A PROJECT REPORT ON

INTRODUCTION TO WELL LOGGING AND

INTERPETATION TECHNIQUE

OIL AND NATURAL GAS CORPORATION LTD,

Rajahmundry Logging Services, 2022.

PROJECT GUIDE: Shri. Jaya Raju (SG-Wells)

SUBMITTED BY: K. JEMMY ZIGEN

3rd Year, Petroleum Technology (Btech)
ADITYA ENGINEERING COLLEGE
 INDEX

Acknowledgement
1. Introduction
2. Well logs
 Caliper log
 Resistivity log
 Self –Potential log
 Radioactivity log
o Gamma Ray Log
o Density Log
o Neutron Log
o Sonic log
3. Interpretation
4. Processing by using Techlog2019 software
5. Bibliography
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

A very sincere thanks to the Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Ltd. (ONGC) for
giving us this opportunity to do an internship at the Rajahmundry Asset.

I express my humble gratitude to Shri. B.S.Reddy, CGM(Wells)-Head Logging

Services and Location Manager Shri. U.V.Ramana Rao, GM(wells) for
approving my training and thereby allowing me to undertake a project at
Logging Services, Rajahmundry.

I wish to thank Shri. John Wesley, GM (I/C-HR, STI) for providing all the
necessary facilities towards completion of this project. I am deeply thankful to
the project coordinator Shri. CH.Rama Krishna, CG(wells) and Shri. T. Sai
Satyanarayana, CG(wells) for giving me the opportunity to carry out this
project.
I sincerely thank my mentor, Mr. Setti Jaya Raju SG(wells), and Miss Durgam
Shoba Rani, SG(wells) for their guidance, help and motivation. I am deeply
indebted to our mentor, whose help, stimulating suggestions and encouragement
helped me all the time in not just understanding the various aspects of logging
but also for writing this report with both correction and suggestions for
improvement. Apart from subject of our training, I learnt a lot from him, which
I am sure, will be useful in different stages of my life.
INTRODUCTION

Well logging is a technique used in the oil and gas industry for recording rock and fluid
properties to find hydrocarbon zones within geological formations. Logging is defined as the
method or technique by which subsurface formations are characterised relative to depth.
Downhole measurements are made via instrumentation that is lowered into the well at the end
of the wireline cable, the end or a drill string or the end of a coiled tube.

The objectives of geophysical well logging are:

 Identification of lithology and stratigraphic correction.
 Measuring porosity, permeability, bulk density, and elastic properties.
 Characterising fractures and secondary porosity,
 Determining fluid type and saturation,
 Determining bore hole geometry.

Logging, in the narrowest sense, is an alternate or supplement to the analysis of core, side-
wall samples, and cuttings. The use of cores is limited, due to economic and technical
problems, although it facilitates the continuous analysis of rock formation over a given
interval. Side-wall cores are collected at discrete depths after drilling has been collected,
however they return small sample sizes. Cuttings, extracted from the drilling mud return, are
one of the largest source of subsurface sampling. However the reconstruction of lithological
sequence from cuttings is imprecise due to the problem of association a depth with any given
sample. Well logging techniques do not give direct access to the physical rock specimens,
however they do, through indirect means supplement the knowledge gained from core
sampling, side-wall sampling and the study of cuttings. Well logs provide continuous, in situ
measurements of parameters related to porosity, lithology, presence of hydrocarbons, and
other rock properties of interest.

Well logging is divided into two basic methods:

 Wireline Measurements: Entire drill string is removed and the measurement tool
string is inserted into the well and measurements done from bottom up.
 Logging While Drilling (LWD): The measuring tools are included in the drill string
and data is telemetered to the surface.

Logs can be characterised based on the environment in which they have been
recorded as Open Hole Logging, and Production Log.

 Open Hole Logs, or reservoir evaluation, involves the deployment of tools into a
freshly drilled well. As the toolstring traverses the well bore, the individual tools
gather information about the surrounding formations. A typical open hole log will
have information about density, porosity, permeability, lithology, presence of
hydrocarbons, and oil and water saturation.

 Cased Hole operations, or production optimisation, focuses on optimising the

completed oil well through mechanical services and logging techniques. The well is
 encased in a steel pipe, cemented into the well bore and may or may not be
producing. A typical cased hole log may show cement quality, production
information and formation data.

 Production Logging, is a record of more or more in-situ measurements that describe

the nature and behaviour of fluids in or around the borehole during production or
injection. Production logs are run for the purpose of analysing dynamic well
performance and the productivity of different zones, diagnosing problem wells, or
monitoring the results of a stimulation or completion. The term may be extended to
include logs that measure the physical condition of the well, for example cement
bond and corrosion bond.

