/kg dry weight.
below the 1000 mg/L. Prior to the experiment, the young
plants were selected for the study and they were stocked
in a tank which was filled with tap water for 7 days for
stabilization.
The experimental setup was established using four
treatment groups of plastic tanks (40 cm upper, 30 cm
lower diameter and 30 cm depth) and they were filled
with 20 L of diluted raw textile effluent (three replicates
from each treatment group). Nearly equal weights of
selected stabilized aquatic plants (300 g fresh weight)
were transferred to prepared tanks containing diluted
textile effluent. One set of plastic tanks with diluted tex-
tile waste water and without plants were kept as a control.
Wastewater samples were collected and analysed after 14
day period. Water quality parameters such as tempera-
ture, COD, conductivity, TDS, pH, TS, TSS, total and
fecal coliform, nitrates, phosphates and heavy metals
were measured for wastewater in treatment and control
tanks.
COD was measured by open reflux method (APHA,
2005) and TDS was measured using a conductivity meter
(PC 700 Eutech Instrument) while pH was measured by
digital pH meter (Milwaukee SM 102 pH Meter). TS
were measured by the gravimetric method and TSS was
measured by subtracting the amount of TDS from the
amount of TS. Total and fecal coliform colony counts
were taken by the membrane filtration method (APHA,
2005). Nitrates and phosphates were measured by a spec-
trophotometer (Milton Roy Spectronic 21D), whereas
heavy metals (Cd, Ni and Zn) in wastewater were meas-
ured by using atomic absorption spectrophotometer (Var-
ian AA240FS). Percentage reductions of the effluent
concentrations after 14 days were calculated using the
following equation:
Results
Variation of pH
The pH of wastewater in the control and treatment tanks
varied between 6.5 and 7.7 during the experimental time
period (Fig. 1). A slight reduction of pH values in waste-
water media treated with three plant species was recorded
in comparison to the control. The pH recorded in all me-
dia was within the range that is favourable for microbial
ter.
Reduction efficiencies of COD
The initial COD level of the wastewater was 980 mg/L.
The average COD levels in three treatment tanks and the
control tank after 14 days experimental period is repre-
sented in Figure 2. There was a significant (p < 0.05)
reduction of the average COD values recorded in tanks
with plants and the control tanks after 14 days. However,
there were no significant differences among the levels of
COD in tanks with three groups of plants. Over 74%
reduction of COD was recorded in all treatment groups,
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 Journal of Water Security, 2018, Vol. 4, jws2018001

whereas very low reduction percentage of 22.9% was

recorded for the control tank after 14 days.

Fig. 1. Variation of pH in treatment and control tanks during the

experimental period.
Reduction efficiencies of TS, TDS and TSS
The initial TS, TDS and TSS concentrations of the
wastewater were 690 mg/L, 509 mg/L and 181 mg/L
respectively. The average TS, TDS and TSS levels in
three treatment tanks and the control tank after 14 days
experimental period is represented in Figure 2. There was
a significant (p < 0.05) reduction of the average TS val-
ues recorded in tanks with plants and the control tanks
after 14 days. Treatment with E. crassipes indicated
highest TS reduction of (62.3%) in comparison to other
plants after 14 days.
A significant differences of TDS levels between
control and treatment tanks were also observed in control
and treatment tanks (Fig. 2). TDS was effectively reduced
by E. crassipes (59.3%) followed by P. stratiotes (52.1%)
and S. molesta (43.81%) from the initial levels. Figure 1
indicates the average TSS levels recorded in the treatment
tanks and in the control tanks. Treatment tanks with
E. crassipes indicated the highest TSS reduction (66.9%)
in comparison to other treatments and the control. How-
ever, there was no significant reduction of average TSS
recorded by P. stratiotes and S. molesta, instead they
showed higher levels of TSS than that of the control
tanks.
Reduction efficiencies of nitrates
The initial nitrate concentration of the wastewater was 4.4
mg/L. The average nitrate levels in three treatment tanks
and the control tank after 14 days experimental period is
represented in Figure 3.
There was a significant (p < 0.05) difference be- Fig. 2. COD, TDS, TS and TSS in the treatment and in the
tween the control and the tanks with P. crassipes. How- control tanks after 14 days (Mean ± SD). (a, b and c; different
ever, P. stratiose and S. molesta indicated significantly letters above the columns represent the statistically different
different nitrate levels in comparison to E. crassipes and groups (p < 0.05) and same letters represent statistically non-
the control tanks after 14 days of experimental period. significant groups).
The percentage reductions of nitrates in the treatment and
Reduction efficiencies of phosphates
in the control tanks during the 14 day experimental period
are indicated in Figure 3. A marked reduction of nitrate The initial phosphate level of the wastewater was 2.6
levels (63.6%, 78.9% and 79.5%) was recorded in the mg/L. The average phosphate levels in three treatment
tanks containing E. crassipes, P. stratiotes and S. molesta tanks and the control tank after 14 days experimental
respectively. period is represented in Figure 3. There was a significant
(p < 0.05) reduction of the average phosphate values

