Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology

https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-020-02987-7

Hepatic Toxicity in Etroplus suratensis (Bloch 1790): An Economically

Important Edible Fish in Vembanad Fresh Water Lake, Kerala, India
Arathi Pettamanna1 · Divya Raghav1 · Raveendran Harikumaran Nair1

Received: 28 April 2020 / Accepted: 3 September 2020

© Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2020

Abstract
Fish consumption from contaminated water-bodies is a serious health issue. This study conducted to reveal the presence
of heavy metals and bisphenols in Vembanad lake, an exploiting tourist spot in Kerala, receiving untreated agricultural,
domestic, municipal, and industrial effluents. We evaluated aquatic contaminant impact on hepatic stress markers in Etroplus
suratensis from fragile Vembanad lake. The significant difference in water physiochemical parameters, the concentration of
heavy metals, and bisphenols (BPA and BPS) were studied. Hepatic tissue of E. suratensis inhabited in lake featured with
high iron (11.29 ± 0.39 ppm) and BPA (0.02412 ± 0.0031 µg/mL) content along with an increased hepatic stress marker and
distorted hepatic structure. The study highlights the presence of high iron and BPA in edible fish. The study recommends
monitoring of physiochemical characters of freshwater lakes is essential for better survival of freshwater flora and fauna.

Keyword Freshwater contamination · Heavy metal toxicity · Bisphenols · Hepatic damage

Vembanad backwater tourism with cruise houseboats
emerged as a backbone of the Kerala tourist sector, India,
which lead to a tremendous increase of anthropogenic activi-
ties in the shore of Vembanad. Mismanagement of tourist
activities generates a huge quantity of solid waste deposits
around the terrain of Vembanad lake. There are no effective
control mechanisms to maintain Vembanad resources from
industrial, agricultural, municipal, and domestic drainages.
As waste effluents enter the surface water, chemical contami-
nants including heavy metals and xenoestrogens also enter
the aquatic system. Song et al. (2010) revealed that industrial
drainage serves as a point source for heavy metal pollution in
the Changjiang river. Shyleshchandran et al. (2018) reported
that sediments of Vembanad lake act as a major reservoir
for heavy metal contamination. High levels of solid waste
disposal like magazines, newspapers, paper rolls, food cans,
receipts, and plastic products have been noticed in certain
hotspots of the Vembanad lake. These solid waste contents
are currently recognized as an exposure source for xenoes-
trogens like bisphenol A (BPA) or bisphenol S (BPS) (Rocha
* Raveendran Harikumaran Nair
harinair@mgu.ac.in
1
Physiology Research Laboratory, School of Biosciences,
Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerala 686560,
India
et al. 2015; Brede et al. 2003). Persistent chemical impreg-
nated sources around the terrain of Vembanad lake is a seri-
ous issue to address. So, the prime focus of our study is to
evaluate the possibility of infiltrated chemicals like heavy
metals, BPA, and BPS in Vembanad lake water from waste
disposal.
Vembanad lake is most prominent with more than 70
edible species (Synudeen 2017). Among them, E. suratensis
is an edible fish with high economic value than other fresh-
water fishes. According to Abraham et al. (2019) in IUCN
red data report, mature E. suratensis in Kerala facing a popu-
lation decline and are in the least concerned conservation
status. Fishes are the toppers of the aquatic food chain and
are extremely sensitive towards aquatic pollutants, served as
bio-indicators of environmental pollution. The enrichment
of persistent aquatic pollutants from the uncontrolled waste
disposal in freshwater resources may be one of the reasons
for declining E. Suratensis. Hence, the discharge of heavy
metal and bisphenol impregnated sources in the Vembanad
terrain created a need for their monitoring in E. suraten-
sis. Since the fish liver is the center of metabolic activities
(James 1986) and lake contaminants likely to be metabolized
in this organ. The various hepatic activities are prone to the
toxic effects and can be used as indicators of freshwater pol-
lutant effect. Therefore, the study focused to evaluate the
cumulative effect of heavy metals and bisphenol analogs

