Investigation of Process Design and Parameter Optimization of Aircraft Integral Skin Panel Roller Bending

中图分类号：V214
论文编号： 10006LS1807213
硕士学位论文
飞机蒙皮壁板垫料滚弯成形
工艺设计及参数优化研究
作者姓名索南丹
学科专业航空宇航制造工程
指导教师李卫东副教授
培养院系机械工程及自动化学院
Investigation on process design and parameters optimizing of
padding assisted roller bending for aircraft integral skin panel
A Dissertation Submitted for the Degree of Master
Candidate: Than Soe Naing
Supervisor: Li Weidong
School of Mechanical Engineering and Automation
Beihang University, Beijing, China

中图分类号：V214
论文编号： 10006LS1807213
硕士学位论文
飞机蒙皮壁板垫料滚弯成形
工艺设计及参数优化研究
作者姓名索南丹申请学位级别工学硕士
指导教师姓名李卫东副教授职称副教授
学科专业航空宇航制造工程研究方向飞机制造
学习时间自 2018 年 10 月 11 日起至 2021 年05月日止
论文提交日期 2021 年 05 月 06 日论文答辩日期年月日
学位授予单位北京航空航天大学学位授予日期年月日

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摘要
不等厚蒙皮壁板广泛应用于飞机机身结构设计中，以减轻整机重量，提高最大刚
度。垫料滚弯成形工艺是采用弹性材料作为垫料，以防止在单个板料中出现不均匀厚
度分布的不必要的屈曲、开裂等缺陷。由于蒙皮壁板的不同区域设计了不同深度的凹
槽和不同厚度的结构，垫料滚弯成形的最终曲率和不同厚度区域内的局部曲率半径预
测将面临巨大的挑战。对蒙皮板的不同厚度部分设计不同厚度的垫料，以填补滚弯过
程中所需的厚度需求。本文以民用客机非等厚分布整体蒙皮板为研究对象，研究了垫
料滚弯成形工艺参数和垫料厚度设计技术。
本文以第具有单一的曲三代铝锂合金 Al-Li 2060T8 是一种用于飞机结构件的铝锂

合金，具有重量轻、刚度大等优点。本文以某 Al-Li 2060T8 蒙皮壁板为研究对象，具
有单一的曲率半径。根据单向拉伸试验数据得到的材料模型，分别对不同厚度的板料
滚弯成形进行了理论研究，确定了相同曲率半径下的工艺参数。垫料采用了一种工业
用树脂材料。基于上辊轮作用在蒙皮上的外载荷和不同厚度截面上辊轮的下移量理论
计算值，对所需的单一曲率半径时衬垫厚度的估算进行了初步研究。
在有限元模拟分析中，参考蒙皮壁板设计三个不同厚度的实验零件，分别采用预
估的工艺参数和垫料厚度进行建模分析。利用有限元分析软件 ABAQUS，采用复合材
料叠层和壳体模型，对两种不同材料的单道次滚弯成形过程进行了数值模拟。基于这
些样件的仿真结果和优化的工艺参数，获得蒙皮壁板的成形工艺。从有限元模拟结果
中提取了滚弯过程中上辊轮对蒙皮的外载荷。根据有限元仿真分析得到的实际载荷，
对填料厚度进行了优化。根据蒙皮壁板滚弯变形后的形状，提取不同厚度截面不同路
径上的节点坐标，拟合成圆，检验曲率半径和变形均匀性。
通过仿真结果分析，找到了控制整体壁板垫料辅助滚弯最终曲率半径和局部曲率
半径的工艺参数，即上、下辊轮相对位移和垫料厚度。通过蒙皮壁板的垫料滚弯成形
整体仿真，验证了滚压成形工艺参数和所需曲率半径下的垫料厚度。
关键词；垫料滚弯成形，飞机蒙皮壁板，不等厚，有限元分析
I
Abstract
Skin panels with unequal thickness distribution are widely used in aircraft fuselage skin
for reducing overall weight and improving maximum stiffness. Padding assisted roller bending
process is newly approach in recent sheet metal forming field which used an elastic material for
padding to prevent unnecessary buckling, cracking and etc. of unequal thickness distribution in
a single sheet. As we have milled several pockets, grooves and different thickness for different
sections according to design requirements, there will be huge challenges for final curvature
predictions and local radius of curvature difference between each thickness sections. Therefore,
padding sheet is used with different thickness for difference thickness sections of skin panel so
that to fill required thickness gap during roller bending process. In this research we have
investigated process parameters and padding thickness estimation for an unequal thickness
distributed integrated skin panel from civil passenger aircraft using padding assisted roller
bending process.
Third generation aluminum lithium alloy Al-Li 2060T8 has been developed for aircraft
structural part since over 30 years ago which has lighter weight with maximum stiffness
compared to traditional alloys. As the object of this research, an aircraft integral skin panel has
been designed with that Al-Li 2060T8 alloy and defined radius of curvature according to design
requirement. Theoretical investigation regarding sheet metal roller bending was performed for
different thickness sections separately for getting same radius of curvature according to material
model which has been got from experimental tensile test data. Industrial used resin material has
been used as a padding material. Based on applied load of upper roller acting on skin panel and
different upper roller downward displacements of different thickness sections for getting
desired a single radius of curvature, padding thickness estimation was investigated initially.
In finite element simulation analysis, firstly three different sample parts were extracted
from original skin panel and simulated separately using initial estimation of process parameters
and estimated padding thickness. Using ABAQUS 6.14 finite element analysis software, we
have used composite layup and shell model as our simulation used two different material in a
single roller bending operation. Original integral skin panel was performed based on these
sample parts simulation results and optimized process parameters. Moreover, applied load of
upper roller exerting on skin panel during roller bending was extracted from finite element
simulation results. Then padding thickness estimation was optimized according to actual
applied load extracted from finite element simulation analysis. Depend on deformed shape of
II
aircraft integral skin panel after roller bending process, nodal coordinate of different paths along
with edge of skin panel in different thickness sections were extracted and fitted as a circle and
checked its radius of curvature and deformation homogeneity.
Based on simulation results, there have been found some parameters which control final
radius of curvature and local radius of curvature in aircraft integral skin panel padding assisted
roller bending process including upper downward displacement and padding thickness. Finally,
padding assisted roller bending process of unequal thickness distributed aircraft integral skin
panel was validated with roller bending configuration process parameters and padding thickness
for desired radius of curvature using finite element simulation analysis.
Keywords; Padding assisted roller bending, aircraft integral skin panel, Unequal thickness,
Finite element analysis
III
Contents
摘要 ............................................................................................................................................ I
Abstract .................................................................................................................................... II
Contents ..................................................................................................................................... I
List of Figures ........................................................................................................................ III
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................ V
List of Symbols ....................................................................................................................... VI
1.Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background .................................................................................................................. 4
1.2 Roll bending of sheet metal skin.................................................................................. 5
1.3 Roller configuration and curvature analysis ................................................................ 7
1.4 Padding assisted roller bending ................................................................................... 9
1.5 Finite element simulation of sheet metal roller bending............................................ 13
2.Padding assisted roller bending process design ................................................................ 17
2.1 Sheet metal bending theory........................................................................................ 18
2.2 Material model ........................................................................................................... 21
2.1.1 Aluminum Lithium Alloy ........................................................................................................ 21

2.1.2 Padding material ...................................................................................................................... 23
2.3 Three roller bending geometry................................................................................... 24
2.4 Upper roller displacement and loaded curvature ....................................................... 25
2.5 Springback and final curvature .................................................................................. 26
2.6 Residual stress............................................................................................................ 30
2.7 Applied load ............................................................................................................... 31
2.8 Padding thickness calculation .................................................................................... 33
I
3.Finite element simulation modelling ................................................................................. 36
3.1 Product geometry design simplification .................................................................... 38
3.2 Sample skin model .................................................................................................... 39
3.3 Modelling and assembly ............................................................................................ 40
3.4 Material properties and section module .................................................................... 42
3.5 Load, boundary conditions and interaction ............................................................... 43
3.6 Meshing and element selection ................................................................................. 45
3.7 Analysis Steps ........................................................................................................... 47
3.8 Result extraction ........................................................................................................ 49
4.Padding assisted roller bending simulation results .......................................................... 52
4.1 Radius of curvature analysis formulation .................................................................. 52
4.2 Final radius of curvature and upper roller downward displacement ......................... 53
4.3 Padding thickness and sheet deformation ................................................................. 57
4.4 Rolling speed ............................................................................................................. 61
4.5 Applied load of upper roller ...................................................................................... 63
4.6 Result summary ......................................................................................................... 65
Conclusion............................................................................................................................... 67
Future Work ........................................................................................................................... 68
Acknowledgement .................................................................................................................. 70
References ............................................................................................................................... 71
II
List of Figures
Figure 1 Aircraft fuselage design ............................................................................................... 1
Figure 2 Roller formed aircraft skin panel ................................................................................. 2
Figure 3 Sheet metal skin vertical milling machine ................................................................... 2
Figure 4 Three rollers bending machine .................................................................................... 5
Figure 5 Elastic-plastic bending of sheet ................................................................................... 6
Figure 6 Pyramidal three rollers bending scheme [12] .............................................................. 9
Figure 7 Rubber filling scheme of integral panel roller bending [14] .................................... 11
Figure 8 Single roller bending rest on rubber pad [15] ............................................................ 11
Figure 9 Padding assisted roller bending process (PARB)[17] ............................................... 12
Figure 10 Upper roller position determination [22] ................................................................ 15
Figure 11 Rubber filling of unequal thickness sheet [24] ........................................................ 16
Figure 12 Different thickness section of an aircraft integral skin panel .................................. 17
Figure 13 Deformation of longitudinal fiber in sheet metal bending process ......................... 19
Figure 14 Equalibrium condition of a unit width section of a sheet ........................................ 20
Figure 15 Stress-strain curve of aluminum lithium Al-Li 2060 T8 alloy ................................ 23
Figure 16 Geometrical relation of three rollers pyramidal configuration of sheet .................. 25
Figure 17 Loaded radius of curvature and U displacement relation ........................................ 27
Figure 18 Upper roller displacement U and critical yield thickness ........................................ 28
Figure 19 Minimum U displacement for different thickness yielding ..................................... 28
Figure 20 Maximum bending moment in different U displacement ........................................ 29
Figure 21 Relationship between U displacement and final radius of curvature ...................... 29
Figure 22 Moment arm consideration diagram ........................................................................ 32
Figure 23 Different thickness of skin panel and different U value for desired radius ............. 33
Figure 24 Different skin panel thickness and different padding thickness requirement .......... 33
Figure 25 Research process work flow .................................................................................... 35
Figure 26 Original design of aircraft integral skin panel ......................................................... 36
Figure 27 Developed design of aircraft integral skin panel ..................................................... 37
Figure 28 Developed design of integral skin panel shown different thickness ....................... 37
Figure 29 Aircraft integral skin panel finite element simulation process flow ........................ 38
Figure 30 Geometry simplification of aircraft integral skin panel........................................... 39
Figure 31 Sample parts extraction from simplified skin panel design ..................................... 40
Figure 32 Assemly configuration............................................................................................. 41
III
Figure 33 Padding assisted three rollers bending assembly configuration.............................. 41
Figure 34 Material properties definition.................................................................................. 42
Figure 35 Composite layup definition ..................................................................................... 42
Figure 36 Composite layup definition ..................................................................................... 43
Figure 37 Composite layup in 5.5 mm thickness section ........................................................ 43
Figure 38 Boundary condition definition ................................................................................ 45
Figure 39 Meshing of original skin panel design .................................................................... 46
Figure 40 Meshing ................................................................................................................... 46
Figure 41 Element type definition ........................................................................................... 47
Figure 42 Step manager ........................................................................................................... 48
Figure 43 Path selection of different sample parts .................................................................. 50
Figure 44 Three paths selection of original skin panel............................................................ 51
Figure 45 Path selection of sample part (1) (U=11 mm) ......................................................... 53
Figure 46 Circle fitting result of U 11 mm .............................................................................. 54
Figure 47 Circle fitting result of U 14.78 mm ......................................................................... 55
Figure 48 Simulation result of different U displacement and final radius .............................. 55
Figure 49 Radius of curvature result in different U value (sample-1) .................................... 56
Figure 50 Final radius of sample (2) & (3) with U 11 mm ..................................................... 56
Figure 51 Final radius of curvature fitting result in U 11 mm ................................................ 57
Figure 52 Deformation of skin panel with initial estimated padding thickness ...................... 58
Figure 53 Deformation of skin panel with 80 % load from FE resullt .................................... 60
Figure 54 Different padding optimization and curvature error ............................................... 61
Figure 55 Different rolling speed and rinal result ................................................................... 62
Figure 56 Different rolling speed and final radius of curvature result .................................... 63
Figure 57 Upper roller applied load in sample (1) simulation ................................................ 63
Figure 58 Applied load of upper roller in original skin panel simulation ............................... 65
IV
List of Tables
Table 1 Plastic properties of Al-Li 2060 T8 alloy ................................................................... 22
Table 2 Required U displacement for different thickness of sheet (Rf = 1922 mm) ............... 30
Table 3 Maximum bending moment of each thickness sections ............................................. 30
Table 4 Applied load on different thickness of skin panel ...................................................... 32
Table 5 Required padding thickness for different thickness of sheet ...................................... 34
Table 6 Initial estimation of padding thickness ....................................................................... 58
Table 7 Deviation of radius of curvature using initial padding thickness ............................... 58
Table 8 Three optimization of padding thickness .................................................................... 59
Table 9 Comparison of final radius of curvature in different padding thickness option ......... 59
Table 10 Padding thickness for different thickness section using 80 % applied load ............. 61
V
List of Symbols
a Half of Bottom rollers center distance (mm)
Ru Radius of upper roller (mm)
Rb Radius of bottom roller (mm)
ρf Final radius of curvature of neutral layer after springback (mm)
ρl Loaded radius of curvature of neutral layer before springback (mm)
U Upper roller downward displacement (mm)
t Thickness of sheet (mm)
y Distance of acting fibers from neutral layer
θ Bend angle (radian)
M Bending moment (N-mm)
Mmax Maximum bending moment (N-mm)
ε Strain
εs Yield strain
σ Stress (MPa)
E Young’s modulus (MPa)
K Strength coefficient
n Strain hardening index
td Thickness of padding sheet (mm)
v Poison’s ratio
F Applied force of Upper roller (N)
b Width of sheet (mm)
VI
BUAA Academic Dissertation for Master’s Degree
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Chapter 1
Introduction
Nowadays, the aviation industry is more enlarged and developed in both production
technology and services sectors. In the production technology of aircraft manufacturing
industries, such challenges have been coming out because of higher seat demand in routes and
lower personal costing for travel. Aircraft manufacturers are needed to develop their production
technology which can reduce the overall production cost, fuel consumption reduction, and
maintenance cost reduction. Based on this point of consideration, aircraft design engineers and
researchers have been developing structure design, production process, and other related
researches. Among them, fuselage skin design and production process development are more
essential as these are the largest parts of the whole aircraft and can affect the overall weight of
the aircraft.
Regarding this issue, different types of integral skin panels are designed so that to reduce
weight and improve stiffness, and improving the manufacturing process are investigated as
well. Rib reinforcement integral skin panel and different thickness distribution integral skin
panel with pockets are mostly used separately or combined in aircraft structure component,
especially in fuselage skin. These integral panels are widely used in the civil aviation industry
because of their advantages such as lighter in weight, higher stuffiness and higher efficiency of
structure compare to joint panels or others structures, as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1 Aircraft fuselage design
1
Chapter 1 Introduction
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Different thickness distributed or unequal thickness integral skin panel with shallow
pocket has advantages in weight reducing, less manufacturing process sequences and material
amount reduction etc. It means this kind of integral skin panel are manufactured from single
raw parts and no need to integrate other additional components. However, there are some
challenges of product accuracy during manufacturing of these unequal thickness integral panel.
Traditionally, most of these integral skin panel are produced by roller bending with followed
by machining process or chemical milling process. This kind of process sequence need special
tooling for following up machining process to reduce weight of formed skin panel, as shown in
Figure 3 and Figure 4.
Figure 2 Roller formed aircraft skin panel
Figure 3 Sheet metal skin vertical milling machine
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Because of environmental clean requirement for global, chemical milling process is rarely
used in current. Therefore, most useful process sequence is roller bending of single thickness
skin first take into account and then reduce desired thickness of pockets by milling process
according to design requirement. There will be another approach of manufacturing sequence
which milling process take first to get desired thickness distribution and then followed by roller
bending using padding assisted process. Some of researcher have been studied for this approach
but less results were come out.
Roller bending process is simple and mutual manufacturing process in sheet metal forming
field. But improvement of materials and improvement of production sequences, still have
challenges in prediction of final curvature. The springback prediction and final curvature
controlling is main challenges in roll bending process even in uniform thickness sheet.
Therefore, the integral skin panel with different thickness distribution in padding assisted roll
bending have many challenges to control desired radius of curvature and springback prediction.
Many researchers have been studied for roll bending process for uniform thickness but less in
such kind of skin panel roll bending and padding assisted roll bending process.
Although roller bending is simple bending operation, padding assisted roller bending is
complex process because of nonlinear situation such as material nonlinearity, contact
nonlinearity and geometry nonlinearity etc. Even some of padding assisted roll bending analysis
research, simple geometry and thickness distribution were analyzed. Therefore, for more
complex integral skin panel, how to control final radius of curvature and how to design three-
rollers bending process and padding material thickness is main problems to be solved.
In this research, complex geometry which has different thickness zone distribution and
many shallow pockets are located in single integral skin panel. To get desired radius of
curvature, three-rollers bending process model and padding thickness investigation are main
objectives. 2060-T8 Al-Li alloy integral skin panel will be investigated in this research for
roller bending using padding assisted process and estimate process design and padding material
thickness. Based on theoretical investigation, finite element simulation with ABAQUS will be
carried out for optimization of this research.
The research padding assisted roller bending for 2060-T8 Al-Li alloy aircraft skin integral
panel with unequal thickness distribution can be divided into theoretical, finite element
simulation. Theoretical study takes material modeling for particular material, geometry
investigation, bending process analysis and padding thickness investigation. Several
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researchers have been studied in roll-bending process for plate and beams with four-rollers and
three-rollers types but few in unequal thickness roll-bending and filling roll-bending process.
Finite element simulation analysis consists all aspects from theoretical study and perform
simulation analysis considering actual boundary conditions. Finally, padding assisted roller
bending process design and parameter optimization for aircraft integral skin panel was
successfully investigated and validated with finite element simulations.
1.1 Background
As we have described in introduction paragraph, roller forming is most common used