The logging set up consists of a logging truck, wireline (cable) and down hole logging tools.
Wireline electrical logging is done from a logging truck also referred to as a “mobile
laboratory”. The truck carries the downhole measurement instruments, the surface
instruments needed to power the downhole instruments and to receive and process their
signals, the electrical cable and winch needed to lower the instrument into the borehole, and
the electrical equipment needed to make a permanent record of the log. The downhole
logging tools consists of two components, one component, the sensors used in making the
measurement, called the sonde. The type of sensor depends upon the nature of measurement,
for example, resistivity sensors use electrodes or coils, radioactivity sensors use detectors
sensitive to radioactivity, etc. Some sondes are designed to be operated in a centralised
position in the borehole while some measurements require that the sensor package (pad) be in
close contact with the formation Some sondes are designed to be operated in a centralized
position in the borehole. The other component of a downhole logging tool is the catridge, that
contains the electronics that power the sensors, process the resulting measurement signals and
transmits the signals up the cable to the truck. The downhole tool is attached to an electrical
cable that is used to lower the tool into the well and remove from the well. Various tool
operations like tool calibration, opening and closing of pads and recording of logs, etc. are
performed by sending signals via computer. Logs are generally recorded while coming up,
except in the case of Temperature Log.
Figure 1: The elements of well logging: a measurement sonde in a borehole, the wireline, and
a mobile laboratory.
LOGGING TOOLS

The various logging tools are as summarised below:

Log Type Parameter Measured

Mechanical Caliper Hole diameter

Spontaneous Temperature Borehole temperature

Self Potential Spontaneous electrical currents
Gamma Ray Natural radioactivity

Induced Resistivity Resistance to electric current

Induction Conductivity of electric current
Sonic Velocity of sound propagation
Density Reaction to gamma ray
bombardment
Neutron Reaction to neutron
bombardment
Table 1: Common wireline geophysical well measurements (Rider, 1996) Measurement

CALIPER LOG
The Caliper Log is a mechanical log, used for measuring the shape and diameter of a
borehole. The tool used for this purpose has 2, 4 or more extendable arms, that move in and
out as the tools is withdrawn from the borehole. This movement is converted into an
electrical signal by a potentiometer. The borehole diameter depends mainly on the lithology,
texture and structure of rocks and presence of fractures, which may cause rock fragments to
fall down. The caliper logs are plotted in track 1 with the drilling bit size for comparison, or
as a differential caliper reading.

Certain rocks may disintegrate or cave as in the case of unconsolidated sands, gravels, brittle
shales, or be soluble with drilling mud as in the case of salt formations drilled with fresh
water , in which case caves will appear. Hole diameter would be larger than bit size in such
lithologies. Reduction in borehole diameter may be due to development of mudcake for
presence of porous and permeable lithology, or formation of swell and flow into borehole.
Hole diameter is On Gauge in non-permeable formations, massive sandstones, calcareous
shale, metamorphic rocks.

The applications of borehole measurement are as follows:

 Indicator of good permeability and porosity zones (reservoir rock) due to
development of mudcake in association with gamma ray log.
 The measurement of borehole volume, in order to determine cement volume
 The location of consolidated and in gauge intervals for the anchoring of packers for
formation testing.
 Contributory information for lithological assessment
 Indication of hole quality for the assessment of the likely quality of other logs whose
data quality is degraded by holes that are out of gauge.
  Selection of consolidated formations for wireline pressure tests, recovery of fluid
samples, for packer seating for well testing purposes, and for determining casing
setting depths.

Figure: Schematic diagram depicting change in bore hole diameter under various lithological conditions.

Resistivity Logs
Resistivity logs are electrical logs which measure the bulk resistivity of the formation.
Resistance is the opposition offered by a substance to the passage of electric current.
Resistivity is the resistance measured between opposite faces of a unit cube of the substance
at specified temperature. Resistivity is measured in ohm-meter . . Resistivity logs do not
always measure resistivity directly. Some resistivity logs (actually induction logs) measures
conductivity instead which is the reciprocal of resistivity .
Induction logs are used in wells drilled with a relatively fresh-water mud (low salinity) to
obtain more accurate value of true resistivity.
Formation resistivity depends on several factors such as porosity, formation water salinity,
grain size distribution, fluid type and saturation, and temperature. Resistivity is less in water
bearing zones than hydrocarbon bearing zones since hydrocarbons do not conduct electricity.
Basic Principle –
Ohm’s Law:

Ohm’s Law states that the current flowing from point A to point B in a conductor I (amperes)
is proportional to the difference in electrical potential ΔV (volts) between point A and point
B.
ΔV=IxR
; R is resistance ( ohm) . Resistance depends on resistivity ( intrinsic property of medium
through which current is flowing) and also on geometry.
Thus , there are several measuring techniques in use, all variations of a common basic
system: an emitter(electrode or coil) sends a signal (electrical current , electromagnetic field)
into the formation. A receiver (electrode or coil) measures the response of the formation at a
certain distance from the emitter. Using ohm’s law and relation between resistance and
resistivity , resistivity of formation is calculated.

Resitivity Tools

On the basis of spacing between emitter and receiver electrode , resistivity tools are of two
types:
 Macro – long spacing tools
 Micro – short spacing tools

These tools are further divided into focussed and Non-focussed tools.

Normal/Lateral Tools
Laterolog (LL)
Long Spacing Tools Induction Log (IL)
Spherically Focussed log (SFL)

Microlog (ML)
Microlaterolog (MLL)
Short Soacing Tools Microproximity log (PL)
Micro Spherically Focussed Log (MSFL)

Out of these , only Normal/Lateral tools and Microlog tools are non-focussed devices.