13
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in liver damage in E. suratensis inhabitant of Vembanad
freshwater lake, Kerala.
Materials and Methods
Vembanad lake, Kerala, India (9° 36′ 34.8″ N 76° 25′ 18.6″
E) was chosen as a study site because the coastal regions
are noticed with solid waste deposition. Lake samples were
compared with farm samples, are noticed with effective solid
waste management (Fig. 1).
Water (6 L) and E. suratensis (Pearl spot or Karimeen)
(9) were collected from the area of Vechoor (2 L water;
three fishes), Kumarakom (2 L water; three fishes) and
Puthuchara (2 L water; three fishes) of Vembanad Lake.
For comparison, unpolluted farm samples (6 L water; six
fishes) were considered as controls. Samples were col-
lected from January 2018 to March 2018. Water samples
were collected from the bottom of the water sources with
a clean glass bottle (Knapton 1985). Water quality param-
eters were measured using procedures described in the
APHA method (1998). Heavy metals (arsenic, lead, mer-
cury, cadmium, and iron) were determined with the aid of
bulk scientific atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AES,
2000 series, Shimadzu, Japan). Quality assurance and
quality control were assessed in duplicates, with method
blanks and standard reference materials. Three replicates
were tested for the determinations of heavy metals. A
total of 15 E. suratensis species were collected from the
study sites using a net trap (mesh size 1.5 cm). Species
were identified by using food and agricultural organiza-
tion (FAO) species identification datasheet. Total length
(11–14.5 cm) and body weight (65.7–83.1 g) of collected
fishes were recorded. The gender difference was not con-
sidered. Blood samples were taken from the caudal vein
Fig. 1  Sampling stations ( Source: Google map). a Kumarakom, Vembanad Lake, Kottayam, Kerala, India. The sampling area covered a total
distance of 13.06 km from Vechoor to Puthuchara of Kumarakom. b J S farm, Neendoor, Kottayam, Kerala, India
13
Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology
and collected in a heparinized tube. Fishes were ice packed
and brought to the laboratory and hepatic tissue excised
and subsequently used for biochemical analysis.
Identification and quantification of BPA and BPS were
made by comparing HPLC retention time of sample peak
with those of the authentic standards. Water samples were
prepared by the method Rezaee et al. (2009). In brief, a
mixture of acetone (2 mL) and chloroform (600 µL) was
injected rapidly into a 5 mL sample solution using a 5 mL
glass syringe. The produced cloudy solution was centrifuged
for 10 min at 8000 rpm (Eppendorf centrifuge 5804, Ham-
burg Germany). The sedimented phase was evaporated by
placing in a water bath; the residue was dissolved in 1 mL
methanol, filtered through a 0.22-micron filter, and sub-
jected to HPLC analysis. Hepatic tissues were prepared by
the method Aristiawan et al. (2015). For this, hepatic tissues
were homogenized and mixed with dichloromethane shaken
for 10 min. Then 10 mL acetonitrile was added, and the mix-
ture was shaken for 5 min, centrifuged at 4500 rpm. Finally,
the acetonitrile phase was transferred and filtered through
a 0.22-micron filter and a 20 µL sample injected to HPLC.
The LOD (Limit of Detection) value detected from the
equation 3 SB/m. The LOQ (Limit of Quantification) value
was calculated from equation 10 SB/m. Where ‘SB’ is the
standard deviation and ‘m’ is the slope. The regression coef-
ficient (R2) value of the calibration curves was 0.999 for
BPA and BPS. The concentration was measured from the
regression equation Y = mx + c. The levels of lipid peroxi-
dation (Buege and Aust 1978) and the activities of superox-
ide dismutase (Kakkar et al. 1995), catalase (Aebi 1984),
and glutathione (Ellman 1959) were estimated from liver
homogenates. Serum ALT and AST were analyzed following
the manufacturer’s instructions from the Agape diagnostic
kit, India. Histology assessment of hepatic tissue was done
with hematoxylin and eosin staining (Ke et al. 2010).
Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology
Statistical analysis was done using Post Hoc Multiple
comparison test in SPSS 16 software (Chicago, IL, USA).
A significant difference (p < 0.05) was considered from the
mean value of six samples from Vembanad (nine fishes were
collected and three omitted due to higher range) and farm
samples ± standard deviations (SD).
Results and Discussion