process in production of aircraft integral skin panel. Different types of roller forming are used
in the manufacturing of aircraft integral skin panel depend on their design requirements.
However, the aircraft integral skin panel is not simple skin parts which has rib supports or some
hollow, groove and thickness reduction design. Therefore, following manufacturing process
such as machining is required after roll forming of aircraft integral skin panel. Many of aircraft
manufacturing factories are using this process sequences in recent years. In this process
sequences, firstly roll forming of skin panel taking into account and then machining process is
followed according to design requirement to reduce thickness or make hole or grooves on it.
Because of this second steps of machining, final curvature estimation is more difficult to predict.
And special milling machines and tooling for machining of formed skin panel parts are required.
From this point of view, padding assisted roller bending concepts is coming out. In this
point of consideration, machining process for desired designed will take into account firstly and
then continue to roll forming on roller bending machine as shown in Figure 4. In this concept,
no specialized machine and tooling is required. Moreover, prediction of final curvature will not
need to consider subsequence machining induced stresses. Therefore, padding assisted roller
bending process of aircraft integral skin panel concept is emerged and try to make sure with
theoretical and simulation analysis. If we can ensure padding assisted roller bending for such
kind of unequal thickness integral skin panel in real world, we can reduce less tooling and
machinery such as skin milling machine and special fixture & jigs manufacturing.
Practically, this is a kind of roller bending of sheet metal using three rollers pyramidal
configuration which is very commonly used. There are several literatures have been founded in
these three rollers bending of sheet metal from different approach to predict final radius of
curvature. As plastic strain is just near elastic yield point in roller bending of sheet metal, still
have challenges depend on improvement of new generation material. Moreover, we have to
4
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investigated based on our existing machine facilities of three rollers bending machine
configuration and capabilities.
Figure 4 Three rollers bending machine
1.2 Roll bending of sheet metal skin
The term, roller bending is a continuous forming process using rollers to bend sheet metal
workpiece or beam into desired shapes such us cylinder, cones and etc. Different roll bending
machine types have been used over several decades ago, adapting various forming process
specifications. [1] Nevertheless, it can be divided into two main type which are four rollers and
three rollers’ types (including asymmetrical and pyramidal configuration). It is elastic-plastic
deformation of a sheet metal no change in surface area and thickness. Although, asymmetrical
configuration can produce more accurate final shape and faster, pyramidal is very commonly
used configuration in large scale roll bending. Pyramidal configuration three-rollers bending
process is most common process applied in single curvature aircraft fuselage skin
manufacturing. Prediction of final radius of curvature is more difficult as application of higher
strength material, spring-back after unloading. Besides, bending residual stress is also key
factor which effect on final shape while conduction further mechanical processes after roll
bending.
It is a sequential process of bending operation using single or multi passes of rolling

process. The accuracy in final deformed dimension mostly depends on experience and skills of
operator. Moreover, operation parameter such as roller diameters, roller distances, rolling speed
and material properties are key factors in three rollers bending of sheet.[2] In the bending of a
5
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thin sheet, if the bending radius is more than three or four times of its thickness, it is can be
assumed that the plane normal section to sheet skin will remain plane. When the strains are
large, the elastic strain could be neglected. Then the power law strain hardening model is used.
[1] In power law strain hardening model, the distribution of stress will be as show in Figure 5.
The whole section is assumed to be deforming as plastically and stress at the distance y from
neutral axis is,
𝑦
𝜎1 = 𝐾՜𝜀1𝑛 ≈ 𝐾՜ (𝜌)𝑛 .
Figure 5 Elastic-plastic bending of sheet
Although it seems a simple process, final curvature of plate is not easy to control or handle
by theoretically. Since 1979,[4] Hansen proposed symmetrical three-roller bending model to
calculate upper roller position of a beam getting a desired radius of curvature. During modeling
of bending process, constant rectangular cross section, isotropic material, liner strain
distribution, coincident of neutral and center lines were assumed. According to triangular
moment distribution of bending process and mathematical iteration, an equation to control
upper roller position as a function of curvature in segment arc length was derived.
Simultaneously, a moment function for each segment arc distribution was carried out and finally
whole radius of curvature function was illustrated based on bending moment distribution and
segment arc length. He concluded that computation of beam curvature during bending is
possible and calculated functions were much different from often assumed constant and gave a
contribution to understanding for roller bending of beams. For a specific radius of curvature is
required by manual control, trial and error method must be used normally. Moreover, machine
geometry is much more sensitive than material properties parameters in roller bending process.
Roll-bending is a process which is continuously loading and unloading and basically three-
point bending is principal. [5] Combination of solutions with geometrical relations in three-
roller bending machine, bending angles and deflection occurring in the steady continuous
bending period were calculated by nonlinear equations. When material properties of elastic-
perfectly plastic material model are determined, final curvature of bent plate depends on its
6
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thickness and roller positions in three-roller bending process. Roller bending of sheet metal skin
is elastic-plastic forming process which is quite sparse. Finite element method application
mainly drove to reach optimal properties of roller bending machines.[6] Although there are
different types of roller bending process, three rollers pyramidal configuration is very
commonly used in aviation industry to produce aircraft frames, rockets body skin etc.
1.3 Roller configuration and curvature analysis
The process of roller bending perform sheet metal workpiece to deform desired radius of
curvature by controlling of roller configuration and feeding depth. In four rollers bending
process, two side rollers and upper rollers downward feeding control deformed shape of sheet
metal parts where lower distance and upper rollers downward position control shape of
deformed sheet metal in three rollers bending machines. In pyramidal configuration of three
rollers bending machine, two bottom rollers locate at horizontal level and only can adjust their
center distance between each other. The curvature of sheet metal is controlled by upper roller
downward feeding value. Therefore, in pyramidal configuration of three roller bending process,
roller configuration is most critical which influence in deformed rather than other factors. But,
during research work, we should consider according to existing machine facilities because of
difference set up parameter in different machine models.
Investigation on roller configuration and deformed curvature of sheet metal parts have
been carried out from different approaches. Most of them are agreed that roller configuration is
most influence parameter on deformed curvature rather than others. Actually, roller
configuration of pyramidal three rollers bending process has only three main issues which are
roller diameter, bottom roller center distance and upper roller downward displacement. For this
case, roller diameter and bottom rollers center distance have limitation depend on machine
facility while upper roller downward free to investigate. Depend on workpiece design different
configuration of rollers can be selected to get desired deformed shape.
Gandhi and Raval [7] developed three analytical model for roller configuration
consideration and analyzed empirical model and then verified with experimental study. Three
types of concepts were investigated in analytical study based on point contact shifting of top
roller and plate. Finally, empirical model was investigated based on concepts 3 which consider
contact points shifting and geometry deviation of loaded curvature. After experimental study,
this concept model is agreed with empirical model. Consideration of initial strain effect and
changing of elastic modulus in spring-back condition will be improved in estimation of top
7
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roller position in three roller bending process. Therefore, during three roller bending study,
contact point deviation of roller and sheet will affect the final radius of curvature.
Yang and Shima [8] simulated deformation U-shape cross section plate bending with
pyramidal three-rollers configuration. Depend on the material properties of workpiece, radius
of curvature and bending moment distribution have been calculated according to displacement
and rotation of the rollers. Without rotation of bottom rollers, deformation or curvature of
workpiece is increase at contact point between upper roller and workpiece when upper rollers
move downwards. It’s similar to normal three-points bending process. Secondly, changing the
distribution of curvature due to bottom rollers rotation was investigated considering contact
points shifting and simulated each element nodal points. Displacement of upper roller and
rotation of lower rollers were combined while considering for process. These movement were
divided into small increments such as radius of curvature, bending moment and deflection
angles which were investigated for each step. Changing of contact points between the
workpiece and the rollers in the process was regulated in each increment. For a given
displacement of the upper rollers is calculated by an iteratively.
Shin et.al [9] proposed mechanics of three-rollers bending process for smooth curved
plates in both theoretical and finite element approaches to develop calculating accurate
determining of upper roller position for a desired radius of curvature. Theoretical approach has
been evaluated by modifying existing model according to beam theory. In finite element
approach, beam element and plane strain shell elements were used and showed that it yields to
sufficiently accurate for smooth curved plate and determine upper roller position for desired
radius of curvature.
Aguiar [10] presented a theoretical solution to develop bending moment calculation from
curvatures at different positions during three rollers bending. Considering normal plain
remaining and assuming principal directions of stress and strain coincided with tangential,
radial and normal directions respectively, bending process model was developed. Numerical
model for bending force prediction in three roller conical bending process was developed by
Chudasama and Raval [11]. Consideration of shear stresses developed in the workpiece along
with the normal stresses in roll bending, this analysis can be used to get the roller bending force
and the effects of other parameters such as material properties parameters and roller
configuration geometrical parameters on it.
8
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Jingwen, Peng et al. [12] investigated three-roller bending of third generation aluminum-
lithium alloy (2060-T8) plate with theoretical, numerical and experimentally as well. An
adaptive material model was investigated by uniaxial tensile test and fitted mathematically.
According to theoretical model, roller bending and residual stress configuration were
determined by mathematically. In their research, three segment different deformation condition
shown in Figure 6 were studied separately and then whole curvature function and residual stress
distribution are determined. Simultaneously, numerical simulation using ABAQUS standard
model was analyzed and final radius of curvature was fitted after springback. Totally seven
parts were tested experimentally to compare theoretical and numerical model and founded that
calculation with variable material model had better prediction than other approach including
numerical analysis. Residual stress was measured and compared with theoretical and numerical
model.
Figure 6 Pyramidal three rollers bending scheme [12]
1.4 Padding assisted roller bending
Jin-song et.al [13] analyzed finite element simulation and experimental technique for
aircraft integral panel roll bending with rubber filler. In the integral panel roller bending
process, bending without filling material may appear bucking and not uniformly smooth
deformation of skin. For improving of integral panel’s appearance and performance during
roller bending, rubber filling method could be used to reduce the force acting of the ribs and
buckling amount. During roller bending process, there are two major aspects of resin filler
which were enhancing the stability of ribs and keeping uniform plastic of the skin portions. The
hexahedron 8-nodes fully integrated element was used in finite element simulation process
where material is 2A12T4 aluminum alloy. During finite element simulation, it was founded
9
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that plastic forming deformation mainly focus on the ribs and final deformed shape of integral
panel skin was affected by plastic deformation of ribs. Moreover, increasing of rolling
reduction, bending radius and spring-back rate were reduced before and after spring-back.
Experimental analysis was carried out according to finite element simulation parameters and
compared to each. In experimental roll bending, rubber filler enhanced the plastic forming of
ribs and so stress condition of integral panel skin with rubber filling was improved. The rolling
force acting on the skin via Rubber fillers to produce plastic deformation on the skin. However,
for integral panel skin with high thickness difference structures, resin filling will be difficult to
use. According to their simulation and experimental analysis, incremental bending method is
most reliable for integral panel skin with high thickness difference structures while low
thickness difference is suitable.
Because of several aspect in three-roller bending process such as elastic-plastic material