The micro-tools, mounted on pads are applied against the hole wall and are designed to read
Rxo by virtue of their very shallow depths of investigation.
 Tools which are mainly used are DLL (Dual Laterolog) , MLL (Microlaterolog) , IL
( Induction log)

DLL

DLL tools sends focussed current into the formation to mesure voltage in a specific volume of
formation.This voltage is related to resistivity of formation.. The volume represents a shallow
and a deep depth of investigation and the tool provides a shallow (LLS) and a deep (LLD)
resistivity measurement. LLD achieves deep penetration by having a long electrode array and
returning the current to a surface electrode.With the LLS, current is returned to a near by
electrode that gives it shallow penetration.

Principle

There are 9 electrodes in this tool which includes one central electrode (AO) , two pair of
symmetrically placed monitor electrodes ( M1-M1’ , M2- M2’) and two pairs of symmetrically
placed guard electrodes ( A1-A1’, A2-A2’). Central electrode sends main current into
formation which is focussed by bucking current emitted from guard electrodes. Guard
electrodes maintain monitor electrodes at same potential and because of property of current to
flow in a direction perpendicular to equipotential surfaces, main current flows perpendicular to
these equipotential electrodes to some significant depth and in turn gets focussed.
MSFL

Microspherically focused device (MSFL) uses five rectangular electrodes mounted on a pad.
Survey current i0 flows from A0 and bucking current ie flows between A0 and A1.The later
current is adjusted to maintain zero voltage between the guard electrodes.This forces the
survey current directly into the formation, where it bells out quickly and returns to a nearby
electrode.The voltage V between electrode M0 and the monitor electrodes is measured.
Resistivity is proportional to V/i0. MSFL has sufficiently shallow penetration to read flushed
zone resistivity Rxo.

MSFL is usualy used in combination with DLL so that shallow , medium , deep resistivity
mearurements can be done simultaneously. This tool has one more advantge over MLL and PL
tools that it is less sensitive to the mud-cake than the MLL, and reads shallower than the PL.
Induction Tools

Induction tool was designed to

measure formation resistivity in
wells drilled with non-conductive
mud. A constant current of 20kHz
frequency is fed to a transmitter
coil (Oscillator). This generates an
alternating magnetic field that
causes a circular current to flow in
the surrounding medium. This
current in turn creates a magnetic
field that induces a voltage in the
receiver coil. The induced voltage
is approximately proportional to
the surrounding conductivity. This
conductivity is then converted to
resistivity which then appears on
logs.The induction tool also
provies two volumes of
investigation representing the
induction medium (ILM) and
induction deep (ILD) resistivity.

Effect of different types of mud fluid and formation fluid on resistivity-

Applications of resistivity logs
 Main use of resistivity log is to find water saturation which in turn is used to
calculate hydrocarbon saturation using Archie’s Equation :

(Sw)n = a Rw
ɸmRt
where m is the cementation exponent , a = tortuosity , n = saturation exponent , ɸ =
Porosity , Rw = Resistivity of formation water , Rt = True resistivity.

This equation is useful for clean sand. For shaly sands , indonation equation is used to
calculate saturation of water.

 Formation Factor :

F = a/ɸm = Ro/Rw = Rxo/Rmf

 This equation can be used to find porosity, as flushed zone resistivity is read from
logs and resistivity of mud filtrate is provided by geochemist.
 Resistivity logs are also used to determine Hydrocarbon versus Water-bearing zones,
and to indicate Permeable zones.

 Resistivity logs are bad at indicating lithologies as sand shales and cabonates do not
have characteristic resistivity however , they povide chatracteristic responses for some
lithologies like coal , anhydrite , halite.

 These logs are also used for Textures and Facies Recognition.
 Resistivity logs are used for well to well correlation.

 Compaction of shales can be seen with resistivity logs. Shale resistivity is seen to
increase slowly but steadily in thick shale sequences. Breaks in the compaction trend
can then be used as indicators of unconformities and faults.

 Bed thickness is indicated by micro-tools.

The Spontaneous Potential (SP)

SP log is a recording of the potential difference between a ground electrode at the surface and
a movable electrode in the borehole. Since the ground electrode is at fixed potential,
measured SP is the potential change in the borehole caused by the SP currents.
Principle :

There are three requirements for the existence of an SP current:

 A conductive borehole fluid (i.e., a water based mud).
 A sandwich of a porous and permeable bed between low porosity and impermeable
formations.
 A difference in salinity between the borehole fluid and the formation fluid. However,
in some special cases an SP current can be set-up when there is no difference in
salinity, but where a difference in fluid pressures occurs.

The spontaneous potential is composed of electrochemical and electrokinetic components.

 Electrochemical Potential :

 The diffusion potential (sometimes called the liquid-junction potential). This

potential exists at the junction between the invaded and the non-invaded zone,
and is the direct result of the difference in salinity between the mud filtrate and
the formation fluid. Negative ions move from uninvaded zone to invaded zone
creating a ptential difference. This is the case when mud filtrate is less saline
than ormation fluid.
 The membrane potential (sometimes called the shale potential). This
potential exists at the junction between the non-invaded zone and the shale (or
other impermeable rock) sandwiching the permeable bed. It is generated
because of property of shale to reatrd the passage of anions (anion
permselectivity).

 Electrokinetic Components:

These components arise from the movement of fluids containing conducting ions. The
electrokinetic contribution, itself, consists of two effects, which are usually very small
and act in opposite ways such that they cancel each other out.
SP is measured in mV relative to its level against shale (shale base line). SP can be negative
(normal) or positive (reverse) depending on whether mud filtrate salinity is less or more than
formation water salinity. Against permeable zones, SP deflects towards left of shale base line
if Rmf > Rw (normalSP) and towards right of shale baseline if Rmf < Rw (reverse SP ).