The quality of water was assessed by employing the analysis
of water chemistry parameters (Table 1).
The optimum pH and alkalinity for pearl spot fishes are
6.5–9 and 50–400 ppm, respectively. High alkalinity coupled
with a rise in pH may cause the death of fishes (Saraswathy
et al. 2015). Vidya et al. (2020) reported that Vembanad lake
pH varied from 6.69 to 8.08, adjacent to the industrial area.
The present study obtained high pH (8.8 ± 0.12), high alka-
linity (115.33 ± 2.45) and high hardeness (3300.33 ± 103.27)
from lake water compared to farm water. Optimal hard-
ness for fishes is 15–375 ppm. High hardness levels might
also cause a low fertilization rate in fishes. Ammonia is a
nitrogenous waste product causes (> 1 ppm) gill irritation
and respiratory problems in fishes (Saraswathy et al. 2015).
Our study resulted in higher ammonia (1.81 ± 0.079 ppm)
content in Vembanad lake. The seasonal concentration of
ammonia in Vembanad lake varied from 0 to 31.16 μg/L
(Laxmilatha et al. 2005). High oxygen demand might be
critical to the survival of most aquatic animals. Thus, higher
BOD (8.1 ± 0.12 mg/L) in the Vembanad freshwater system
denotes less availability of oxygen to sustain their biota.
Vincy et al (2012) studied high TDS value (3.3–5.9 mg/L)
and high hardness (371–417 mg/L) in Vembanad lake water
during monsoon season. The current study obtained TDS
value s 42638.2 ± 953.15 ppm from lake water compared
to farm water.iChanging salinity associated with high TDS
might eliminate less tolerant species from the aquatic system
(Saraswathy et al. 2015). Budhlani et al (2014) noticed that
the discharge of sewage and solid waste in to the river affects
Table 1  Physiochemical Parameters
analysis of freshwater and farm
water Appearance
Color
pH
Alkalinity
Hardness
Ammonia (NH3)
Biological oxygen demand (BOD)
Total dissolved solvents (TDS)
*p < 0.05: compared to farm water. Values are mean of six samples from each site ± SD
a
IS Indian standard (IS10500-2002) range/value of water chemistry parameters
water quality parameters. Current study obtained significant
variations in the quality of Vembanad lake water compared
to farm water.
The level of Cu (essential micronutrient) in Vembanad
water was found to be 0.007 ± 0.0009 ppm and farm water
is 0.010 ± 0. 0014 ppm; both values are within the range
(0.005–1.5 ppm) of the recommended IS limit. We obtained
a high concentration of Fe (0.432 ppm), Cl (> 15,300 ppm),
and S (> 1540 ppm) in freshwater. Vembanad lake Fe con-
centration greatly varied (0.87–2.15 mg/L) during mon-
soon season (Verma et al. 2002). Sulfate and iron contents
in aquatic bodies usually result from industrial sewage and
mine waste (Canario et al. 2003). Sulfate toxicity results in
ionic stress (Heming and Blumhagen 1988) in fishes. Iron
contamination in fishes causes gill degradation and growth
retardation (Elahee and Bhagwant 2007). S and Fe related
studies are limited from the Vembanad region. Free Cl, As,
Pb, Cd, and Hg were not detected in freshwater and farm
water samples.
Heavy metal contamination has been reported from the
Vembanad region (Ramasamy et al. 2017; Shyleshchan-
dran et al. 2018). Our study reports that Vembanad lake is
contaminated with heavy metals together with bisphenol
analog A (BPA), a tracer for plastic burning (Darbre 2018).
Sruthy and Ramasamy (2017) suggested that microplastics
contamination higher in Vembanad lake. Until no data has
been reported regarding the presence of BPA in Vemba-
nad lake water and edible fishes. The results may reflect
the contamination of freshwater shore with plastic waste,
and it might be higher than the studied artificial ecosystem
(farm). Heavy metals and BPA are the widespread pollutants
of great environmental concern. We found that Vembanad
lake contains a high level of Fe and BPA compared to the
farm (Tables 2 and 3).
The level of BPA in pearl spot liver inhabiting Vembanad
was found to 0.00314 and 0.0241 µg/mL, respectively. BPA
was not detected in pearl spot liver inhabiting farm water.
The occurrence of BPA (330 ng/L) has been reported in
the Dutch water system, Netherlands (Belfroid et al. 2002)
IS ­valuea Freshwater Farm water
Clear Clear Clear
0–15 HZ 2.16 ± 0.39 2.8 ± 0.40
6.5–8.5 8.8 ± 0.12* 7.3 ± 0.14
20–200 ppm 115.33 ± 2.45* 108.83 ± 2.20
15–375 ppm 3300.33 ± 103.27* 332.16 ± 7.75
0.06 ppm 1.816 ± 0.079* 0.052 ± 0.003
3 mg/L 8.1 ± 0.12* 4.12 ± 0.06
500–2000 ppm 42638.2 ± 953.15* 1271.5 ± 45.96
13
 Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology

Table 2  Concentration of heavy Heavy metals IS ­valuea Fresh water Farm water Fresh water fish Farm fish
metals in freshwater and farm
water and their bioaccumulation Copper (Cu) 0.005–1.5 ppm 0.007 ± 0.0009 0.010 ± 0. 0014 < LOD < LOD
in the liver of pearl spot fish
Iron (Fe) 0.3–0.4 ppm 0.432 ± 0.045* 0.234 ± 0.011 11.29 ± 0.39* 8.73 ± 0.63
inhabiting such water
Chloride (Cl) 240–300 ppm 15325 ± 902.57* 260 ± 14.47 < LOD < LOD
Sulphate(S) 240–300 ppm 1548.66 ± 79.97* 255.83 ± 5.74 < LOD < LOD
Free Cl 100 ppm ND ND NA NA
Arsenic (As) 0.01 mg/L BDL ND ND ND
Lead (Pb) 0.01 mg/L BDL ND ND ND
Cadmium (Cd) 0.003 mg/L ND ND ND ND
Mercury (Hg) 0.001 mg/L ND ND ND ND

Values are Mean ± SD

LOD limit of detection, NA not analyzed, BDL below detection level, ND not detected
*p < 0.05, compared to farm samples
a
IS value: Indian standard (IS10500-2002) range/value of heavy metals in water

Table 3  The level of BPA and BPS in waters of Vembanad lake and farm and their bioaccumulation in the liver of pearl spot fish inhabiting such
water
Bisphenols Vembanad water Vembanad fish liver Farm water Farm fish liver