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 Journal of Water Security, 2018, Vol. 4, jws2018001

recorded in tanks with plants and the control tanks after
14 days. The highest phosphate reduction percentage was
recorded for the tank containing E. crassipes (81.9%)
followed by S. stratiotes (70.4%) and S. molesta (69.2%).
the control tank after 14 days experimental period is rep-
resented in Figure 4. There was a significant (p < 0.05)
difference in the average Ni values recorded in tanks with
plants and the control tanks after 14 days. The Ni concen-
tration in the wastewater reduced over the experimental
period. The highest reduction of Ni was recorded for S.
molesta (59.3%) followed by the E. crassipes and P.
stratiotes. The minimum reduction of Ni concentration
was recorded in the control.
Reduction efficiencies of Zn
The initial Zn concentration of the wastewater was 0.5
mg/L. The average Zn levels in three treatment tanks and
the control tank after 14 days experimental period is rep-
resented in Figure 4. There was a significant (p < 0.05)
difference in the average COD values recorded in tanks
with plants and the control tanks after 14 days. A marked
reduction of Zn in the treatment tanks were observed
during the experimental period. Almost 100% reduction
of Zn levels could be seen in tanks containing three plant
varieties.
0.25

Cd
0.2 a
Cd concentration, mg/L

0.15 b
b
b

0.1

0.05

0
E.crassipes P.stratiose S.molesta Control
0.3 a

0.25
Ni
Ni concentration, mg/L

0.2

b b
0.15
b

0.1

0.05

Fig. 3. Nitrate, phosphates and total coliforms variation in the

0
treatment and in the control tanks after 14 days (Mean ± SD). E.crassipes P.stratiose S.molesta Control

Reduction efficiencies of Cd 0.14

The initial Cd concentration of the wastewater was 0.19 0.12

Zn
mg/L. The average Cd levels in three treatment tanks and
Zn concentration, mg/L

0.1
the control tank after 14 days experimental period is rep-
resented in Figure 4. There was a significant (p < 0.05) 0.08
reduction of the average Cd values recorded in tanks with
0.06
plants and the control tanks after 14 days. Among the
three plant species tested, the highest Cd reduction was 0.04
recorded in the tank treated with P. stratiotes (47.4%)
0.02
whereas, E. crassipes and S. molesta indicated similar
reduction efficiencies (36.8%). 0
E.crassipes P.stratiose S.molesta Control
Reduction efficiencies of Ni
Fig. 4. Cd, Ni and Zn in the treatment and in the control tanks
The initial Ni concentration of the wastewater was 0.25 after 14 days (Mean±SD).
mg/L. The average Ni levels in three treatment tanks and

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 Journal of Water Security, 2018, Vol. 4, jws2018001