Applications:

SP is used primarily as a lithology indicator and as a correlation tool, it has other uses as
well:
 permeability indicator,
 shale volume indicator
 porosity indicator, and
 measurement of Rw (hence formation water salinity).

RADIOACTIVITY LOG
Radioactivity is used in several different types of logging tool. Total and spectral gamma ray
logs measure natural radiation generated by the formation, neutron and density log measure
the response of the formation to radiation generated by the tool.

GAMMA RAY LOG

The Gamma Ray Log records the radioactivity of the formation. Gamma rays are the most
important in petrophysical logging because they have the highest penetration of all the
radiations except neutrons, unlike alpha and beta particles that have very limited penetration
ability. Their penetration ability means that they can be detected through several centimetres
of cement casing, which makes them very useful as a correlation curve. Responses of K-,
Th-, U- bearing minerals, that generate significant amounts of radiation, are recorded. The
energy spectra from the three gamma sources are as in figure (), the single peak at 1.46 MeV
is characteristic of potassium, while Uranium- Radium and Thorium series have a spectrum
of energies produced over the range 0 MeV to 3 MeV.
 Figure: Gamma ray emission energy spectra

The GR sonde contains a detector to measure the gamma radiation originating in the volume
of formation near the sonde. Scintillation counters are used for this measurement. In
sedimentary formations, the depth of investigation of
the GR log is about 1 ft.

Spectral Gamma logs record individual responses for K-, Th- and U- bearing minerals. The
detectors record radiation in several energy windows as GR-K, GR-U, GR-TH.

Natural Gamma Spectrometry (NGS) log provides a recording of concentrations of

potassium, thorium, and uranium in the formation, which are usually presented in Tracks 2
and 3 of the log. The thorium and uranium concentrations are presented in parts per million
@pm) and the potassium concentration in percent (%). The total response is determined by a
linear combination of potassium, thorium and uranium concentrations to give the total
(standard) GR curve, as recorded and presented in Track 1. This standard curve is expressed
in API (American Petroleum Institute) units and range from a very few units (in anhydrite) to
over 200 API in shales.

Diffused Gamma Ray uses a gamma source to bombard the formation and the scattered
energy that returns to the wellbore is measured. The source is pressed to the borehole by a
pad. Gamma rays interact with matter in three ways:
 Photoelectric absorption occurs for low energy gamma rays. The absorption depends
on the atomic number of the nucleus and is the basis for lithology (PE).
 Compton scattering occurs over the entire energy spectrum and is the basis of the
density log (FDC).
 Electron-positron pairs are produced at relatively high energy.

Application of GR log:

 In sedimentary formations, the Total Gamma Ray log represents the shale content of the
formations, hence it is a good measure for grain size. This is because the radioactive
 elements tend to concentrate in clays and shales, while clean formations usually have a
very low level of radioactivity; coals produce almost nil gamma response.
 Ratios such as Th:K are used to distinguish particular clay minerals from Spectral
Gamma Ray.
 GR and SP logs show strong correlation. GR is used as a substitute when the SP is
distorted (in very resistive formations), when the SP is featureless (in freshwater-bearing
formations or in salty mud; i.e., when Rmf - R,), or when the SP cannot be recorded (in
nonconductive mud, empty or air-drilled holes, cased holes)
 Because it is readily combinable with most other logging tools, it permits the accurate
correlation of logs made on one trip into the borehole with those made on another trip.

Density Logs
This log is a measure of the formation's bulk density and is mostly used as a porosity
measure. Different lithologies can also be determined using density log based on returned
density value. For eample, pure quartz will have a bulk density (g/cc) up to 2.65, coal 1.2 to
1.5, halite 2.05, limestone up to 2.75, dolomite up to 2.87. Density logs are most commonly
used in conjunction with neutron logs to determine lithology of formation.
The tool consists of:
· A radioactive source. This is usually caesium-137 or cobalt-60, and emits gamma rays of
medium energy (in the range 0.2 – 2 MeV). For example, caesium-137 emits gamma rays
with a energy of 0.662 MeV.
· A short range detector. This detector is very similar to the detectors used in the natural
gamma ray tools, and is placed 7 inches from the source.
· A long range detector. This detector is identical to the short range detector, and is placed
16 inches from the source. The gamma rays enter the formation and undergo compton
scattering by interaction with the electrons in the atoms composing the formation, as
described in Section 9.3. Compton scattering reduces the energy of the gamma rays in a step-
wise manner, and scatters the gamma rays in all directions. When the energy of the gamma
rays is less than 0.5 MeV they may undergo photo-electric absorption by interaction with the
atomic electrons. The flux of gamma rays that reach each of the two detectors is therefore
attenuated by the formation, and the amount of attenuation is dependent upon the density
ofelectrons in the formation.
· A formation with a high bulk density, has a high number density of electrons. It attenuates
the gamma rays significantly, and hence a low gamma ray count rate is recorded at the
sensors.
· A formation with a low bulk density, has a low number density of electrons. It attenuates
the gamma rays less than a high density formation, and hence a higher gamma ray count rate
is recorded at the sensors. For the short spacing detector over 80% of its signal comes from
within 5 cm of the borehole wall, which is commonly mainly mudcake. About 80% of the
long spacing signal comes from within 10 cm of the borehole wall. Although After the
mudcake compensation has been carried out, one can see from Fig that the depth of
investigation has been improved, and less signal comes from the first 5 cm region.