model, asymmetric curvature respected to its contact points with inner rollers and contact points
shifting between plate and bottom rollers, simplified three-point bending beam model was
analyzed in their research. According to three points moment distribution, upper roller position
was calculated for a desired unloaded radius of curvature. Both theoretical and numerical
approaches were carried out and compared to experimental results. At same upper roller
position, larger rollers diameter and longer bottom rollers center distance which respect to roller
diameters showed better simulation precision of workpiece. They proved simulation with
ABAQUS finite element model provide optimum tooling and process design for roll bending
process by experimental analysis.
Han Xiao et.al [14] investigated 2124T351 aluminum alloy integral panel for filling roller
bending process which has dimension of 516 x 260 mm and 8 mm in thickness as shown in
Figure 7. In the process of roller bending with filler, the difference between equivalent plastic
strains became smaller and plastic strain of most skin zone was 0.007 as the integral panel with
filler made the stress state change the stress of skin increased. Therefore, plastic strain became
larger and had more uniform distribution which improved geometric accuracy of panel after
unloading. During their experiment, with the increment of top-roller displacement, springback
rate with filler reduce from 0.92% to 0.15 %. And it was founded that it is smaller in with filler
experiment and larger in without filler. Resin filling roller bending process is the process of
small strain and large displacement. Filler material make decreasing of the stress, shear stress
and strain between ribs and skins. Therefore, using resin filling process can improve
deformation of the integral panel in roller bending process.
10
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Figure 7 Rubber filling scheme of integral panel roller bending [14]
Mehrara & Nategh [15] studied sheet metal roll bending rest on a rubber pad with three
different zones during roll bending along sheet metal profile. Governing differential equation
for the deformation zones have been investigated with elastic-plastic bending of sheet. Their
roll bending scheme is shown in Figure 8. They assumed rubber as a linear elastic material
which deformation is limited to vertical direction and linear elasticity formulation was used.
And studied separately for bending of plate as elastic, plastic and undeformed zone respectively.
Theoretical results have been revealed that the interaction between the indentation depth and
loaded bending radius. Then It can be study nearly as linear within the tested range and
expressed as, h = A𝞺 +B.
They expressed that equation is powerful to predict desired indentation depth for
producing required radius of curvature. According to their study, it was shown that increasing
in elastic modulus of material and rubber pad can decrease in yield indentation depth.
Figure 8 Single roller bending rest on rubber pad [15]
11
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Kwon et.al [16] conducted the research in experimentally on bending of structural frame
with rubber pad (polyurethane) assist which replace instead of lower metal die. Research
experimental set up scheme is illustrated in Fig. 3 which mean that rubber pad moved with
constant velocity along the rolling direction controlled by hydraulic cylinder. As the top roller
downward displacement increase, the resistant of the polyurethane pad increases as well.
Therefore, the total amount of springback was determined by resistant pressure. According to
result, the final deformation geometry of structural frame depended mainly on the material
properties of the rubber (padding) used in their experiment. Thus, material behavior of padding
material must be known clearly. As a result, relation between top roller downward displacement
and radius of curvature at profile center was obtained for arbitrary shaped profiles. However,
alignment inspection measurement of the roller path is necessary to improve for more accurate
process design.
Kong et.al [17] studied padding assisted roller bending process for Al2024-T3 sheet shown
in Figure 9 with Nylon PA6-G material in numerical simulation. Based on three-points bending
process, simple thickness distribution sheet was formed in ABAQUS finite element software
with padding assisted roll bending process. During simulation, two different friction
coefficients were setting up for aluminum-rollers and padding material- rollers. Three different
model with different thickness variation and geometry are analyzed and compared the effects
of padding thickness and upper roller position. It was founded that padding thickness give
significant effect on final radius of curvature. Moreover, radius of curvature in different
thickness portion kept nearly same while loading condition, but it changed to great different
after springback. According to their finite element simulation results, greater padding thickness
ratio give greater final curvature in same upper roller position. Therefore, thickness prediction
for padding material is necessary to improve consistency of final curvature.
Figure 9 Padding assisted roller bending process (PARB)[17]
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Rubber (or) elastomer forming is a method of die-less forming process of sheet metal
production has several advantages such as tooling cost reduction and scratching problems.
However, because of serving deforming during process, it needs to replace and so, fatigue life
of rubber (or) elastic material was investigated by J Park et.al [18]. Using finite element
modelling, durability of rubber (or) elastic material was evaluated in fatigue life. Generally,
fatigue life of elastic material is related to performance of material defining stress and number
of cycles up to failure. From their research, prediction of elastic material life is over 53000
cycles and concluded that is feasible to use from accuracy and cost-effective points of views.
1.5 Finite element simulation of sheet metal roller bending
Roller bending process is nonlinear problem which required higher cost and intensive
computational operations. Finite element solver is mostly chosen by most researchers for such
kind of nonlinear problems for roller bending process. Zeng et.al [19] analyzed numerical
simulation and experimental test for prediction of lateral roller position in three-roll bending
process asymmetrical configuration. Tensile test was performed of plate material to determine
elastic-plastic material model and numerical simulation was carried out together with
experimental test. Position of lateral roller center determined the diameters of the bent cylinders
and applied force direction on the contact line of the plate by the lateral roller is along with its
moving direction. If the spring-back is neglected, following equations give coordinate of lateral
rolls center. Finite element modeling was based on following assumption,
a. The material was considered as isotropic and assumed bilinear elastic-plastic

deformation process and no change in elastic modulus, yield stress and tangent
modulus.
b. Friction coefficients for static and dynamic were assumed to be constant between plate
and rolls.
c. The rollers were assumed as rigid bodies.
4-nodes shell elements have been used and 5 integration points was selected in the sheet
thickness direction using ANSYS/LS-DYNA environment with explicit integration. It was
founded only 6% difference of results between simulations analysis and experiments and
possibly caused by deflection effect of the rollers. A model used in finite element analyses for
an asymmetrical three-roller bending process was then developed with prediction of lateral
roller position using bilinear elastic-plastic material model. It was concluded that the models
13
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were able to predict the position of the lateral roller and will help to increase the production
capability by improving traditional trial and error method.
Ktari et.al [20] simulated 2-dimensional FE model for three-rollers bending of steel sheets
using ABAQUS explicit based on contact boundary condition, material properties. Although,
implicit and explicit simulation were successfully carried out, explicit solving method was
found to be more suitable as small-time increment is needed in that problem. The dynamic
explicit analysis procedures were based on explicit integration rule using diagonal element mass
matrices. For material properties paraments for analyzed material was obtained by uniaxial
tensile test which is S275JR steel. During simulation, mass scaling factor greatly affected on
computational results; the larger mass scaling factor, the shorter in computational time.
Nevertheless, higher mass scaling factor can be leaded to unstable solution condition and result
accuracy may decrease. The Workpiece was discretized by reducing the integration linear plane
stress elements while rollers were modeled with linear rigid elements under friction coefficient
were assumed to be constant. They founded that plastic strains are maximum on outermost
surfaces and minimum in neutral layer zone. Moreover, longer center distance between two
lower rollers leaded in bigger curvature radius when the top roller position was fixed and it was
concurred with that of Gandhi and Raval.
Weidong Li et.al [21] verified with experimental testing and investigation and numerical
model which studied bending residual stress distribution after roll bending process. Application
of sub-modeling technique significantly improved in efficiency of numerical analysis. Fu et.al
[22] investigated both theoretical and finite element approaches the relationship between upper
roller downward displacement and desired radius of curvature after spring-back of plate. Using
plane strain element S4R with bilinear elastic-plastic constitutive model, simulation of semi-
circle shaped workpiece was analyzed. According to their simulation concepts, top roller
position was determined by desired semi-circle which show in following Figure 10.
Sub-modeling is used to investigate local part of a simulated model using refined mesh.
Depending on solution interpolation from an initial (undeformed) stage, relatively coarse,
global model, sub-modelling can be study when global model simulation was completed. It is
very useful when we need to obtain more accurate result, detailed solution in a desired local
region which has negligible effect on the overall solution. It can be used a combination of linear
and nonlinear procedures. Node-based sub-modeling technique is more general, supporting
different element type combinations and different procedures in ABAQUS FEM software.
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Different types of element can be used in the sub-modelling analysis than those used in the
global model. In other hand, surface-based sub-modeling provide limited elements types.
Figure 10 Upper roller position determination [22]
The element formulation is main technology in numerical simulation analysis of sheet

metal forming process which has obvious influence on results. [23] Linear 3 or 4 nodes elements
are widely used in sheet metal forming FE simulation analysis. To improve the accuracy of
simulation, smaller element size is required according to theoretically. Smaller element size can
give improved accuracy results in springback calculation. The integration scheme and number
of integration points along with sheet thickness direction have been play key role in springback
simulation. The amount of springback depends on the bending moment which is controlled by
stress distribution through thickness of sheet metal. Moreover, smaller time set up will provide
more accurate in simulation results but time consumption will increase follow by. Material
model is another key aspect in numerical finite element simulation of sheet metal forming.
Analysis. For higher precision simulation results, well-measured experimental data for material
properties are required.
Finite element simulation for padding assisted in asymmetric roll bending for 2024-T3
different thickness distribution sheet was studied with ABAQUS finite element simulation and
investigated material selection for padding by Tianhai et.al [24]. Due expansion of padding was
considered in all directions, there was a gap between padding material and product part along
transverse and longitudinal direction. To inspect final curvature and straightness of panel,
longitudinal lines and transverse line are chosen and calculated using nodal coordinates
extracted with ABAQUS tools. According to this inspection, PA6 padding material is good in
straightness evaluation where the higher strength material PA6-G give good curvature
15
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evaluation. Thickness of padding material will affect the final curvature as well. Three different
thickness for overall are analyzed via simulation but not consider for each thickness distribution
of panel as shown in Figure 11. They concluded that thicker padding will improve better
straightness forming results.
Figure 11 Rubber filling of unequal thickness sheet [24]
Tailor et.al studied deformed geometry of plate in three rollers bending using finite
element simulation [25]. While other process design parameters and material properties kept
constant, final radius of curvature varies depend on different rolling speed. Decreasing in rolling
speed of rollers leads to more deformation of sheet while increasing may occurs non-
deformation conditions. Another factor which influences on bending quality is sheet length as
it has been observed non-deformed portion of sheet produced large vibration while rolling due
to cantilever. Due to this vibration effect, reaction forces have been found in high fluctuating at
beginning and stable in subsequently. But this many effects on final radius of curvature or
bending quality of sheet. Beside important factor which has high changing rate of final radius
is material properties. Moreover, friction is also key influencer in roller bending process
because the sheet deforms according to friction produced by rollers and sheet. It is necessary to
investigate to set up proper coefficient of friction to perform simulation smoothly and perfectly.
Finite element simulation analyses or theoretical analyses may have the potential to
provide a better understanding of the roll bending process phenomena. Therefore, we can
decrease the setup time before manufacturing and waste of materials because of traditional trial-
and-error method. As finite element simulation analysis can give us more effective result than
traditional calculation and lead to experimental analysis results, almost all sheet metal forming
researches analyze in finite element simulation for validation of their theoretical approaches.
Nevertheless, verification with experiments is need to validate numerical modelling. Many
researchers already published and verify with experiments and their proposed analyzed models
in roller bending process.
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Chapter 2
Padding assisted roller bending process design