Reduction efficiencies of total coliform micro-organisms in the wastewater using available or-
ganic matter as a substrates (Mahmood et al., 2005) and
The initial Total coliform count of the wastewater was
may lead to degrade organic loads in the waste water and
112 CFU. The average Total coliform counts in three
subsequent reduction of COD of the media. Oxygen sup-
treatment tanks and the control tank after 14 days ex-
plied through the root zones of the aquatic plants are also
perimental period is represented in Figure 3. There was a
found to enhance the degradation of organic matter by
significant (p < 0.05) difference in the average Coliform
microorganisms (Sooknah 2000; Mahmood et al., 2005).
counts recorded in tanks with plants and the control tanks
Three tested aquatic plant species were effective in
after 14 days. Overall more than 89% reductions of total
reducing TS, TDS and TSS from wastewater. In the pre-
colonies were reported for three plant varieties.
sent study higher percentage reductions of TS, TDS and
BCFs and TFs for selected plant varieties TSS (62%, 61% and 67%) were recorded by E. crassipes
than the other two plant species employed. When looking
Metals recorded in roots and shoots of the selected plants
into the mechanisms by which plants reduce TS, TDS and
were indicated in Table 1.
TSS in wastewater, the plant roots acts as an inert solid
Table 1. Metal concentrations recorded in plant tissues (mg/kg matrix onto which micro-organisms are attached (Moyo,
dry weight) Mapira, 2012). Suspended solids in the media are also
entrapped by plant roots and form large particles which
Metal E. crassipes P. stratiose S. molesta enables their settling (Sooknah, 2000).This process is
Root Shoot Root Shoot Root Shoot enhanced by microbes attached to the roots by aggregat-
Cd 0.2 0.4 0.46 0.2 0.4 0.13 ing smaller particles together to form larger particles
Ni 0.27 0.67 0.56 0.27 0.87 0.2 (Wolverton, 1989). Johnston (1993) also explained tur-
Zn 1.33 2.73 2.67 0.67 4 1.36 bidity reduction mechanisms triggered by E. crassipes by
their root hairs. Root hairs have electrical charges that
Bioconcentration Factor (BCFs) recorded for the attract opposite charges of colloidal particles such as
three aquatic plants for Cd, Ni and Zn were > 1. The suspended solids causing them to adhere on to roots
highest BCF for Cd was recorded for P. stratiotes (2.3), where they are slowly digested and assimilated by the
whereas highest values for Ni and Zn were recorded by plant and microorganisms (Johnston, 1993). TDS reduc-
S. molesta. TF value greater than 1 was recorded for tion was also evident in the present study and this may
E. crassipes, whereas less than 1 were recorded by S. have been attributed to the mechanisms such as phytode-
molesta and E. crassipes respectively (Table 2). gradation and uptake of dissolved ions by plants (Moyo,
Mapira, 2012). Dissolved solids in wastewater are also
Table 2. Measured BCFs and TFs for plant varieties at the end removed by way of oxidation by bacteria immobilized on
of 14 days the plant roots (Sooknah, 2000).
In addition plants also absorb nutrients/ions from
Metal E. crassipes P. stratiotes S. molesta
water and thus reducing TDS levels. The results of the
BCF TF BCF TF BCF TF present study also revealed that three aquatic plant varie-
Cd 1.9 2.0 2.3 0.4 0.8 0.3 ties are also effective in removing nitrates from the water.
Ni 2.5 2.5 2.2 0.5 3.1 0.2 Nitrogen and phosphorus are essential macro nutrient for
Zn 8.1 28.0 6.7 0.3 10.7 0.3 all the plants including aquatic macrophytes. The rate of
Discussion nitrate uptake by plants is influenced by factors such as:
growth rate, temperature and the density of plants
The results of the present study revealed that the three (Reddy, Tucker 1983; Sooknah, 2000). The present study
aquatic plant species P. stratiotes, E. crassipes and S. revealed higher nitrate reduction by P. stratiotes (78.9%)
molesta are effective in removing constituents in the tex- and S. molesta (79.5%) than E. crassipes and the control.
tile wastewater. A clear reduction of > 70% COD in tex- Mitchel, Tur, (1975) reported that mean relative growth
tile wastewater could be detected in treatment tanks rates of Salvinia molesta as high as 21.64% per day in
stocked with three plant varieties than that of the control terms of increase in number of leaves and 17.16% per day
tank. The results of the present study is consistent with in terms of dry weight increments. Doubling times under
the findings reported by many authors (Sidi, Tank, 2014; favourable growth conditions ranged from four to ten
Mahamood et al., 2005). Sidi, Tank (2014) reported days. Rivers (2002) states that P. stratiotes reproduces
81.6% reduction of COD in wastewater treated with E. vegetatively and by seed. Rapid vegetative reproduction
crassipes after 10 days. Mahamood et al., (2005) reported allows P. stratiotes to cover an entire lake, from shore to
40 – 70% COD reduction by the E. crassipes after 96 shore, with a dense mat of connected rosettes in a short
hours of exposure period. The high COD in the wastewa- period of time. It is possible that comparatively rapid
ter results due to the presence of high load of organic growth rates associated with P. stratoites and S. molesta
matter (Pundlik et al., 2013). The mechanisms by which may have contributed to the higher uptake of nitrates
the plants remove COD in the wastewater can be ex- from the solution and their assimilation into plant tissues.
plained in several ways. The presence of plants in waste This may have attributed for the reduction of nitrates
water may reduce the dissolved CO2 levels and increase from the wastewater treated by these plant species. Phos-
the dissolved oxygen in wastewater by photosynthetic phorus is also a limiting nutrient for many aquatic plants.
activities. This may enhance metabolic activity of aerobic