Determination of Porosity
The porosity ∅ of a formation can be obtained from the bulk density if the mean density of
the rock matrix and that of the fluids it contains are known. The bulk density ρb of a
formation can be written as a linear contribution of the density of the rock matrix ρma and the
fluid density ρ f , with each present is proportions (1- ∅) and ∅ , respectively :
 ρb = ( 1− ∅ ) ρma + ∅ ρf

When solved for porosity, we get

∅ =(ρma− ρb )/(ρma− ρf )
where:
ρb = the bulk density of the formation
ρma = the density of the rock matrix
ρ f = the density of the fluids occupying the porosity
∅ = the porosity of the rock.

Neutron Log

The neutron log is sensitive mainly to the amount of hydrogen atoms in a formation. Its main
use is in the determination of the porosity of a formation.
Principle
Neutron tool bombards the formation with fast neutrons (~5Mev,10000Km/sec) that are
slowed down to thermal energy level (~0.025ev) by collisions with formation nuclei .
Hydrogen having same mass as neutron is most effective in slowing the neutrons Hence ,size
of the neutron cloud around the source and the number of neutrons reaching the detectors
depend on hydrogen content or porosity of the formation since hydrogen is mostly present in
pore fluids.

Hydrogen Index

The Hydrogen Index of a material is defined as the partial concentration of -hydrogens per
unit volume relative to water. So, if the hydrogen index of water is constrained by the
definition to be unity, and water has a partial concentration of hydrogens per unit volume of
1/9, the hydrogen index of a material is
HI = 9nH*AH * ρb
å ni *Ai + nH*AH
where
AH = the atomic mass of hydrogen atoms in the material
Ai = the atomic mass of non-hydrogen element i
nH = the number of hydrogen atoms in a molecule of the materia
ni = the number of non-hydrogen atoms of element i in a molecule of the material
Note: i is summed over every non-hydrogen element in the material.
The Shale Effect. Shale contain clays that have a significant amount of surface absorbed
(bound) water. Hence shales can contain a significant proportion of hydrogens despite being
low porosity. The apparent porosity read from the neutron tool in shale formations is
therefore always significantly higher than it really is.
The Hydrocarbon Effect. the hydrogen indices of water and oil are
approximately the same because the effect of their different compositions on the partial
concentration of hydrogens per unit volume is approximately balanced by the difference in
their density
fN = f [HImf Sxo + HIHC ( 1-SXO)]
If the hydrocarbon is oil, this equation reduces to f N » f. hydrogen index of water and oils is
similar; HImf »HIHC
Tools
Mainly three types of tools are used .
 The Gamma Ray/Neutron Tool (GNT)
 The Sidewall Neutron Porosity Tool (SNP)
 The Compensated Neutron Log (CNL)

Application
Porosity Estimation
The main use of the tool is the porosity estimation .The tool is sensitive to the amount of
hydrogens in the formation and to a less extent upon other elements. It is assumed that the
contribution to the measurement by elements other than hydrogen is negligible, and that
thecontribution to the measurement from hydrogen comes entirely from the fluids fully
occupying the pore space. The neutron tool is calibrated against clean,100% water saturated
limestone. So, it gives porosity directly against limestone. In case of lithology other than
limestone, lithological correction is applied to neutron porosity value.

Determination of Lithology
The direct use of the neutron log to identify lithologies depends upon the recognition of
which lithologies may contain hydrogen atoms.

Lithological Identification using the Neutron-Density Combination

1. Compatible Scales and the Density-Neutron Cross-plot

This is a hugely important technique, and together with the litho-density log forms the best
downhole lithological identification technique available to the petrophysicist.
Both the formation density log and the neutron log give a direct measurement of TOTAL
porosity. Hence, if they are plotted on compatible scales, they should overlie each other.
Note also that good superimposition of the neutron-density logs will ONLY occur for clean
limestone formations 100% saturated with fresh water.
To construct a compatible scale we follow the following steps:
· For limestone with 0% porosity, the density log reads 2.71 g/cm3 and the neutron log reads
zero.
· For limestone with 100% porosity, the density log reads 1.00 g/cm3 and the neutron log
reads 100. These two points can be plotted on a graph of density (from the density log) on the
y-axis against neutron porosity (from the neutron log) on the x-axis. We can join up the two
points with a straight line, and calibrate the line for porosity (Fig. 15.14). The graph is called
the density-neutron crossplot and the line is called the clean limestone line. The clean
limestone line only works for clean limestones because of the effect of non-hydrogen
elements in the matrix on the eutron porosity values, and the different grain densities.
However, we can take account of the different densities and correct the neutron porosity units
using Fig., to obtain lines of the cross-plot for clean sandstones and clean dolomite, the clean
sandstone and clean dolomite lines.

2. Clean Formations
· There is no separation for pure limestones, and the porosity value that the log gives is
accurate.
· There is a small negative separation for clean sandstones.
· There is a moderate positive separation for pure dolomites.