This research was conducted for padding assisted three rollers bending of aircraft integral
skin panel which is one of fuselage skin of passenger aircraft which has complex geometry and
different thickness distribution as shown in following Figure 12. The aircraft integral skin panel
is one of fuselage skin from civil passenger aircraft. According to design data, the skin panel
was 6000 mm long and width of 2000 mm and radius of 1922 mm curved shape. It has six
different thickness distribution which are 6mm, 5.5mm, 5mm, 4.5mm, 3.8mm and 3mm
respectively. These thickness distributions were milled before roller bending process and
therefore the research was conducted only roller bending process which already have been
milled according to design.
Figure 12 Different thickness section of an aircraft integral skin panel
The integral skin panel is made of third generation aluminum lithium alloy Al-Li 2060 T8.
To get the desired radius of curvature and prevent buckling because of unequal thickness
distribution, padding assisted with resin material was studied in three roller bending process
which is pyramidal configuration. Sheet metal forming is very sensitive case in practically
especially elastic-plastic forming like roller bending process. The deformation of sheet occur
just beyond the yield point and that region is very sensitive where strain error is large. However,
theoretical investigation is essential steps to proceed process design and roller bending
configuration parameters.
At the beginning, bending of sheet metal theory was took place to initiate this research and
secondly, material model investigation was performed. In the material modelling process, the
17
Chapter 2 Padding assisted roller bending process design
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
uniaxial tensile experimental test results have been used to fit material model so that to continue
our research. In three rollers bending process, one important thing is roller geometry design and
so, roller geometry design calculation was analyzed according to existing machine facilities in
aircraft manufacturer. As one of main focus point in this research roller geometry especially in
upper roller downward displacement, the relationship between loaded curvature and upper
roller displacement was investigated. Then, final curvature was studied. During this study the
applied load of upper roller while bending and rolling process was also been investigated.
Finally, padding thickness estimation for each thickness sections depend on applied load was
studied. The theoretical process design investigation was then been simulated in finite element
analysis software for validating design parameters.
2.1 Sheet metal bending theory
Roller bending process is similar to normal three point bending but it is continuous process
for bending of workpiece. At the beginning of the roller bending process, upper roller moves
downward to bend the workpiece or sheet metal to a desired curvature then rollers move to bend
the work piece or sheet metal continuously. This is main principal of roller bending process. In
three roller bending process, curvature of workpiece is controlled by roller configuration which
are upper roller downward movement, rollers diameters and center distance between bottom
rollers. Therefore, when we start to consider roller bending process, firstly we have to
investigate deformation of sheet metal during static bending condition.
At the beginning of roller bending process, static bending will take place. Our workpiece
is sheet metal which thickness is less than several times compare to its other length or width.
And also, our desired radius of curvature is larger than thickness of integral skin panel. When
we bend a sheet metal skin to a certain radius which is several times more than sheet thickness,
a plane of normal section of the sheet will remain plane. The deformation of that sheet and
center of curvature can be seen in Figure 13. According to this, a line of EF´which is middle
layer change to EF. That is original length ‘L’ can be expressed as follow,
𝑙𝑠=𝜌𝜃 (1)
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Figure 13 Deformation of longitudinal fiber in sheet metal bending process
Moreover, a fiber line AB which is located a certain distance of denoted by ‘y’ from
middle layer also deform to a certain length and then it can be,
𝑦 𝑦
𝑙 = 𝜃(𝜌 + 𝑦) = 𝜌𝜃 (1 + 𝜌) = 𝑙𝑠 (1 + 𝜌) (2)
Therefore, after bending of sheet metal to a certain radius of curvature then the axial strain
of that fiber AB is,
𝑙 𝑙𝑠 𝑦
𝜀1 = 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑙𝑛 + ln (1 + ) = 𝜀𝑎 + 𝜀𝑏 (3)
𝑙0 𝑙0 𝜌
In this equation, εa is strain at middle layer and εb is strain of bending. Then, the bending
radius and bending strain relation is as follow,
𝑦 𝑦
𝜀𝑏 = ln (1 + ) ≈ ≈ 𝑦𝜌 (4)
𝜌 𝜌
According to deformation of material properties, the relation between stress and strain in
this bending of sheet can be expressed below,
𝐸𝑦
𝜎1 = 𝐸𝜀1 = (5)
𝜌
As we have assumed to be plane strain condition, the modulus of elasticity is different

from ordinary Young’s modulus which is,
Eʹ=E/(1-v2) (6)
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And the strength coefficient will be,
Kʹ=K/(1-v2) (7)
where E is young’s modulus and K is strength coefficient of material, v is poison’s ratio.

Since the bending of sheet is plane strain and there is no transverse extrusion, then ε3=0 and
σ2=0. According to Hook’s law,
𝜎3 = 𝑣𝜎1 (8)
̅ reach single tensile yield stress σs, the

In the bending process, when the equivalent stress σ
sheet begins to yield and it can be expressed as below,
𝜎̅ = √𝜎12 + 𝜎22 + 𝜎12 − 𝜎1 𝜎2 − 𝜎1 𝜎3 − 𝜎2 𝜎3 = 𝜎1 √𝜈 2 − 𝜈 + 1 = 𝜎𝑠 (9)
1
𝜎1 = 𝜎𝑠 = 𝜎𝑠′ (10)
√𝜈 2 −𝜈+1
If we consider general distribution of stress for a normal section for a unit width of skin
panel in bending process as per following Figure 14. There is a force acting of a strip (which
has thickness dy) for unit section is σ1 x dy x 1 and tension Ton that section is in equilibrium
condition which is integration of these force elements and expressed as below,
𝑡⁄ 𝑡⁄ 𝑡⁄
2 2 2
𝑀=∫ 𝜎1 𝑑𝑦1𝑦 = ∫ 𝜎1 𝑦𝑑𝑦 = 2 ∫ 𝜎1 𝑦𝑑𝑦 (11)
−𝑡⁄ −𝑡⁄ 0
2 2
Figure 14 Equalibrium condition of a unit width section of a sheet
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2.2 Material model
During sheet bending process, material properties of sheet material is necessary to

investigate as its elastic and plastic properties varies depend on different material. Changing of
these properties’ parameter will affect the deformation of sheet. Beside roller bending
deformation of sheet just happen beyond elastic limit. Its big challenges for prediction of
deformed shape in roller bending process even in single thickness sheet because strain variation
just beyond elastic limit is very sensitive region and larger value changing. Therefore, it is not
enough to predict final deformed geometry only by theoretical investigation but need numerical
simulation and experimental investigation as well. However, firstly theoretical investigation
was carried out to proceed following research processes.
The aircraft integral skin panel will be used third generation aluminum lithium alloy Al-
Li 2060 T8 and industrial resin sheet will be used for padding assisted during roller bending
process. This type of material is newly developed third generation alloy especially for aircraft
structure parts. Experimental testing of this Al-Li 2060 T8 alloy was carried out by author’s
department to get its mechanical properties and padding material as well. Following will be
described their material properties and modelling process for this research.
2.1.1 Aluminum Lithium Alloy

Aluminum alloys have been used in aircraft structure parts as main material since 80 years
ago due to their performance, good established design method, production and inspection
reliability techniques [26]. Aluminum-lithium (Al-Li) alloy is only over 30 years ago, that has
matured and enabled development of alloy family with excellent engineering properties
combination so called third-generation Al-Li alloy. Main developments of this alloys are (i)
advanced production technique for large scale melting with optimized chemical compositions,
(ii) advanced process modelling, (iii) thermomechanical treatment of wide rage microstructure
and mechanical properties combinations (like strength, toughness, crack growth resistance and
fatigue resistance) and (iv) fabrication and manufacturing technologies [27].
Third generation aluminum lithium alloy 2060-T8 is newly developed to replace

traditional alloy for aircraft skin panel parts. Because of its high stiffness and low weight, much
interest is focused on it. In this research this third-generation aluminum lithium alloy Al-Li
2060 T8 is used to investigate for padding assisted roller bending. Before starting theoretical
consideration, its necessary to investigate material model so that to ensure its mechanical
21
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properties. According to experimental test results, mechanical properties of Al-Li 2060 T8 is

as follow.
Density : 2.7e-09 g/mm3

Elastic : 70940 MPa
Poison’s ratio : 0.3
More detail material properties are necessary to investigate for our roller bending process.
Therefore, experimental test results of 2060-T8 aluminum lithium alloy was taken from
researcher’s departmental lab. The plastic properties of this third-generation alloy are as per
following Table 1.
Table 1 Plastic properties of Al-Li 2060 T8 alloy

504.785
517.996
529.727
541.784
551.542
560.895
569.102
576.207
581.184
489.33
Stress
0.01062
0.02064
0.03067
0.05096
0.06103
0.07091
0.08121
0.08974
Plastic
0.0407
Strain
0
When we consider to investigate theoretical sheet bending process, material properties are
needed to check its yield stress and deformation model. Based on plastic properties data from
experimental result, the material model of Al-Li 2060 T8 is similar to exponential hardening
model which shown in figure. Therefore, this model will be used in our following theoretical
consideration and formulation and yield stress, strength coefficient and strain hardening index
are calculated.
𝐸𝜀 0 < 𝜀 < 𝜀𝑠
σ={ (12)
𝜎𝑠 + 𝐾(𝜀 − 𝜀𝑠 )𝑛 𝜀 ≥ 𝜀𝑠
where, 𝜀𝑠 is yield strain, 𝜎𝑠 is yield stress, K is strength coefficient and n defined as

strain hardening index. As per fitting result of material properties, suitable value of yield stress
in 460 MPa, K= 443.7 and n = 0.528. These values will take into account in the following
calculation processes. According to Hook’s law, the axial stress distribution along the thickness
direction of the cross section can be expressed as follow,
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Figure 15 Stress-strain curve of aluminum lithium Al-Li 2060 T8 alloy
𝐸𝑦 𝑡𝑠
𝜌 |𝑦| <
𝜎1 = 2 (13)
𝑦 𝜎𝑠′ 𝑡𝑠 𝑡
𝜎𝑠′ + 𝐾( − )𝑛 ≤ |𝑦| ≤
{ 𝜌 𝐸 2 2
where, ts is minimum thickness of sheet metal with only elastic deformation occurred (which
mean elastic thickness of sheet) which can be calculated by,
2𝜌𝜎𝑠′
𝑡𝑠 = (14)
𝐸
Therefore, the bending moment in the plate can be expressed as follow,
𝑛+1 𝑡/2
𝑦 𝜎′ 𝜎 ′ (𝑛 + 1)𝑦
𝑡/2
𝜎𝑠′ 𝑡 2 𝜌2 𝜎𝑠′
3 𝜌 (𝜌 − 𝐸𝑠 )
2
( 𝐸𝑠 + )
𝜌 ⌉
M = 2∫ 𝜎1 𝑦𝑑𝑦 = − + (15)
0 4 3𝐸 3 (𝑛 + 1)(𝑛 + 2) ⌉
⌉𝑡𝑠 /2
2.1.2 Padding material

This research is aircraft integral skin panel with different thickness distribution are formed
by a padding assisted roller bending process. As increasing in complexity of roller bending due
to padding assisted, it is necessary to investigate process of padding assisted roller bending. In
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this padding assisted roller bending process, springbok of skin panel not only depend on process
parameters design but also material properties of integral skin panel and padding material.
Therefore, we need to know material properties of padding material. Resin material which has
hyper elastic properties will be used for padding material and its material properties are as
follow;
Density : 1.1e-09 g/mm3

Elastic : 1800 MPa
Poison’s ratio : 0.34
Padding material is a kind of hyper elastic material which will serve as cushion or padding
to prevent the workpiece sheet metal from unnecessary damage and filling required thickness
of different thickness area during rolling bending process. Although there are several elastic
material types, we will use industrial resin which properties are as per above mentioned.
2.3 Three roller bending geometry
As we have discussed in previous chapter, rollers configuration is most critical which