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 Journal of Water Security, 2018, Vol. 4, jws2018001
They take up phosphates through assimilation by roots,
into the xylem and shoots (Lambers, Colmer, 2005;
Sooknah, 2000). A higher phosphorus removal by E.
crassipes from wastewater was recorded in comparison to
other two species in the present study. P. stratiotes and S.
molesta reduced 69% from the initial phosphate level and
it was lesser than that of E. crassipes and higher than the
control. The inherent differences in macronutrient re-
quirements for physiological processes may have attrib-
uted to the differences observed in the phosphorus ab-
sorption by three plant varieties. Similarly increase of
phosphate levels in wastewater after treatment with
macrophytes has also been reported (Akinbile, Yusoff,
2012). It was found that increase of phosphate concentra-
tion in the treatment containers attributed to the accumu-
lation of the plant detritus (Akinbile, Yusoff, 2012). Con-
versely reduction of phosphorus in wastewater was also
reported by many authors in other studies (Sooknah,
Wilkie, 2004) indicating effective nitrogen and phospho-
rus removal by E. crassipes.
Microbiological analysis of water indicated that E
coli is not present in the wastewater samples, suggesting
the textile wastewater used for the present study was not
exposed to fecal contamination or the water quality pa-
rameters were not suitable for their growth. A marked
reduction of total coliform counts were detected by three
plant varieties with the maximum reduction by P. stratio-
tes. The mechanisms by which bacteria removal by
macrophytes have been explained by many authors. Bac-
teria are mostly trapped in the rhizosphere of the macro-
phytes with TSS, and some aquatic plants may secrete
chemical substances having bacteriocidal effects (Mandi,
1994; Zhenbim et al., 1993) and reduce bacterial popula-
tions. Many authors suggest that protozoans associated
with roots of macrophytes may also reduce bacteria
through predation as well (Ajayi, Ogunbayo, 2012).
These factors may have contributed to the marked reduc-
tion of Total coliform counts of the wastewater treated
with three plant varieties.
The results of the present study also revealed that
three plant varieties are effective in reducing heavy met-
als (Cd, Zn and Ni) from the wastewater media during 14
days experimental period. Among these, Zn absorption
was more pronounced than the other two metals. BCF is
the ratio of the metal concentration in the plant to the
concentration of metal in the wastewater. TF is the ratio
of the metal concentration in the roots to the metal con-
centration in the shoot at the end of the 14 days experi-
ment. Both BCF and TF can be used to estimate a plant’s
potential for phytoremediation purpose (Yoon et al.,
2006; Baker, 1981). BCFs values > 1 indicate that the
plant is an “accumulator” or ‘hyperaccumulator’,
whereas, values < 1 indicate the plant is an “excluder”
(Baker, 1981). TFs, > 1 indicate the plant is effective in
the translocation of a metal from root to shoot tissue (Ma,
et al., 2001). Calculated BCF of Cd, Ni and Zn for three
aquatic plant varieties in the present study were greater
than 1. BCFs recorded for the three species suggests that
selected aquatic plants E. crassipes, P. stratiotes and S.
molesta are hyperaccumulators of studied heavy metals.
TFs recorded for P. stratiotes and S. molesta for selected
heavy metals were within the range of 0.23 – 0.49.
Whereas measured TFs of E. crassipes for selected heavy
metals are within the range of 2 – 28. TFs greater than 1
recorded for E. crassipes indicate that E. crassipes effec-
tively transfer the studied metals to shoots from their
roots i.e the plants accumulates metals in the above
ground parts (shoot/leaves) than below ground parts
(root/rhizosphere). TFs of P. stratiotes and S. molesta are
lower than 1 indicating that P. stratiotes and S. molesta