3. Shaly Formations
If shale is present in the formation, the neutron log reads much higher porosities than it would
otherwise do because of the effect of bound water. This gives a large positive separation. This
large positive separation is diagnostic of shales. If the shale volume decreases due to the
intermixture of sandstone, the large positive separationdecreases, crosses-over and becomes
eventually the small negative separation associated with pure sandstone. Thus, a sequence of
clearly defined sand and shale formations shows switching between positive and negative
separations in the logs. Often the beds will not be well defined, but coarsen-up or fine-up
gradually. This can be seen by a gradual switch from one separation to another. Hence the
characteristic patterns (reviewed in the chapter on the gamma ray log) can be recognized in
the separations, and conclusions may be drawn concerning the depositional environment.
The size of the separation is actually THE BEST quantitative estimator or shale volume. It is
better than the shale volume derived from the gamma ray log. We can write an equation for
shale volume
based on separations
V sh =(φ log −φ sand )/(φshale −φ sand )

where φ stands for the separation measured in 100% sandstone, 100% shale, and at the point
of interest in the log. Note that the separations may ALL be measured on the limestone
porosity scale, ALL on the density scale, or ALL using a simple ruler on the log! Each is
valid, but you must keep it consistent for the whole equation.

SONIC LOG
The sonic or acoustic log measures the travel time of an elastic wave through the formation.
This information can also be used to derive the velocity of elastic waves through the
formation.
Its main use is to provide information to support and calibrate seismic data and to derive the
porosity of a formation.

Principle

The conventional sonic measurement is based on detection of first arrival at the receivers.
The first arrival is the compressional head wave which travels along the bore hole wall with
formation velocity.

Formation porosity can be estimated by sonic , density and neutron porosity logs . All
porosity tools respond mainly to the flushed zone.
Sonic tool measures speed of compressional waves or transit time through the formation .
Head waves are the first to reach the receivers. Transit time Δt (μsec/ft) is given by-

Δt=((T1-T3)+(T2-T4))/2*2
Porosity Ø is calculated as-
Ø = (Δt- Δtma)/( Δtf- Δtma)
Where Δt is the matrix transit time with values 52 ,47 & 43 μsec/ft for sandstone, limestone
and dolomite respectively. Δt is fluid transit time.It is 189μsec/ft for fresh mud.
Application of Sonic Log

 Provision of a record of “seismic” velocity and travel time throughout a borehole. This
information can be used to calibrate a seismic data set (i.e., tie it in to measured values
of seismic velocity).
 Provision of “seismic” data for the use in creating synthetic seismograms.
 Determination of porosity (together with the FDC and CNL tools).
 Stratigraphic correlation.
 Identification of lithologies.
 Facies recognition.
 Fracture identification.
 Identification of compaction.
 Identification of over-pressures.
 Identification of source rocks.
KG Basin Introduction :

Extensive deltaic plain formed by two large east coast rivers, Krishna and Godavari in the
state of Andhra Pradesh and the adjoining areas of Bay of Bengal in which these rivers
discharge their water is known as Krishna Godavari Basin. The Krishna Godavari Basin is a
proven petroliferous basin of continental margin located on the east coast of India .Its onland
part covers an area of 15000 sq. km and the offshore part covers an area of 25,000 sq. km up
to 1000 m isobath. The basin contains about 5 km thick sediments with several cycles of
deposition, ranging in age from Late Carboniferous to Pleistocene.

Tectonic History :

Krishna Godavari Basin is a Continental passive margin pericratonic basin. The basin came
into existence following rifting along eastern continental margin of Indian Craton in early
Mesozoic. The down to the basement faults which define the series of horst and grabens
cascading down towards the ocean are aligned NE-SW along Precambrian Eastern Ghat
trend.

The geological history comprises of following stages:

 Rift Stage:The basin got initiated through rift / syn-rift tectonics between Permo-
Triassic to Early Cretaceous and is essentially characterized by lagoonal to fluvial to
occasionally brackish water sediments. The northeastern part of the present onland
basin was part of an intra cratonic rift set up till Jurassic that constituted the
southeastern extension of NW-SE trending continental rift valley slopping northward.
The basin has been initiated through rifting during Permo-Triassic period.
 Syn Rift Stage: The early stage synrift sediments were deposited during early
subsidence by tectonic fault systems. Basin subsidence continued along basement
bound fault system accommodating synrift sediments of late Jurassic to early
Cretaceous.
 Drift Stage:Rift to drift transition is marked by a southerly/ southeasterly tilt of the
basin leading to widespread marine transgression during Cretaceous and deposition of
marine shale sequence followed by onset of overall regressive phase during Late
Cretaceous, represented by a deltaic sequence comprising Tirupati Sandstone with
dominant arenaceous facies. During Maastrichtian-Danian, the basin experienced
major volcanic activity (Razole Volcanism) covering 1600 sq. km. area and having
span of 5.5 million years.
  Late Drift Stage:Initial soft collision between the Indian and Eurasian Plates and
initiation of Matsyapuri-Palakollu fault appears to have greatly influenced the
Paleogene and younger tectonic regiment and the consequent sedimentation pattern.
 Sediment induced Neogene tectonics: Increased gradients for the river systems and
increased sediment load coupled with significant sea level falls during Neogene had
triggered sediment induced tectonics in the shelf and slope parts of the basin creating
highly prospective exploration locales. Some of the recent very significant discoveries
in these settings had opened new hydrocarbon opportunities in the Krishna-Godavari
basin and necessitated re-estimation of its hydrocarbon resource potential.