control deformed shape of sheet metal parts. Roller’s diameter, bottom rollers center distance
and upper roller position are necessary to investigate. In reality, aircraft integral skin panel will
be produced in aviation industry and we need to check our existing machine facilities. In this
research, our considered three rollers bending machine has same roller diameters of 90 mm for
all three rollers. Therefore, we don’t need to consider for this point and only need to investigate
bottom rollers center distance and upper roller position.
The roller bending process can be divided mainly in two steps; static bending and rolling
steps. If we consider deformation, there will be three stages such as elastic bending, elastic-
plastic bending and unloading stages. The contact between rollers and sheet is point contact. To
continue theoretical calculation following assumptions were applied,
1. Roller bending process is plain strain problem and assume unit width of 1 mm.
2. The neutral layer coincides with the half thickness fibers of skin panel.
3. The cross section in plane state before deformation is still plane and perpendicular to the
middle plane after deformation.
4. The sheet is in the unidirectional stress condition, ignoring the shear stress and extrusion
force between axial fiber layers.
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5. The deviation of the contact angle between the skin panel and upper roller is ignored that
is the contact points is assumed to be directly below the upper roller.
In sheet metal bending process, the loaded radius before spring-back is 𝑅𝑙 , the bending
moment in the plate is maximum amount and U is set as the upper roller’s downward
displacement as shown in Figure 16. In the three rollers bending process, we can adjust only
two parameter of rollers geometry which are bottom rollers center and upper roller downward
displacement. In this research, we have fixed bottom rollers center distance as 200 mm. Based
on literatures and other researches, normally from 190~220 mm is used in sheet metal roller
bending of pyramidal types configuration. Therefore, we have studied based on 200 mm center
distance between bottom rollers. We have studied only on upper roller downward movement
effect on final radius of curvature for a certain sheet metal workpiece.
Rt
O1
Rb B Rb
O2
D O2
Figure 16 Geometrical relation of three rollers pyramidal configuration of sheet
2.4 Upper roller displacement and loaded curvature
During static bending stage, the upper roller moves downward to a certain position to bend
the skin panel. In this stage, it is similar to normal three-point bending process. Two bottom
rollers are in static position and only upper roller move downward to bend the skin panel. Then
the skin panel was bent to a certain radius of curvature. In this situation, the relationship
between radius bent skin panel and roller configuration is according to Figure 16. And the right
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triangle ODO2 , as shown in Figure 16 , the relationship between loaded radius of curvature and
upper roller downward displacement can be expressed as,
𝑡 𝑡
(𝜌𝑙 + + 𝑅𝑏 − 𝑈)2 + 𝑎2 = (𝜌𝑙 + + 𝑅𝑏 )2 (16)
2 2
This is bending stage and radius of curvature is loaded curvature before springback.
Therefore, the loaded curvature can be calculated as,
𝑈 2 + 𝑎2 𝑡
𝜌𝑙 = − − 𝑅𝑏 (17)
2𝑈 2
In this stage, bending moment reach its maximum. The maximum bending moment at that
condition can be obtained as follow,
𝑛+1 𝑡/2
𝑦 𝜎𝑠′
2 𝜎𝑠′ (𝑛 + 1)𝑦
𝜌 ( − ) ( 𝐸′ +
′ 2
𝜎𝑠 𝑡 2 ′3
𝜌𝑙 𝜎𝑠 𝑙 )
𝜌𝑙 𝐸 ′ 𝜌𝑙 ⌉
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = − + (18)
4 3𝐸 ′ 3 (𝑛 + 1)(𝑛 + 2) ⌉
⌉𝑡𝑠 /2
2.5 Springback and final curvature
After bending stage is finished, the roller rolls to deform the skin panel continuously.
When the skin panel move toward the exit side of roller, the bending moment will decrease
dramatically and springback occurs. Therefore, between top roller and lower roller of exit side
is springback area. When the sheet enters to spring-back area, the bending moment decrease
gradually and elastic unloading occurs. When the bending moment, M=0, the sheet is
completely unloaded then,
Δ𝑀 = 𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 (19)
When skin panel exit from top roller contact point, due to springback and elastic unloading
situation, radius of curvature is reduced from loaded curvature. The skin panel radius of
curvature is completely stable after existing from lower roller of exit side. Let ρf is the final
radius of curvature after spring-back or unloaded condition, then
𝑦 𝑦
Δ𝜀1 = − (20)
𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑓
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1 1
Δ𝜎1 = 𝐸 ′ Δ𝜀1 = ( − )𝐸 ′ 𝑦 (21)
𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑓
Then,
𝑡/2
𝐸′ 𝑡3 1 1
Δ𝑀 = 2 ∫ Δ𝜎1 𝑦𝑑𝑦 = ( − ) (22)
0 12 𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑓
Therefore, by equation 21 & 24 the final radius of curvature can be obtained as follow
which related to loaded curvature and maximum bending moment,
𝜌𝑙 𝐸 ′ 𝑡 3
𝜌𝑓 = ′ 3 (23)
𝐸 𝑡 − 12𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜌𝑙
Figure 17 Loaded radius of curvature and U displacement relation
After analyzing of material properties of skin panel calculation process for predication of
upper roller displacement and padding thickness estimation has been continued. Firstly, using
equation 19, for different thickness of skin panel and different upper roller downward
displacement under loading condition can be calculated as shown in Figure 17. As the material
is same, the variation of loaded radius of curvature for different thickness section varied similar
as exponential model. According to Figure 17, we have used upper roller downward
displacement value from 3 mm to 30 mm. We can see obviously that variation of loaded radius
of curvature more sensitively in the range of upper roller downward displacement value 5 mm
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to 15 mm. When upper roller downward displacement moves in this range loaded radius of
curvature deviation is large. This is normal situation of elastic-plastic forming process of sheet
metal.As we described in equation (14) and (17), the critical yield thickness ts and upper roller
downward displacement relation can be seen in the Figure 18.
Figure 18 Upper roller displacement U and critical yield thickness
Figure 19 Minimum U displacement for different thickness yielding
Based on above calculation, the relationship between maximum bending moment and
upper roller downward displacement are as per following Figure 20.
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Figure 20 Maximum bending moment in different U displacement
Figure 21 Relationship between U displacement and final radius of curvature
Then we can calculate final radius of curvature based on above results of upper roller
displacement, maximum bending moment and loaded curvature. The relationship between final
radius of curvature and upper roller downward displacement U can be seen in the Figure 21.
From this calculation, we can get estimated upper roller downward displacement for each
thickness of sheet. For 6 mm thickness section, ‘U’ value for getting desired radius of curvature
is 14.78mm. For other thickness sections, we can be extracted from our calculation program
29
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figure as per Table 2. But our skin panel is combination of different thickness section on a single
sheet metal part, we have to focus on maximum thickness section. Other smaller thickness
section, we will use padding material with different thickness to prevent unnecessary
deformation conditions such as buckling, etc. Therefore, we have extracted of upper roller
downward displacement ‘U’ as 14.78 mm for initial process design. Further optimization will
be carried out according to finite element simulation results.
According to above figure and results, for final radius of curvature 1922 mm of each
thickness of plate, the upper roller downward displacement ‘U’ values are as follow,
Table 2 Required U displacement for different thickness of sheet (Rf = 1922 mm)
Sheet thickness (mm) 6 5.5 5 4.5 3.8 3
Upper roller displacement (mm) 14.7831 15.7344 16.8569 18.2039 20.6244 24.6339
And the maximum bending moment of each thickness section depend on different upper
roller downward displacement value ‘U’ are as per following Table 3. Actually, this
investigation is considered for separately in different thickness sections. In practical, the
maximum bending moment have to consider together but, in this stage, it is complicated for
combined consideration and calculation for different thickness sections together.
Table 3 Maximum bending moment of each thickness sections
Maximum Bending
2.4164e7 2.0175e7 1.6558e7 1.331e7 9.376e6 5.748e6
Moment (kN·mm)
2.6 Residual stress
After roll bending is complete the skin panel was completely deformed to a certain radius
of curvature and there will be certain amount of stress in skin panel which we called residual
stress after springback. If we have to proceed other manufacturing process such as mechanical
milling process, this residual stress is very important for final deformed after all manufacturing
is completed. In this process, we have completed all manufacturing process before roller
bending. Therefore, remaining residual stress is not much important but there will be
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assembling process. However, the residual stress in the cross section of skin panel after roller
bending is
𝜎1𝑓 = 𝜎1 − Δ𝜎1 (24)
According to equation 16 & 24, the residual stress can be calculated as follow,
𝑡𝑠
0 |𝑦| <
𝜎1𝑓 = {𝜎 ′ + 𝐾( 𝑦 − 𝜎𝑠′ 𝑛 1 1 2 (25)
𝑠 ) −( − )𝐸 ′ 𝑦 𝑡𝑠 𝑡
𝜌𝑙 𝐸′ 𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑓 ≤ |𝑦| ≤
2 2
This residual stress consideration is based on separately for different thickness of skin
panels. Therefore, it cannot be accurate in general. Actual residual stress can be extracted from
finite element simulation results. Nevertheless, theoretical investigation for residual stress after
roller bending process was carried out according to theory.
2.7 Applied load
During static bending process stage of sheet top roller will move downward to bent the
sheet getting desire amount. There will be a certain amount of force will act on plate where top
roller contacts on plate. Moreover, top roller will maintain its position over whole process of
roller bending and its mean that the power of top roller can be assumed same as static bending
stage. Although there will be other forces exerting on plate during roller bending process such
as friction forces, only top roller applied load can exert on padding thickness depression. When
upper roller moves downward to bent the skin panel, padding material will decrease its
thickness according to applied load and its will be same condition over complete process of
roller bending process. Therefore, we need to investigate applied load of upper roller.
In bending process, reaction forces depend on thickness of plates, plate width, material
properties and final radius of curvature [28]. The dynamic force exerting on lower rollers at
loading condition or entry side is more than exit side. If the thickness of sheet is increase, the
applied bending force of lower rollers increase as well. Moreover, coefficient of friction at
lower rollers also higher than upper roller. [29] The coefficient of friction at lower rollers and
sheet interfaces will increase while thickness of sheet increase. But coefficient of friction at the
upper roller and sheet interfaces will decrease when sheet thickness increase.[30]
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Considering three points bending of a beam and take a right triangle principle show in
Figure 22, the applied load (or) force of upper roller acting on the sheet can be expressed as
follow where maximum moment divided by moment arm,
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐹= = 𝑡 𝑡 (26)
𝐿 𝑎 ∗ (𝜌𝑙 − 2)/(𝜌𝑙 + 2 + 𝑅𝑏 )
Therefore, the applied load acting on the skin panel of different thickness sections for a
uint width are obtained as per following Table 4.
t/2
L Rb
Figure 22 Moment arm consideration diagram

Table 4 Applied load on different thickness of skin panel
Applied load (kN) 46.7456 39.3769 32.6586 26.5866 19.1609 12.199
This estimation of applied load is only for skin panel with unit width. Actually, the applied
load of upper roller acting on skin panel will be increased depend on width of skin panel and
also padding material thickness. As we have to used padding assisted during roller bending
process, the overall thickness of sheet and padding is larger, therefore applied load also will
increase. We have to optimize our applied load based on initial simulation results. The applied
load for actual condition during simulation have to extract from finite element simulation result
and use to optimize for padding thickness estimation with iteratively.
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2.8 Padding thickness calculation
Roller
Roller
Roller
T(s)i-1 T(s)max
T(s)i
Roller
Umin
Ui-1
Roller
Ui
T(s)max
Roller T(s)i-1
T(s)i
Figure 23 Different thickness of skin panel and different U value for desired radius
If the thickness of padding material is td, when thickness of plate t=6 mm and no need to
add padding material. In the static bending stage, upper roller moves downward to a certain
displacement to bend the skin getting and there will be force exerting on the skin induced by
upper roller downward movement. Due to this applied force or load padding will deform and
its thickness reduce to certain amount depend on applied load amount. As we have different
thickness of skin, we need all padding in different thickness section of skin remain same overall
thickness during loading condition. Therefore, padding thickness before loading is necessary to
calculated depend on applied load, elastic modulus of padding material and desired thickness
section of skin panel.
Before bending
Roller Roller Roller
td2
td1
T(s)i-1 T(s)max
T(s)i
Under bending
Roller Roller Roller

U
t'd1 t'd2
T(s)i-1 T(s)max
T(s)i
Figure 24 Different skin panel thickness and different padding thickness requirement
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As described in above Figure 23 & Figure 24, tʹd is padding thickness under loading
condition and td is padding thickness before loading. When a certain load is applied on it, then
padding thickness will reduce. For consideration of padding thickness estimation, firstly we
have to check different ‘U’ value for different thickness section. Then this ‘U’ value is assumed
to be same as tʹd and then we can calculate our desired padding thickness exerting applied load
of top roller on the skin panel. According to previous result of upper roller displacement for
different thickness of skin panel, 6 mm thickness is minimum value of upper roller displacement
‘U’. If we need to calculate padding thickness before loading for desired thickness of skin panel,
we can express as below,
𝐹
𝑡𝑑 (1 − ) = 𝑈𝑖 − 𝑈𝑚𝑖𝑛 (27)
𝐸𝑑
where Ed is elastic modulus of padding material and F is applied load of upper roller
acting on plate. Umin is upper roller downward displacement of maximum thickness section
which is smallest upper roller displacement value (here is ‘U value of 6 mm thickness section).
Ui is the upper roller downward displacement value of desired thickness section and td is the
padding thickness before loading condition. Then the required padding thickness of each
thickness section are obtained as follow,
Table 5 Required padding thickness for different thickness of sheet
Padding thickness (mm) 0 0.9726 2.1121 3.4721 5.9021 9.918
When the upper roller contact with upper surface of sheet with thickness is 6 mm, it is the
zero point or original position of upper roller. Then the upper roller downward displacement
will set 14.78 mm in roller bending process getting our desired curvature radius. Further study
of finite element simulation has been continued to validate this research.
Padding thickness and upper roller displacement optimization was carried out according
to initial simulation results. Our initial estimation of upper roller displacement is 14.78 mm for
thickness 6 mm of sheet and from the simulation results upper roller displacement U is suitable
with 11 mm. Therefore, the amount is about 75 % of original estimation and we have modified
our padding thickness estimation to 75 % for further optimization analysis for all thickness
sections. However, padding thickness reduction height depend on actual applied load of upper
34
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roller during bending and rolling steps. Therefore, we need to perform initial estimation
according to theoretical process design and then extract actual applied load of upper roller from
finite element simulation. Then we have to optimize padding thickness design for actual
situation. Therefore, our simulation process will be looped finite element simulation and
padding thickness estimation processes. The following figure show process work flow of
process design investigation and finite element simulation result optimization. The overall
process design investigation is according to following process flow.
Material modelling
Critical Yielding
Thickness
Roller Geometry
Input
Loaded Curvature
Desired Radius of
Curvature
Upper Roller
Displacement U
Applied Load (FEA)
Not Satisfy
Padding Thickness
Input Estimation Out put Result
Input
Finite Element
Analysis
Result Satisfy
Final Output Result
Figure 25 Research process work flow
35
Chapter 3 Finite element simulation modelling
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Chapter 3
Finite element simulation modelling