BPA (µg/mL) 0.00314 ± 0.00014a 0.02412 ± 0.0031b < LOD ND

BPS (µg/mL) ND ND ND ND

BPA bisphenol-A, BPS bisphenol-S, ND not detected, LOD limit of detection

a,b
Values are expressed as mean ± SD

with high content BPA in the fish liver (75 ng/g) than fish
muscle (1–11 ng/g). Water sources from southern India were
also found to be polluted with BPA (2.8–136 ng/L) (Sel-
varaj et al. 2014). The occurrence of BPA analog (BPS)
in the river system has been noticed in several studies (Jin
and Zhu 2016; Wan et al. 2018). In our study, BPS was not
detected in the Vembanad system. But the release of excess
heavy metals like iron, calcium, sulfur, and xenoestrogens
like BPA into the freshwater bodies may affect the quality
of food resources like E. suratensis. Fishes are the environ-
mental sentinel for aquatic toxicants. Fishes can concentrate
pollutants, preferentially in fatty tissue like liver from their
surroundings medium (Denton and Burdon 1986). The study
of Xavier et al. (2019) revealed that E. suratensis survived
from the chronic exposure of Cu and Zn. Chandrasekar et al.
(2014) mentioned the adaptation of E. suratensis over chang-
ing salinity. Our results have shown that the bioaccumula-
tion of iron and BPA were significantly higher in freshwater
fishes when compared to the farm. Iron and BPA contamina-
tion has been reported from water bodies (Slaninova et al.
2014; Wong et al. 2017). While BPA related studies in Vem-
banad regions are limited.
Faheem and Lone (2017) revealed that the exposure of
BPA to aquatic organisms can enhance reactive oxygen
specious production with subsequent damage to the lipid
bilayer membrane. The peroxidation reactions in the cellular
pathogenesis can exert by the depleted status of antioxidants
like SOD, CAT, and GSH (Fig. 2).
The mean activities of antioxidant enzymes (SOD, CAT,
and GSH) were found to be significantly (p < 0.05) lower
in freshwater fishes than farm fishes. Our study obtained
an augmented level of MDA (peroxidation marker) in pearl
spot fish liver from freshwater. The analyzed hepatic tissue
of freshwater fishes shows higher activities of AST and ALT
in lake fishes. Therefore, we assume that the cellular level
peroxidation rate in the freshwater fish liver is augmented
by the depletion antioxidant enzymes. The cytoplasmic
vacuolation and tissue disintegration in freshwater fish liver
indicate the extent of liver toxicity during their exposure to
environmental contaminants. These changes were observed
in those fishes contaminated with Fe and BPA. In support
of our results, it has been suggested that the changes like
hepatic vacuolation, elevated AST and ALT, reduced anti-
oxidants in fishes can arise from iron (Vasanthi et al. 2013)
or BPA (Faheem and Lone 2017) exposure. The obtained
histopathology of pearl spot liver reflects severe hepatic
damage (Fig. 3).
Thus, Fe and BPA might have a role in degrading the
quality of Vembanad lake water and fish resources. The
study warranted that proper monitoring and management
of river ecosystems is the need of the hour for the protec-
tion and safety of species inhabiting there. The inefficiency

13
Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology
Fig. 2  Level of stress markers in pear spot fishes inhabiting freshwa-
ter lake and farm water a AST and ALT. b MDA, CAT, SOD, and
GSH. ^Denotes units of stress markers; MDA: nm/mg tissue; GSH:
Fig. 3  Hepatic histology of pearl spot fish liver inhabited in farm and freshwater a Freshwater fishes show hepatocytes (black arrow) with nor-
mal architecture b Farm fish liver possess lipid type vacuolation (black arrow) and distorted hepatic structure
will lead to the destruction and extinction of aquatic species
in the future. The research on community health effects of
consumption of fishes from high content iron and BPA water
needs important attention.
The release of additive chemicals from plastics and
other commodities to a freshwater system and interfere
with the food web is challenging. The notable changes in
freshwater quality parameters render the environmental
contaminant like heavy metals and xenoestrogens bio-
availability. It should be noted that most of the heavy
metals are essential for various physiological processes,
but the bioaccumulation produces a hazardous effect on
aquatic fauna. Therefore, it will be important in the future
to investigate the routes of exposure of aquatic contami-
nants to fish fauna. The study is an effort to monitoring
the ecological health of freshwater ecosystems surrounded
nm/mg tissue; CAT: U/min/mg tissue; SOD: U/mg tissue. Values are
expressed as mean ± SD (n = 6), *p < 0.05 when compared to values
of farm samples
by tourist invasion and monitoring the health of economi-
cally important pearl spot fishes. Regarding health risk, the
current study high lightened the need for more research to
evaluate the role of aquatic contaminants on other species
of commercial interest as human food.
Acknowledgements This work was financially supported by the
Department of Science and Technology, New Delhi. We thank the
Department of Biotechnology, Government of India for the excel-
lent research facilities supported through the DBT-MSUB-IPLS
(BUILDER) program. We also thank Mr. Dineep Vasudevan, Inter-
University Instrumentation Centre, School of Environmental Sciences,
Mahatma Gandhi University for technical assistance on this work.
Compliance with Ethical Standards
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflicts of
interest.
13
 Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology

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