Generalised Stratigraphy of KG Basin:

Oil and Gas Reservoir:

An oil and gas reservoir is a formation of rock in which oil and natural gas has accumulated.
The oil and gas collected in small, connected pore spaces of rock and are trapped within the
reservoir by adjacent and overlying, impermeable layers of rock. Typical reservoirs
are not "pools" or "lakes" of oil beneath the surface, as there are no vast open cavities that
contain oil. Oil and gas reservoirs can also be referred to as "hydrocarbon reservoirs".

Conventional hydrocarbon reservoirs consist of three main parts: the source rock, the
reservoir rock, and the cap rock. The source rock is the rock that contains the kerogen that the
oil and gas forms from. The reservoir rock is the porous, permeable rock layer or layers that
hold the oil and gas. The cap rock seals the top and sides so that the hydrocarbons are trapped
in the reservoir, while water often seals the bottom.

For a reservoir to exist, oil and gas from the source rock must migrate into the reservoir rock,
which takes millions of years. This migration occurs because oil and gas are
less dense than water. This difference in density causes the oil and gas to rise towards the
surface so that they are above groundwater with the gas settling above the oil because of its
lighter densities. Migration pathways - a set of well connected fractures - must exist for this
rising to occur.
Reservoir rocks need to be both porous and permeable. This means that there are small
pockets of space within the rock where oil or gas can settle and small channels connecting
these pockets to allow the oil or gas to flow out of this rock easily when it is drilled. These
spaces between grains can develop as the formation of rock occurs or afterwards, usually as a
result of groundwater passing through the rock and dissolving some of the cement between
sediment grains.
The rock formation must be formed or deformed in such a way to create a trap for the oil and
gas. Anticlines are the most common formation shape for this to occur. Anticlines for a rough
"A" shape, with the cap rock making the sides of the "A". The fossil fuels accumulate in the
peak of the "A" and the bottom is sealed (usually with water), preventing the oil and gas from
seeping out and escaping.

Well Planning:

Well planning is perhaps the most demanding aspect of drilling engineering. It requires the
integration of engineering principles, corporate or personal philosophies, and experience
factors. Although well planning methods and practices may vary within the drilling industry,
the end result should be a safely drilled, minimum-cost hole that satisfies the reservoir
engineer’s requirements for oil/gas production.
Objective of Well Planning:

The objective of well planning is to formulate from many variables a program for drilling a
well that has the following characteristics:

 Safe
 Minimum cost
 Usable
Safety
Safety should be the highest priority in well planning. Personnel considerations must be
placed above all other aspects of the plan. In some cases, the plan must be altered during the
course of drilling the well when unforeseen drilling problems endanger the crew. Failure to
stress crew safety has resulted in loss of life and burned or permanently crippled individuals.
The second priority involves the safety of the well. The well plan must be designed to
minimize the risk of blowouts and other factors that could create problems. This design
requirement must be adhered to rigorously in all aspects of the plan.
Minimum cost
A valid objective of the well-planning process is to minimize the cost of the well without
jeopardizing the safety aspects. In most cases, costs can be reduced to a certain level as
additional effort is given to the planning. It is not noble to build “steel monuments” in the
name of safety, if the additional expense is not required. On the other hand, funds should be
spent as necessary to develop a safe system.
Usable holes
Drilling a hole to the target depth is unsatisfactory if the final well configuration is not
usable. In this case, the term “usable” implies the following:

 The hole diameter is sufficiently large so an adequate completion can be made.

 The hole or producing formation is not irreparably damaged.
This requirement of the well planning process can be difficult to achieve in abnormal-
pressure, deep zones that can cause hole-geometry or mud problems.

Well-Type Classification:
The drilling engineer is required to plan a variety of well types, including:

 Wildcats
 Exploratory holes
 Step-outs
 Infills
 Re-entries

Well planning Process:

Well planning is an orderly process. It requires that some aspects of the plan be developed
before designing other items. For example, the mud density plan must be developed before
the casing program because mud weights have an impact on pipe requirements.

INTERPRETATION
Correlation is the process of establishing which sedimentary strata are of the same age but
geographically separated. Correlation can be determined by using magnetic polarity reversals,
rock types, unique rock sequences, or index fossils. There are four main types of correlation:
stratigraphic, lithostratigraphic, chronostratigraphic, and biostratigraphic.

Stratigraphic correlation is the process of establishing which sedimentary strata are the
same age at distant geographical areas by means of their stratigraphic relationship. Geologists
construct geologic histories of areas by mapping and making stratigraphic columns-a detailed
description of the strata from bottom to top.

Lithostratigraphic correlation establishes a similar age of strata based on lithology, which

is the composition and physical properties of that strata. Lithos is Greek for stone and -logy
comes from the Greek word for doctrine or science. Lithostratigraphic correlation can be used
to correlate whole formations long distances or can be used to correlate smaller strata within
formations to trace their extent and regional depositional environments.