Finite element simulation analysis is powerful tool for research work which can reduce
huge amount of costing for experimental analysis. In the field of sheet metal forming area, every
research simulates their research with finite element simulation before experimental analysis so
that we can reduce trial and error experimental analysis in tradition method. Nowadays, there
are a many commercial finite element analysis software which have higher accuracy with lower
costing. ABAQUS is one of the most popular commercial software in finite element analysis
especially for aviation simulation. We have selected this ABAQS 6.14 for finite element
simulation analysis in this research.
Unequal thickness distributed aircraft integral skin panel design was investigated before
starting finite element simulation modelling. The original design of its final shape is as per
below Figure 26 and developed design is shown if Figure 27. In Figure 28, we can see clearly
complexity of geometry design and various thickness sections in aircraft integral skin panel.
Figure 26 Original design of aircraft integral skin panel
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Figure 27 Developed design of aircraft integral skin panel
Figure 28 Developed design of integral skin panel shown different thickness
Based on the theoretical calculation results of upper roller displacement, finite element
simulation for sample sheet was conducted. Before analyze actual skin panel in finite element
simulation, firstly analyze with sample part. The sample part was extracted from original
integral skin panel so that to ensure faster simulation time, less effect of surface stress deviation
in different thickness section. Totally three different sample parts were extracted from original
skin panel. During simulation of these three different sample parts, initial modelling parameters
were based on theoretical investigation of process design. Then, optimization of padding
thickness and upper roller downward displacement value were conducted as per sample part
37
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simulation results. When process design and padding thickness values meet our requirement in
sample parts simulation, original skin panel simulation was carried out. Although, process
parameters were satisfied in sample parts simulations, further optimization could be needed in
original skin panel simulation. Specific modelling and simulation process of finite element
analysis are discussed in following and process flow of finite element simulation analysis is
shown in Figure 29.
Design Inspection
Geometry model
simplification
Sample part
Actual model
extraction
Upper Roller Displacement
Estimation
Not satisfy
Padding Thickness Estimation
Not satisfy
Overall Curvature Analysis
Meet Requirement
Regional Curvature Analysis
Satisfy
Simulation Result
Figure 29 Aircraft integral skin panel finite element simulation process flow
3.1 Product geometry design simplification
Unequal thickness aircraft integral skin panel original design is shown in Figure 27 which
similar dog bone shape. The outside geometry is no simple and also skin panel itself has also
complex shape according to design. We have modified its complex design to simple ones
without affecting any design requirements. There are two main steps to simplification of its
design and firstly try to reduce very small holes which will not affect actual manufacturing
process. Secondly, to make sure finite element simulation process smoothly and focus on its
deformation only, simplify outer geometry to be rectangular shape. These original skin panel
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simplification designs were carried out in CATIA V5 sheet metal design. The steps-by-steps
simplification process of skin panel geometry design is according to following Figure 30.
As we describe in following Figure 30, outer profiles of original design skin panel were
extended to form a rectangular shape so that to analyze easily in finite element simulation and
reduce error due to profile design. Then all other inner profiles of thickness section and punched
holes were projected from original design to simplified design and make sure no different
between original design and simplified design. Whole simplified model was performed as
surface model which will be used shell element model in ABAQUS.
Original design
Removed
Non-consider
hole and
edges
Simplified design
Figure 30 Geometry simplification of aircraft integral skin panel
3.2 Sample skin model
Simplified geometry design of skin panel has dimension approximately of 6000 x 2000
mm in rectangular shape which is huge part and have complex geometry and there are six
different thickness sections. Therefore, for initial analysis and avoid unnecessary error of using
actual skin part, we have selected three sample skin panel section from this original skin panel
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to make finite element simulation more accurate and reduce large effect of deformation during
simulation. We have selected three different location where our six-difference thickness section
are located. This process was done in CATIA V5 sheet metal design. Main reasons of selecting
sample skin are to reduce simulation time, reduce deformation errors and optimize padding
thickness for different section. These three-sample skin panel parts extractions are shown in
Figure 31.
Sample 1
Sample 3
Sample 2
Figure 31 Sample parts extraction from simplified skin panel design
As shown in above figure, we have extracted three sample parts which have different
thickness section. Sample No-1 has four different thickness of 6, 5.5,5 & 4 mm respectively.
Sample No-2 has three different thickness which are 5.5, 4.5 & 3 mm while sample no-3 has
three different thickness as well which are 4.5,3.8 &3 mm. In the simulation process, we would
like to analyze these three-sample part so that we can optimize our process design and parameter
optimization is in good arrangement.
3.3 Modelling and assembly
Aircraft integral skin panel design simplification and sample parts extraction were done in
CATIA-V5 software with surface model. For finite element simulation process, we use
geometry input method in ABAQUS 6.14 commercial finite element analysis software. Skin
40
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panel parts were input to ABAQUS with deformable surface body. The three rollers which
diameter of 90 mm were modelled as an analytical rigid body and drew in ABAQUS.
200 mm 10 mm
Figure 32 Assemly configuration
In assembly module, two lower rollers were located in 200 mm center distance between
each other’s while upper roller is placed longitudinal center line of these two lower rollers
position was defined according to skin panel overall thickness with padding so that to ensure
upper roller downward displacement boundary condition definition. Skin panel was placed 10
mm beyond the exit side bottom roller vertical center line. Assembly position of skin panel on
three roller geometry were shown in Figure 32 & Figure 33. As thickness deviation and pockets
lied on outer side of skin panel, padding material was placed on lower side of skin panel in
assembly configuration. That means padding material laid on two bottom rollers and upper side
is integral skin panel.
Figure 33 Padding assisted three rollers bending assembly configuration
41
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3.4 Material properties and section module
In our search, two different type of materials are used. The skin panel part is modelled as
deformable part with composite layup. In the material properties module, we have been defined
our material properties according to experimental tested data and their material properties
parameter as shown in following Figure 34. Firstly, define an alloy material and input its
material properties such as young’s modulus, poison’ ration and plastic properties data. Padding
material is elastic material and input only young’s modulus and poison’s ratio.
Figure 34 Material properties definition
Aircraft integral skin panel was modelled as surface model and our process will be
simulated as shell element model. Therefore, shell composite layup section definition was set
up in our section definition. The shell offset was located at bottom surface while layup
orientation definition was defined as part global system. The integration points are totally 5
points and using Gauss integration formulation.
Figure 35 Composite layup definition
42
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Figure 36 Composite layup definition
Figure 37 Composite layup in 5.5 mm thickness section
3.5 Load, boundary conditions and interaction
In ABAQUS finite element analysis software, we can define different types of interactions
as general contact, surfact-to-surface contact, self-contact and pressure penetration. Moreover,
there will be fluid cavity, thermal film, radiation to and from ambient environment, Elastic
foundation, Cyclic symmetry, fluid exchange, XFEM crack growth, cavity radiation,
Abaqus/standard to explicit co-simulation, Incident waves, acoustic impendace and
actuator/sensor. Among them general contact allow in defining between all regions of our
model using single interaction.[31] [32]It can be used defining contact between Largragian
bodies and Eulerian materials. Typically, these general contact are defined all-inclusive
surfaces which contain exterior faces, edges, analytical rigid surfaces, edge based beam, truses
and eulerian material boundaries.
Between two deformable surfaces or between rigid surfaces and deformable surfaces,
surface-to-surface contact can be define. It can be used as alternative to general contact to model
contact between specific surfaces in our model. Surface-to-surface and general contact
interactions can be used in same simulation analysis. In our analysis, skin panel model is shell
43
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suface deformable model and roller will be used as analytical rigid bodies. Therefore, surface-
to-surface contact definition is selected. When the rollers rotate, the skin panel will roll forming
continuously. The contact between rollers and skin panel has some friction and skin panel
deformation will continuously due to this firction. Therefore, coefficient of firction is necessary
to defien proper value. If firction coefficient is too large, local defromation will occur in skin
panel while less in friction coefficient, skin panel will not deform completely. We have to
analyze different values of friction coefficient so that to ensure our simulation accuracy and
deformation geometry. We have analyzed different friction coefficient values using 0.2, 0.25
and 0.3 using tangential behavior of contact between rollers and skin panel.
In our analysis, there is two steps of static bendind and rollling. In bending step, upper
roller will move downward to a certain height to bend the skin panel getting desired loaded
curvature. In this step, only upper roller will move in U2 direction and other lower rollers will
not move in any degree of freedoms. Therefore, we have defined upper roller boundary
condition in downward U2 direction with certain velocity and other degree of freedom are
constraint. Simultaneously, two lower rollers are constrained in all degree of freedom during
static bending steps. In this step, we have defined upper roller downward displacement as speed
1 mm/s.
Second step is rolling step and all roller rotate defined directions respecitvelty to deform
skin panel continuously. Upper roller will rotate in counter clock-wise direction along with z-
axis and two lower rollers will rotate clock-wise direction along with z-axis to roll the skin
panel in same direction. In this stage, rolling speed is very important because if rolling speed is
too fast, skin panel will not deform while speed is too slow, local deformation could be
occurred.
Boundary conditions are applied according to process of roller bending. During bending
steps, all degree of freedom are set to constrained in two lower rollers while upper roller allow
in U2 direction. In the rolling process, rotational degree of freedom in U3 direction of all rollers
are released from constrained when other degree of freedom continusously constrained. The
plate is set in constrained at U3, UR1 & UR2 direction from intial steps to the end.The boundary
condition definition parameter setting can be seen in following Figure 38.
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Figure 38 Boundary condition definition
3.6 Meshing and element selection
When skin panel were developed for all parameters in ABAQUS 6.14, meshing can be
started. In meshing process, proper mesh size and element types selection is important for
accuracy of final results. We have to understand about our skin panel deformation and behavior
and how element behave. Generally, essential knowhow of finite element simulation method is
peicewise polynominal interpolation, element selection, size, type depend on product geometry
design so that element can represent deformation. In ABAUQS/Standard, element formulation
is referred to mathematical theory fo define behavior of element. ABAQUS/Explicit offers
multi-material eulerian element to use in stress/displacement analyses.
Adaptive meshing combine both lagrangian and eulerian features in ABAQUS/Explicit

allowing motion of element in independent of material. [33] Using ABAQUS/Explicit can
calculate simultaneously mass formulation for all elements by user. There are two types of shell
elemnts which are conventional and continum shell elements. Conventional type element
discretize a reference surface defined by planar dimension of element, normal of suface and
initial curvature. Continum shell act an solid 3D element and behaviave as shell elemnt. In this
research we have selected S4R element which powerful with 4 nodes shell element types
allowing changes in thickness and finite membrance strain as well. This types is a robust,
general-purpose element and suitable for wide range of applications.
45
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The size of elements is also important for accuracy of final result but also effect on
simulation time. The more the element size is smaller, the more process time will longer and
will get more precise results. However, depend on product there will be optimum element size
which is most accurate and even reduce the size of element, the result will no longer accurate
beyound that limint. Considering our roller diameter, contact definition between roller and skin
panels basically select element size with 10 mm. Meshing design and definition of element
types in our analysis can be seen following Figure 39, Figure 40 & Figure 41. Accroding to this
selection of element types and size approximately element quantity for sample part (1) is 4500,
sample part (2) is 5600, sample part (3) is 7800 while original skin panel has 150000.
Figure 39 Meshing of original skin panel design
Figure 40 Meshing
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Figure 41 Element type definition
3.7 Analysis Steps
In ABAQUS/CAE initial step was created automatically for our model allow defining
predefined fields, boundary conditions, interactions which applicable in the beginning of our
simulation analysis. Follow by one or more analysis can be defined by users. Each step has to
defined specific procedures, types of analysis or load according to analysis. Since the stresses,
strains, temperatures and other variables are updated throughout all general analysis steps, the
effect is always included in follow by new analysis step. Padding assisted roller bending process
is same as traditional three roller bending process which steps are static bending and rolling.
During in first static bending step, upper roller moves down to bend the skin panel getting a
desired loaded radius. Then rolling step will continuously proceed to deform skin panel bending
continuously. Therefore, no load is necessary to define in this analysis only boundary conditions
are necessary to define to perform roller bending analysis.
Explicit analysis method is dynamic procedure developing for modelling of high-speed

impact in which inertia act key dominant role in the simulation solution. One of the advantages
in explicit solving procedure compare to implicit is greater ease with which it resolves
complicated contact problems. When models become larger, explicit solving procedure requires
less system recourse than implicit. However, our analysis is slow operation but have dynamic
impact. Therefore, quasic-static analysis in explicit solver is selected.
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Figure 42 Step manager
Mass scaling should be used in quasi-static problem using ABAQUS/Explicit solver.

When we use mas scaling, the value of time increment is increased. As per theory, the critical
time increment in explicit solver can be checked as follow,
𝐿𝑐
𝛥𝑡 = min ( ) (28)
𝐶
where, Δt= critical time increment, Lc is cross length of an element and C can be
calculated as,
𝐸
𝐶=√ (29)
𝜌
where, E= young’s modulus of used deformable part material in analysis and ρ= density
of material. And when we substitute equation (2) to (1) then,
𝐿𝑐 𝐿𝑐 𝜌
𝛥𝑡 = min ( ) = min = min (𝐿𝑐 √ ) (30)
𝐶 𝐸 𝐸
√
( 𝜌)
If we increase density ρ in artificially by using mass scaling factor (f), Δt will increase. So,
we can write,
𝛥𝑡 ′ = 𝛥𝑡 𝑓 (31)
Therefore, if mass scaling factor is increased, Δt will increase. However, we cannot specify
the amount of mass scaling factor as much as we want. Although it can reduce simulation run
time, result accuracy will be lower. After we have completed simulation, we must check two
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conditions of our deformable parts and if it’s satisfied then our simulation set up is in good
arrangement and simulation result accuracy is also good. These conditions are ALLKE and
ALLIE (Internal energy of deformable parts) of deformable parts, ALLKE values should less
than 10 % of ALLIE. Moreover, the graph of these two results must be checked.
After all the modelling process and process parameter were defined in simulation, firstly
we had checked our data using data check function in job module. During this check we can
notify that how many error and warnings data in our simulation model. Some error may not
affect on simulation result but some are necessary to defined correctly which will affect on
simulation results. Therefore, we had checked our simulation models whether our simulation
process is correct or not using process parameter and modelling data such as boundary
condition, element types etc. If we had found some error and warnings, we have to check our
model and modify to correct modelling process.
3.8 Result extraction
The aim of this results is prediction of padding thickness and upper roller displacement to
get the desired radius of curvature. In ABAQUS, we can define a line specifying a series of
nodal point or segment of line in our model. These points are nodes or coordinated location and
segment line can be edge of element or joining the elements edges ends. We can offer four types
of path in ABAQUS which are, node list, point list, edge list and circular. In node list type, the
path consists only nodal coordinates and we can specify node label or node label ranges. A node
list type path is equally useful in both deformed and undeformed model shape. There is one
thing, we could have same nodal label in different part instances. However, our model has only
one deformable part instance, therefore no need to worry for this point.
Point list consist of coordinate location of specified point in our model and these may not
coincide to nodal coordinate. This coordinate of point list remains firmly in the space and
independent in model. For example, if the point coordinate coincide with nodal coordinate in
undeformed shape could not be coincided with any coordinate in initial deformed shape.
Therefore, point list coordinates are independent for specified part instances. Consisting of
edges which connect nodes are edge list type path in model. We can specify element edges by
selecting in viewport. We even can specify only select start edge and choosing direction or
selecting end point of element edge to define path. Circular path can specify using coordination
location which has two types of circular path. Circumferential path lies along with the arc edge
of a circle and radial path lies along with a radius.
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Our model necessary to inspect our deformed radius of curvature and it must be a line
parallel with skin panel edges. We have to specify different lines in our skin panel model to
ensure every local radius of curvature meet our requirement. We will use nodal point list type
in defining our path to extract deformed coordinates which will represent X values and Y
values. These deformed coordinates along with the paths will be used in our circle fitting
formulation and check deformed radius of curvature.
The nodal coordinate in x direction and y displacement value can be extracted from finite
element simulation. Then the x-y values were imported to MATLAB program for circle fitting
and checked radius of fitted circle. In our simulation, we need to check overall final radius of
curvature of aircraft integral skin panel in different thickness location. In sample parts
simulation the path selections are specified as per Figure 43. In original skin panel simulation,
we have selected three different paths in skin panel model as shown in following Figure 44.
Path no. 1 was selected nodal points along with 6 mm thickness section where path no. 2 was
chosen nodal points along with 4.5 mm thickness location. Path no. 3 was selected nodal points
in 3.8 mm thickness section. Based on these three lines, deformation of final radius of
curvatures were investigated and compare to each other.
Figure 43 Path selection of different sample parts
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Figure 44 Three paths selection of original skin panel
51
Chapter 4 Padding assisted roller bending simulation results
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Chapter 4
Padding assisted roller bending simulation results