do not effectively transfer the studied metals to shoots
from their roots i.e the plants accumulates metals in the
roots/rhizosphere than the shoot/leaves. The uptake abil-
ity of studied metals by roots of E. crassipes was in the
order of Ni Zn Cd. The uptake ability of metals by
roots of P.stratiotes was in the order of Zn Cd Ni.
The uptake ability for the roots of S.molesta towards the
studied elements was in the order of Ni Cd Zn. This
is consistent with the results reported by many authors
that many aquatic plants accumulate metals in roots than
the other parts of plants (Satyakala, Jamil, 1992; Zarany-
ika, Ndapwadza 1995; Chandra, Kulshreshtha 2004).
These results further confirms the efficacy of E.
crassipes, P. stratiotes and S. molestain phytoremediation
purposes. Phytoremediation comprises different strategies
used by plants to decontaminate soil and water; rhizofil-
tration, phytostabilization, phytodegradation, phytoex-
traction, and phytovolatilization (Bolan et al., 2011). The
mecahnisms by which the selected plant varieties remove
metals in the wastewater could be explained in terms of
“rhizofiltration” which involves the removal of pollutants
in the aqueous media by the plant root system
(Dushenkov et al., 1995; Dushenkov, Kapulnik, 2000).
Conclusion
From the findings of this study it could be concluded that
the E. crassipes, P. stratiotes and S. molesta are effective
in removing pollutants from the textile wastewater. More
specifically they are more efficient in removing COD,
TDS, nutrients and metals from the wastewater. Several
conventional methods are being used to treat contami-
nants in the textile wastewater. These include chemical
precipitation, coagulation, ion exchange, reverse osmosis
solvent extraction, chemical oxidation, electrolysis and
ultra filtration. However, most of these techniques are
costly and some generate large volumes of sludge. Phy-
toremediation by floating aquatic plants used in this study
are well suited environmental protective technique for
removing heavy metals and other pollutants from textile
wastewater. Findings of the present study indicated that
these plants uptake contaminants and stores in its bio-
mass. They also indicated high tolerance against con-
taminants like heavy metals and are able to absorb large
quantities. This suggests that studied aquatic plants are a
promising alternative to the conventional clean-up meth-
ods, designed for the removal of metals and other pollut-
ants in wastewater. Mostly these plants can be used in
both secondary and tertiary wastewater treatment sys-
tems, for the removal of contaminants or in integrated
secondary and tertiary treatment systems, where both
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 Journal of Water Security, 2018, Vol. 4, jws2018001
COD and nutrient removal is the goal. Moreover, these
plants can be collected and transplanting them into metal
polluted waters where plants absorb and concentrate the
metals in their roots and shoots. As they become satu-
rated with the metal contaminants, roots or whole plants
can be harvested for disposal.
However, there are some limitations of the cultiva-
tion of S. molesta and E. crassipes for cleanup operations.
S. molesta and E. crassipes are considered as Invasive
Alien species in Sri Lanka. Further, according to the Pre-
vention of Mosquito Breeding Act No. 11 of 2007,
spreading of Pistia stratiotes is also prohibited within the
country. However, these plant species are highly abun-
dant in natural aquatic systems within the country. There-
fore, naturally available plants can be harvested and can
be used in phytoremediation operations. These acts would
further aid in controlling spread of these plants in natural
water bodies.
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https://doi.org/10.5539/jsd.v5n7p80
Akinbile, C. O.; Yusoff, S. M. 2012. Assessing water hyacinth
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