Chronostratigraphic correlation matches rocks of the same age, even though they are made
of different lithologies. Different lithologies of sedimentary rocks can form at the same time.
Biostratigraphic correlation uses index fossils to determine strata ages. Index fossils
represent assemblages or groups of organisms that were uniquely present during specific
intervals of geologic time. Assemblages refer a group of fossils. Fossils allow geologists to
assign a formation to an absolute date range, such as the Jurassic Period (199 to 145 million
years ago), rather than a relative time scale. In fact, most of the geologic time ranges are
mapped to fossil assemblages. The most useful index fossils come from lifeforms that were
geographically widespread and had a species lifespan that was limited to a narrow time
interval. In other words, index fossils can be found in many places around the world, but only
during a narrow time frame. Some of the best fossils for biostratigraphic correlation are
microfossils, most of which came from single-celled organisms. As with microscopic
organisms today, they were widely distributed across many environments throughout the
world. Some of these microscopic organisms had hard parts, such as exoskeletons or outer
shells, making them better candidates for preservation. Foraminifera, single-celled organisms
with calcareous shells, are an example of an especially useful index fossil for the Cretaceous
Period and Cenozoic Era. Conodonts are another example of microfossils useful for
biostratigraphic correlation of the Cambrian through Triassic Periods. Conodonts are tooth-
like phosphatic structures of an eel-like multi-celled organism that had no other preservable
hard parts. The conodont-bearing creatures lived in shallow marine environments all over the
world. Upon death, the phosphatic hard parts were scattered into the rest of the marine
sediments. These distinctive tooth-like structures are easily collected and separated from
limestone in the laboratory.

Figure: Correlation for the study area.

Manual Processing
Log data was processed manually, and the values of average porosity, effective porosity,
resistivity of water, water saturation and clay volume were calculated using the following
formulae.
 Calculation of ∅avg with the help of Density and Neutron log:
∅avg = (∅d+ ∅n)/2
Here, ∅d= (ρma- ρb)/ (ρma- ρf), where ρma is resistivity of matrix
(value is taken as 2.65 g/cc for all calculations), ρ f is
resistivity of formation water (taken as 1 g/cc), ρ b is the
value as observed from the density log in Track 3.
∅n = value as observed from the neutron log in Track
3 + 0.03.

 Calculation of Vcl (clay volume)

o As estimated from Gamma Ray log in Track 1

Vcl = (GRlog- GRmin)/(GRmax-GRmin)

o As estimated from Neutron Density log:

Vcl = (∅n- ∅d)/ (∅n shale- ∅d shale)

Where, ∅d shale is the average value of porosity of shale, as
calculated from density log,
∅n shale the average value of porosity of shale as
calculated from neutron log.

 Calculation of Rw
Rwa, value of resistivity of all water bearing zones is calculated using the formula:

Rwa = ∅avgm Rt
a

Where,∅avg is as calculated from Step 1,

Rt is the true resistivity as observed from Track 2
a : Archie’s Constant =0.62
m : Cementation Factor = 2.15
Minimum value of Rwa is taken as Rw.

 Calculation of Saturation of water(Sw)

o Using Archie’s Equation

 Swn = __aRw__
∅avgmRt

Where, n : Saturation factor = 2.

o Using Indonesian Equation

Sw = 1−Vsh
√ 1
Rt

Vsh 2
∅ rm
+√ ( )

√ 1 a Rw
R sh

Where, Rsh is the average resistivity of the shale zone.

Vsh is the same as volume of clay (Vcl).
Processing By Using Techlog Software

This is done by Schlumberger’s TechLog2019 Software. The processing sequence are

mentioned below:

LOADING DATA

DEPTH MATCH

WELL EDITING

ELAN PROCESSING

ERROR/QC

OUTPUT

LOADING DATA: Loading data is done by using Import module. In this module raw data
loaded (las, Dlis, dat, excel etc.,). This data is useful for further processing.

DEPTH MATCH: Depth match is used for correct the depth shift of the logs. The Depth
match is done with the help of base curve and match curves are Gamma Ray log and Density,
Neutron and Resistivity logs.

WELL EDITING: Well editing is basically used for depth/curve editing purpose. Curve
shifting and Log merging of various suits of logs are done in this module. The final merge
file can be used for further processing.

QUANTI ELAN PROCESSING: QUANTI ELAN is an abbreviation of “Elemental

Analysis”. QUANTI ELANP is an advanced multi-mineral log analysis program. It computes
the most probable formation mineralogy and pore fluid volumes using a multi-log, least-
squares inversion technique. It is particularly valuable in areas of mixed lithologies, special
minerals and dual porosity systems.
ERROR/QC:

 The standard input and (measured) processed curves of NPHI, RHOB, RT, GR. By
matching these curves the error will reduced.
 Temperature gradient must calculate in every interval by apply surface and BHT (Bore
Hole Temperature).
 Rugosity should match and calibrated.
 Matrix density should nearly matrix i.e. limestone/ sand stone.
 Find out sand/shale zone whether they are properly calibrated or not.
 If any heavy minerals/ conductive minerals/ coals are present in the formation should be
calibrated with respect to DT/RHOB (Sonic/ Density) logs.

OUTPUT:

SUWI–Irreducible water saturation, SWI–Flushed zone water saturation, PIGN–Effective

Porosity, VCL-Clay volume, RT–True Resistivity are the calculated output from Techlog. By
using these outputs we can know the hydrocarbon bearing zones. Output of the interpretation
by using Techlog software is showing below.

Well-A