The main mission of this research is to investigate process design of padding assisted roller
bending for unequal thickness aircraft integral skin panel and predict padding thickness
estimation for desired radius of curvature. After successfully completed finite element
simulation for padding assisted roller bending with 3 numbers of sample parts and original skin
panel, multiple points nonlinear regression with MATLAB program was performed to
investigate final radius of curvature accurately and perfectly. There were 3 samples skin panels
and original skin panel parts simulation analysis using ABAQUS FE simulation software
according to their upper roller displacement ‘U’.
Moreover, it is necessary to check deformation of skin panel because of padding material

and its thickness effects. Therefore, different padding thickness simulation results are
investigated as well. The rolling process design is also important to estimate for actual
manufacturing, therefore effect of rolling speed on this roller bending process was also been
investigated and discussed. In order to make sure padding thickness estimation in theoretical
consideration, applied load of upper roller in finite element simulation was inspected as well.
Finally, overall results evaluation and discussion are expressed as below.
4.1 Radius of curvature analysis formulation
To check deformed radius of curvature in our bent skin panel, coordinate location of
deformed geometry was obtained from finite element simulation analysis. We have to check
these coordinates along the path of deformed skin panel and then fit as a circle and check its
radius. Therefore, we have to run a program for such kind of multiple point nodal coordinates
for circle fitting. In this research, we have used MATLAB 2020b for circle fitting program
using multiple points coordinate. Firstly, input all nodal coordinates to MATLAB program and
then define a circle equation as below,
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 (32)
Then, using nonlinear multiple points regressions in MATLAB program, the best fitted
circle of a certain list of nodal coordinates is obtained. The radius of fitted circle is then
extracted from the program shown in Equation 35. Although there are several methods of
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nonlinear multiple points fitting for circle, this approach meets our requirement and get best
fitting results which we can see in following discussions.
𝑅 = √(𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 − 4𝑐)/2 (33)
Using multiple points regressions for circle fitting of our extracted coordinate of deformed
nodes, we not only can fit circle to find radius of curvature but also ca access deformation
homogeneity of skin panel. In the plot figures, we can check deformed geometry of skin panel
according to nodal coordinates and compare to fitted circle. Therefore, this method is best for
such kind of deformed geometry investigation analysis.
4.2 Final radius of curvature and upper roller downward displacement
In three rollers bending operation, roller geometry is more influence in deformed shape
rather than other parameters. When we have fixed bottom rollers center distance in a certain
value, then deformed shape is controlled by upper roller downward displacement ‘U’. In real
experimental working sites, sheet metal roller bending process is very sensitive and operator’s
experience and skills depend on their product accuracy and quality. Because, although we have
been defined specific upper roller downward displacement for a certain final curvature, there
will be some adjustments are still needed because of others factors.
Figure 45 Path selection of sample part (1) (U=11 mm)
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We have initiated with theoretical process design investigation. Optimization is carried out
according to finite element simulation results. As we have discussed, final deformed curvature
is controlled by upper roller downward displacement ‘U’, we have adjusted upper roller
downward displacement to get desired final radius of curvature. As our skin panel is no single
thickness sheet, although overall deformed curvature is controlled by upper roller downward
displacement ‘U’, regional curvature on each thickness section is controlled by other factors
such as applied load, rolling speed and padding thickness etc.
Figure 46 Circle fitting result of U 11 mm
According to finite element simulation of sample part (1), we have simulated different
value of ‘U’ according to theoretical process design estimation. When we use upper roller
displacement ‘U’ in 11 mm can get final radius of curvature 2099 mm (Figure 46) which is near
to our target radius of 1922 mm. Moreover, in this ‘U’ value of ‘11mm’ the deformation of each
and every thickness section is very uniform and there will be not buckling or other errors. When
‘U’ is 14.78, deformation of skin panel is not smooth along with semicircle and final radius of
curvature is 769 mm (Figure 47). We have tested three difference upper roller displacement
with sample parts, and actual skin panel. The results are shown in the Figure 48.
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Figure 47 Circle fitting result of U 14.78 mm
Figure 48 Simulation result of different U displacement and final radius
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Figure 49 Radius of curvature result in different U value (sample-1)
In sample part (1) simulation result, it can be confirmed that ‘U’ value of 11 mm is good
arrangement for process design not only for final radius of curvature but also uniform
deformation of skin panel. In following Figure 49, we can see clearly about different ‘U’ value
and different final radius of curvature result. Therefore, we can clear that if the padding
thickness was not changed, final radius of curvature is depending on upper roller downward
displacement ‘U’. In other sample part (2) & (3) simulation, there has been found different final
radius of curvature result (Figure 50). In sample part (2) simulation, final radius of curvature is
1800 mm and part (3) is 2107 mm. However, ‘U’ value 11 mm is found as a good estimation.
Therefore, we have continued to original skin panel simulation using this value.
Figure 50 Final radius of sample (2) & (3) with U 11 mm
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In original skin panel simulation, when the upper roller displacement ‘U’ is 11, radius of
curvature is 1821 mm as shown in Figure 51. Although final radius of curvature is not getting
accurate result according to design, the estimate value is acceptable. In practical roller bending
process in field, further adjustment of upper roller feeding is necessary almost every roller
bending process because of several reasons which mainly is operator’s higher skills. Therefore,
optimized upper roller downward displacement for our research product is suggested to use ‘U
value 11 mm. Actually, skin panel roller bending process is very sensitive process because of
elastic-plastic forming process. Therefore, machine operator’s skill is very important in
practical. Although suggested value of ‘U’ is 11 mm for this skin panel design, there will be
some adjustment could be made in experimental work.
Figure 51 Final radius of curvature fitting result in U 11 mm
4.3 Padding thickness and sheet deformation
We have simulated with initial estimation of padding thickness and the results were carried
out and checked with analytical estimation. Main concern of padding thickness estimation is
to deform equally for each regional curvature. Therefore, firstly we have simulated sample skins
to check whether our padding thickness estimation meet requirement or not then optimization
for padding thickness was carried out according simulation results. The initial estimation of
padding thickness for each section are as per following Table 6,
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Table 6 Initial estimation of padding thickness
Skin Panel Thickness 6 mm 5.5 mm 5 mm 4.5 mm 3.8 mm 3 mm
Padding Thickness 0 0.9 0 3.4 5.2 9.98
In the initial estimation of padding thickness, the deformation is of skin panel is good and
not much difference between different thickness location. But there has some different in local
curvature. The deformation of skin panel with initial estimated padding thickness can be seen
in Figure 52. According to finite element simulation result, there is some deviation between
different path. In path 1 fitting radius of curvature is 1973 mm and lowest radius of curvature
is 1783mm. The deviation between maximum and minimum value is 190mm.
Figure 52 Deformation of skin panel with initial estimated padding thickness

Table 7 Deviation of radius of curvature using initial padding thickness
Path 1 Path 2 Path 3

Description
1973 1872 1783

Radius of Curvature
In general, we have to consider applied load of upper roller acting on skin panel from finite
element simulation result. Therefore, we have adjusted on different thickness section according
to finite element simulation results from initial simulation. And then optimization for padding
thickness estimation was carried out as per following steps. Firstly, we have used 100 % load
in estimation of padding thickness for different sections. Moreover, upper roller downward
displacement value has been adjusted as per sample part (1) result. Ordinary estimation is 14.78
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mm and best value is 11 mm for getting desired radius of curvature. Therefore, we have adjusted
the upper roller downward displacement ‘U’ for other thickness sections based on sample part
(1) initial simulation results because this is important for considering padding thickness
reduction during loading condition. Then check the simulation results and adjust applied load
to 80% and estimated again. In the following Table 8, we have simulated using two optimization
of padding thickness, and the results are discussed in following.
Table 8 Three optimization of padding thickness
Thickness of skin panel (mm)

Description
3 3.8 4.5 5 5.5 6
Initial 10.11 5.9 3.51 0 0.97 0
100 % Load from FE result 11.7 6.99 4.15 0 1.25 0
80 % Load from FE result 10.51 6.28 3.73 0 1.13 0
The circle fitting result for different path for different padding thickness estimation
results are shown in following Table 9. We can see that initial estimation of padding thickness
in path-1 meet our desired radius of curvature but deviation between other paths is higher. In
the using of 80 % applied load from FE result as shown in Figure 53, the circle fitting result are
lower than our desired radius, but error between different path is smaller. It can be seen that
although applied play main role in estimation of padding thickness estimation, padding
thickness of larger area section control over curvature. However, that padding thickness
estimation using 80 % of applied load was found to be good arrangement which has lower errors
between different paths in original skin panel. It means local curvature of different thickness
has not much different.
Table 9 Comparison of final radius of curvature in different padding thickness option
Radius of Path Radius of Path Radius of Path

Description (3) (mm)
(1) (mm) (2) (mm)
1973 1872 1783

Initial
1419 1455 1728

100 % Load of FE result
1821 1708 1738

80 % Load of FE result
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Figure 53 Deformation of skin panel with 80 % load from FE resullt
Optimized padding thickness are as per 80 % load from FE result which has less
deviation between different thickness region as shown in Figure 54. In that figure, original
padding thickness estimation found about 190 mm different between largest and smallest radius
of curvature. The largest radius region is 6mm thickness region and smallest radius region is
3mm thickness regions, we can check in Table 9. When we use, 100 % applied load from FE
result, then the different error between largest and smallest radius of curvature is about 300 mm
which is largest error in all simulations. In using of 80 % applied load simulation, the different
error is only about 83 mm which is smallest result. Moreover, path 1 and path 2 difference is
also very less. In the using of 80 % applied load, the padding thickness for different section
reduce compare to 100 % load usage but still larger than original estimation in different
thickness sections.
Estimation of padding thickness using 80 % of applied load as shown in Table 10 from FE

result is good result which has deviation of only 83 mm difference between maximum and
minimum radius of different line along a skin panel. Therefore, padding thickness optimization
of following table give good result. The maximum value of radius is 1821 mm which has only
101 mm less than our desired radius of 1922 mm which means only 5.3 % error on overall. This
is very normal situation because such kind of roller bending process cannot be predict exact
parameter due to elastic-plastic deformation of thin sheet forming process. Moreover, this is
not single thickness sheet but using two different material together. Therefore, simulation result
for padding thickness estimation is found as very good result.
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Figure 54 Different padding optimization and curvature error

Table 10 Padding thickness for different thickness section using 80 % applied load
Skin Panel Thickness 6 mm 5.5 mm 5 mm 4.5 mm 3.8 mm 3 mm
Padding Thickness (mm) 0 1.13 0 3.73 6.28 10.51
4.4 Rolling speed
Rolling speed is also another important parameter for roller bending process. Different
rolling speed make different bending qualities. If the rolling speed is too fast, the deformation
of skin panel is not complete while speed is lower local deformation occurs. In this finite
element simulation, different rolling speed are analyzed when we have completed our desired
upper roller downward displacement and padding thickness estimation in sample part
simulation analysis. According to sample part simulation results, the effect of rolling speed on
curvature for three sample parts can be seen in Figure 55. We can observe that the rolling speed
from (1 rad/s, 45 mm/s) to (2 rad/s, 90 mm/s) is in good condition while the speed over (3 rad/s,
135 mm/s) make forming cannot be performed. On the other hand, when the rolling speed lower
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than (1 rad/s, 45 mm/s), the final radius of curvature is smaller. According to these results, the
good arrangement of rolling speed is about (1 rad/s, 45 mm/s).
Figure 55 Different rolling speed and rinal result
Using this suggested rolling speed from sample part simulation result, original skin panel
simulation was also found in good arrangement and deformation was uniform. We have
simulated faster speed of rolling in actual skin panel analysis and result is similar as sample
parts analysis. When rolling speed is lower than 1 rad/s, the deformation is not uniform and
local deformations were occurred. Therefore, rolling speed between 1 rad/s to 2 rad/s is most
reliable which means between speed of 45mm/s to 90mm/s in this padding assisted roller
bending process. However, in practically we can further adjust depend on operator’s expertise
skills to get better deformation.
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Figure 56 Different rolling speed and final radius of curvature result
4.5 Applied load of upper roller
Figure 57 Upper roller applied load in sample (1) simulation
Applied load of upper roller is important in this analysis as we have to estimate padding
thickness using actual applied load from finite element simulation results. In the simulation
results, we can extract applied load of upper roller during static bending stage and also rolling
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stage. Applied of finite element simulation varies with skin panel design model which means
applied load in sample parts simulation and actual skin panel simulation are not same. Moreover,
force acting on upper roller varies with different rolling speed. In sample part (1) simulations,
we can extract different Applied load on different rolling speed and it is described in following
Figure 57. There are four different rolling speed are simulated, rolling speed over (2 rad/s) has
more applied load of approximately 118 kN acting on upper roller while others rolling speed
did reach this value. When rolling speed of (1 rad/s), the applied force on top roller is about 100
kN.
We can see in the above Figure 57, the applied load acting on upper roller linearly increase
during bending steps, it varied with time and skin panel geometry during rolling process.
Therefore, there are some wave shapes in the graph of applied load in rolling process. When
the speed is over (2 rad/s), the variation of applied load is much and less than (1 rad/s) has lower
deviation during rolling process. However, it can be confirmed that actual force acting on upper
rollers varies with not only on rolling speed but also overall thickness combination of skin panel
and padding material sheet.
In actual size skin panel simulation analysis, the applied load acting on upper roller during
whole simulation analysis can be seen in following Figure 58. Maximum applied load value is
about 740 kN which was found in the rolling stage. Because, in actual size skin panel rolling
process, the overall thickness of skin panel is higher and dimension of skin panel is also larger
than sample parts. Therefore, the reaction force of upper roller acting on skin panel are large as
well. The variation of force acting on upper roller has similar shape as sample parts simulations.
When the higher padding thickness region is under upper roller, the applied load is large while
other lower region remains lower applied force. Therefore, we can observe that applied force
of upper roller varied with thickness region of skin panel because our skin panel design is not
simple shape. The thickness deviation of skin panel is not same in both in its longitudinal and
transverse direction.
According to above figure, it can be seen that the deviation of applied load is not over (800
kN). And then we can optimize our padding thickness estimation according to this applied load
results. But, actually applied load acting on padding material will not same as actual amount
because of several factors and its surely the applied load acting on padding sheet is less than
actual applied load of upper rollers. Moreover, our padding sheet was located below the skin
panel. Therefore, we adjust 80% of applied load on padding sheet and the estimated thickness
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of padding are as follow and we can obviously note that the amount of thickness is not very
different from initial estimation.
Figure 58 Applied load of upper roller in original skin panel simulation
4.6 Result summary
Process design and parameter optimization of padding assisted roller bending of aircraft
integral skin panel investigation was carried out successfully with finite element simulation
results based on the theoretical investigation. Finite element simulation is a powerful tool for
engineering and scientific research for different fields of study. It was performed to overcome
several trial-and-error investigations of experimental tests. The results of padding assisted roller
bending to prove that finite element simulation analysis is an essential tool for such kind of
research area. In finite element simulation analysis, we have investigated several simulation
analyses with different adjustments. Finally, we have simulated with good roller bending
process parameters arrangement and final accuracy in finite element simulation analysis.
We have discussed in above topics regarding simulation results for different variable
parameters in detail such as upper roller downward displacement, padding thickness estimation,
rolling speed of rollers, and applied load of upper roller acting on skin panel. Although we have
completed our research of padding assisted roller bending process design and parameter
optimization with finite element simulation analysis, we further necessary to proceed to prove
with the experimental investigation. However, according to our finite element simulation results
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and optimization of process design parameter, we summarize our research with the following
results,
1. Upper roller displacement estimation is consistent with the finite element simulation
result. In the three rollers bending process, roller geometry is more influence on the final
shape rather than other factors. For a process design investigation, the ‘U’ value of 11
mm is the best arrangement for this aircraft integral skin panel padding assisted roller
bending process.
2. According to finite element simulation results and padding thickness, upper roller
downward displacement estimation for different thickness sections is more important
for padding thickness estimation.
3. It was found that padding thickness of large area section control for overall deformation
of skin panel. Therefore, in such kind of padding thickness roller bending process, the
geometry design of the skin panel is very important.
4. According to theoretical estimation results and finite element simulation results,

estimation of padding thickness is not very different from initial estimation to final
optimized values and upper roller displacement as well. Therefore, the analytical
approach and numerical simulation approach are in good arrangement with less
deviation. However, experimental analysis is still needed to investigate to validate
optimal results.
5. Rolling speed is also important during the roller bending process because when the
rolling speed is too fast the deformation of the sheet will not sustain while its slow large
deformation will occur. A rolling speed of 1 rad/s~2 rad/s is suggested to use for better
rolling quality but it depends on the roller diameter and size of the skin panel.
6. It was founded that friction coefficient of 0.2 is good arrangement while smaller value
led to no deformation and larger value make large deformation and unstable deformation
occurs.
7. Applied load varies with the overall thickness of the skin panel. It’s also the main factor
for padding thickness estimation and experimental investigation is necessary to carry
out to prove validation of finite element simulation result.
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Conclusion
Padding assisted roller bending process parameters optimization and padding thickness
estimation has been carried out successfully with theoretical and finite element simulation
analysis results. As thin sheet elastic-plastic forming process is very sensitive case, it cannot be
predicted and defined accurate process parameters for desired radius of curvature. According
to finite element simulation analysis we would like to conclude as below,
1. For a given roller configuration, final radius is controlled by upper roller downward
displacement ‘U’. But there was an error between theoretical investigation and finite
element simulation analysis. The ‘U’ value in finite element simulation analysis is about
75 % lower than theoretical investigation. This is normal situation in such kind of
elastic-plastic forming of thin sheet metal.
2. If the padding thickness is not changed, final radius of curvature depends on upper roller
downward displacement ‘U’ for a certain roller configuration.
3. Padding thickness for different thickness sections of skin panel control local curvature.
It was found that padding thickness of larger area section affect the final radius of
curvature accuracy. If product design in not simple, largest area section thickness and
its padding thickness is very sensitive on final radius rather than smaller area sections.
4. Although the applied load of upper roller defined padding thickness, not full load could
not be exerted on padding material due to several reasons. It was found that only about
80 % load exerted on padding sheet. Moreover, padding sheet was laid at lower part of
aircraft integral skin panel and it did not reduce thickness as per theoretical
investigation. Therefore, further adjustment is necessary to perform according to
simulation results.
5. There is some error between finite element simulation results and desired radius of
curvature. However, theoretical investigation and finite element simulation analysis are
consistent and validate with good arrangement of roller configuration process
parameters and optimized padding thickness for different thickness sections of aircraft
integral skin panel.
6. Finally process parameter of upper roller downward displacement and padding
thickness estimation for different regions are successfully optimized getting desired
radius of curvature for aircraft integral skin panel.
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Future Work
Aviation industry, sustainable developed sector never stops its research areas due to
customer demand, development of metallurgy, production design, process and lot of
improvements. There is traditional saying; there are several levels of technology in engineering
field and among them aerospace and aviation is highest level followed by military technology
and others. Question of why aerospace and aviation field are highest technology level is because
of its higher risks on safety factor especially in passenger aircrafts. Passengers are human being
and their lives are most valuable risk for aircraft designers and manufacturers. Designers and
manufacturers must guarantee their aircraft’s safety quality. Aviation industry especially in civil
aviation necessary to improve not only product design quality but also production process
quality and accuracy. Therefore, researchers in this field of aviation never stop their focus on
improving quality, production process of aircraft structure, components and all kind of
equipment related to aviation field.
This research is one of the important works for civil passenger aircraft structure production
process research. Although outcome of this research may improve current passenger aircraft
structure production, still need to improve its quality, accuracy and validate with experimental
tests. Because of some limitations, experimental investigation has not been completed in this
period. This research initiate padding assisted roller bending process for unequal thickness
aircraft integral skin panel. There are many other different approaches in theoretical concepts
of roller bending process and also padding thickness estimation. Therefore, further researches
of other approaches on this concepts and experimental investigation are necessary to continue.
Following works are suggested to continue
1. Experimental analysis with sample part needs to investigate for validation of finite
element simulation analysis because roller bending forming of sheet metal is very
sensitive operation depend on rolling speed, upper downward displacement and etc.,
Moreover its accuracy is mostly depending on operator’s skill. Therefore, we have to
continue experimental investigation.
2. Padding assisted roller bending process design investigation should be investigated
from different approach during roller bending process estimation of upper roller
displacement. Moreover, the effect of bottom rollers center distance could reduce error
for estimation of upper roller downward displacement especially for longer length
workpiece.
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3. Padding thickness estimation depend on applied load of upper rollers is suggested to

improve in different approach and using different padding material or even we could
investigation laminated layout. We could use original skin panel and padding sheet
which is same material with skin panel but there will be elastic material between two
metal sheets.
4. For applied load estimation could be more detail investigate on upper roller acting on
skin panel. Although considering three points bending concept, actual loading acting on
the plate and padding material must lower than estimated amount.
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Acknowledgement
Firstly, I would like to present my beloved gratitude to my parents, beloved wife, and son
who always encourage me whenever I feel alone especially in the COVID-19 epidemic period.
They always give their regards and care to me and share happiness so that I can feel like staying
in the same house. And greatly appreciative of my supervisor Associated Professor Li Weidong,
for giving me the chance to write this thesis paper under his supervision. He always patiently
guided and supervise me during the whole studying period of my Master's Degree and every
situation not only in our lab discussion meeting but also in Email/WeChat discussion.
Moreover, he has been taught about finite element simulation which I never familiar with
before.
Sincerely, I would like to thank with deepest mind my sponsor China National Aero-
Technology Import & Export Corporation (CATIC) Company and my leaders from the Office
of the Chief of Defense Industries (OCDI). CATIC provided a new opportunity to me studying
at Beihang University, China. It was my dream several years ago to study higher education
abroad and finally, I have completed it because of CATIC. Besides, I want to express my
sincere gratitude to all faculty members of the international school of Beihang and the school
of mechanical engineering and automation. Our international school took care of us during our
study period especially in the epidemic of covid-19.
Moreover, I have many friends in China, especially in Beijing. They also care for me a lot
during my study in Beihang. Mr. Chen Hong liang, Mr Ning Bo, Mr. Ji Yilang, Mr. Ying
Gudong, Mr. Wei, Mr. Wang guangyu, Mr. Gu Xin, and other Chinese students from my
laboratory who studied together. I have to thank all Myanmar students at Beihang University
who helped and courage each other during my study period. Finally, I would like to express my
gratitude to all stakeholders who supported me for my master's degree.
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Investigation of Process Design and Parameter Optimization of Aircraft Integral Skin Panel Roller Bending

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Investigation of Process Design and Parameter Optimization of Aircraft Integral Skin Panel Roller Bending

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中图分类号：V214

指导教师 李卫东 副教授

A Dissertation Submitted for the Degree of Master

Candidate: Than Soe Naing

School of Mechanical Engineering and Automation

Beihang University, Beijing, China

作者姓名 索南丹 申请学位级别 工学硕士

指导教师姓名 李卫东副教授 职 称 副教授

学科专业 航空宇航制造工程 研究方向 飞机制造

学习时间自 2018 年 10 月 11 日 起至 2021 年05月 日止

论文提交日期 2021 年 05 月 06 日 论文答辩日期 年 月 日

学位授予单位 北京航空航天大学 学位授予日期 年 月 日

本文以第具有单一的曲三代铝锂合金 Al-Li 2060T8 是一种用于飞机结构件的铝锂

List of Figures ........................................................................................................................ III

List of Tables ............................................................................................................................ V

List of Symbols ....................................................................................................................... VI

1.1 Background .................................................................................................................. 4

1.2 Roll bending of sheet metal skin.................................................................................. 5

1.3 Roller configuration and curvature analysis ................................................................ 7

1.4 Padding assisted roller bending ................................................................................... 9

1.5 Finite element simulation of sheet metal roller bending............................................ 13

2.Padding assisted roller bending process design ................................................................ 17

2.1 Sheet metal bending theory........................................................................................ 18

2.2 Material model ........................................................................................................... 21

2.1.1 Aluminum Lithium Alloy ........................................................................................................ 21

2.3 Three roller bending geometry................................................................................... 24

2.4 Upper roller displacement and loaded curvature ....................................................... 25

2.5 Springback and final curvature .................................................................................. 26

2.6 Residual stress............................................................................................................ 30

2.7 Applied load ............................................................................................................... 31

2.8 Padding thickness calculation .................................................................................... 33

3.1 Product geometry design simplification .................................................................... 38

3.2 Sample skin model .................................................................................................... 39

3.3 Modelling and assembly ............................................................................................ 40

3.4 Material properties and section module .................................................................... 42

3.5 Load, boundary conditions and interaction ............................................................... 43

3.6 Meshing and element selection ................................................................................. 45

3.7 Analysis Steps ........................................................................................................... 47

3.8 Result extraction ........................................................................................................ 49

4.Padding assisted roller bending simulation results .......................................................... 52

4.1 Radius of curvature analysis formulation .................................................................. 52

4.3 Padding thickness and sheet deformation ................................................................. 57

4.4 Rolling speed ............................................................................................................. 61

4.5 Applied load of upper roller ...................................................................................... 63

4.6 Result summary ......................................................................................................... 65

Future Work ........................................................................................................................... 68

Figure 1 Aircraft fuselage design

Figure 2 Roller formed aircraft skin panel

Figure 3 Sheet metal skin vertical milling machine

As we have described in introduction paragraph, roller forming is most common used

Figure 4 Three rollers bending machine

1.2 Roll bending of sheet metal skin

It is a sequential process of bending operation using single or multi passes of rolling

Figure 5 Elastic-plastic bending of sheet

1.3 Roller configuration and curvature analysis

Figure 6 Pyramidal three rollers bending scheme [12]

1.4 Padding assisted roller bending

Because of several aspect in three-roller bending process such as elastic-plastic material

Figure 7 Rubber filling scheme of integral panel roller bending [14]

Figure 8 Single roller bending rest on rubber pad [15]

Figure 9 Padding assisted roller bending process (PARB)[17]

1.5 Finite element simulation of sheet metal roller bending

a. The material was considered as isotropic and assumed bilinear elastic-plastic

指导教师李卫东副教授

作者姓名索南丹申请学位级别工学硕士

指导教师姓名李卫东副教授职称副教授

学科专业航空宇航制造工程研究方向飞机制造

学习时间自 2018 年 10 月 11 日起至 2021 年05月日止

论文提交日期 2021 年 05 月 06 日论文答辩日期年月日

学位授予单位北京航空航天大学学位授予日期年月日