UC2 Core Competency

COMPETENCY BASED LEARNING MATERIAL
ANIMAL PRODUCTION
(RUMINANTS) NC II
SECTOR : AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY AND FISHERY
QUALIFICATION : ANIMAL PRODUCTION (RUMINANTS) NC II
UNIT OF COMPETENCY : PROVIDE FORAGE
MODULE TITLE : PROVIDING FORAGE
ORCHARD VALLEY INC.

Barangays Pagsangaan & Tigum, Pavia, Iloilo City
HOW TO USE THIS COMPETENCY-BASED LEARNING MATERIAL
The unit of competency, “Provide forage”, is one of the competencies of

Animal Production (Ruminants) NC II, a course which comprises the knowledge,
skills, and attitudes required for a TVET trainee to possess.
The module, Providing forage, covers the knowledge, skills and attitude
required in researching general information on food and beverage cocktails, and
sharing in.
In this module, you are required to go through a series of learning activities in

order to complete each learning outcome. In each learning outcome are Information
Sheets, Self-checks, Operation Sheets, Task Sheets, and Job Sheets. Follow and
perform the activities on your own. If you have questions, do not hesitate to ask for
assistance from your facilitator.
Remember to:
● Read information sheet and complete the self-checks.
● Perform the Task Sheets, Operation Sheets, and Job Sheets until you are
confident that your outputs conform to the Performance Criteria Checklists
that follow the said work sheets.
● Submit outputs of the Task Sheets, Operation Sheets, and Job Sheets to your
facilitator for evaluation and recording in the Achievement Chart. Outputs shall
serve as your portfolio during the Institutional Competency Evaluation. When
you feel confident that you have had sufficient practice, ask your trainer to
evaluate you. The results of your assessment will be recorded in your
Achievement Chart and Progress Chart.
You must pass the Institutional Competency Evaluation for this competency
before moving to another competency. A Certificate of Achievement will be awarded
to you after passing the evaluation.
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Date Developed: Issued by:
ANIMAL PRODUCTION (RUMINANTS) NC II February 2022 Orchard Valley Inc.
CBLM ON PROVIDING FORAGE Developed by: Page 1 of 82

Orchard Valley Inc. Revision # 00
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Animal Production (Ruminants) NC II
List of Common Unit of Competencies
No. Unit of Competency Module Title Code
1. Maintain housing, farm Maintaining housing, farm AFF621901

implements and implements and surrounding
surrounding area area
2. Provide forage Providing forage AFF621902
3. Perform breeding of Performing breeding of AFF621903

ruminants ruminants
4. Raise dairy animals Raising dairy animals AFF621904
5. Raise meat-type animals Raising meat-type animals AFF621905
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MODULE CONTENT
UNIT OF COMPETENCY : Provide forage
MODULE TITLE : Providing forage
MODULE DESCRIPTOR : This unit covers the knowledge, skills and

attitudes required to provide forage which
include functions during forage area
preparation, planting and maintenance activities
of forage area, production of silage and
completion of work.
NOMINAL DURATION :
LEARNING OUTCOME
Upon completion of this module, the trainees must be able to:
LO1 - Prepare area for forage plantation
LO2 - Plant forage species
LO3 - Maintain forage plants
LO4 - Produce silage
LO5 - Perform work to completion
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
LO1 - Prepare area for forage plantation
● Tools, materials and equipment are prepared according to work
requirements and plan.
● Forage area is cleared from unwanted vegetations and debris according to
site plan.
● Land is prepared according to site plan and production requirements.
● Fence is set-up in the perimeter following site plan.
● Safety measures are practiced according to Occupational Health and Safety

(OHS) procedures.
LO2 - Plant forage species

● Forage species to be planted are determined according to types of
ruminants and availability of forage species.
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● Forage planting materials are sourced-out and collected from
recommended sources and other farmers.
● Forage species are planted according to plan and production requirements.
● Task is performed according to OSHS.
LO3 - Maintain forage plants

● Pest control measures are employed according to Good Agricultural
Practices (GAP)
● Fertilizers are applied according to plant requirements
● Plants are watered according to plant requirements.
● Other maintenance practices are done following GAP and plant

requirements.
● Tasks are performed following GAP and OSHS procedures.
LO4 - Produce silage

● Excess forages and other materials for silage are gathered following
established farm procedures.
● Silos are used according to supply of silage materials.
● Ensiling is done following standard procedures.
● Commercial silage additives are mixed according to enterprise

requirements.
● Forage silage is stored following established storage requirements and
condition.
● Forage silage are inspected for quality check
LO5 - Perform work to completion

● Tools and equipment are cleaned, maintained and stored according to
established standard practices
● Maintenance of clean and safe area is undertaken throughout and on
completion of work.
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● Records of silage production are compiled for reference and reporting
purposes following enterprise procedures and 5S principles.
● Work output is reported to concerned person or authority according to
industry practices.
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LEARNING OUTCOME # 1 Prepare area for forage plantation
CONTENTS:
1. Forage area unwanted vegetations and debris
ASSESMENT CRITERIA:
o Tools, materials and equipment are prepared according to work
requirements and plan.
o Forage area is cleared from unwanted vegetations and debris
according to site plan.
o Land is prepared according to site plan and production requirements.
o Fence is set-up in the perimeter following site plan.
o Safety measures are practiced according to Occupational Health and
Safety (OHS) procedures.
CONDITIONS:
The students/ trainees must be provided with the following:
● Farm with forage area and facilities
● Silage production area
● Supplies and materials appropriate to the activity
● Tools and equipment appropriate to the activity
● Feed resources
● Different silage
● All workers involved in different activities must be fully oriented and

cautioned on the different specific work activities of the farm
● Technical supervisors should have skills and ability in the successful
implementation of work program activities
METHODOLOGIES:
● Group discussion
● Interactive learning
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ASSESSMENT METHODS:
Competency in this unit may be assessed through:
1. Direct Observation and questioning
2. Demonstration
3. Oral interview and written test
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Learning Experiences
Learning Outcome # 1 - Prepare area for forage plantation

Learning Activities Special Instructions
Read Information Sheet 2.1-1 on Read and understand the information sheet
Forage area unwanted vegetations and check yourself by answering the self-
and debris check. You must answer all the questions
Answer Self-Check 2.1-1 correctly before proceedings to the next
(Trainee checks answers against activity
the answer key)
Refer to Task sheets, it will help you practice
your skills.
The performance criteria checklist will guide

and help you evaluate your work as you are
practicing your skills.
Evaluate your own performance using the

performance criteria checklist. When you are
ready, present your work to your trainer for
final evaluation and recording.
If you have questions and clarification fell free

to ask your trainer.
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Information Sheet 2.1-1
Forage area unwanted vegetations and debris
Introduction
There are five primary methods for treating and managing competing and unwanted
vegetation: manual, mechanical, prescribed fire, biological, and chemical. These
profiles are intended to aid Forest Service project managers, workers, and the public
in planning and performing vegetation management projects. Mechanical methods
are discussed here.
Crawler tractors or low ground pressure tractors equipped with blades or mowing
attachments are most commonly used for mechanical treatments.
Implementation
Mechanical site preparation uses tractors or other machinery with various types of
blades to remove plants, their roots, and, sometimes, part of the top layer of soil.
Tractors with attached discs or chains are also used to remove unwanted vegetation
for reforestation or revegetation. Machines can either partially or totally clear a site.
Preparing spots for planting is called scalping, plowing a strip is called furrowing or
contouring, and complete removal of vegetation is called scarification.
Tractors are also used to pile ummerchantable material which may produce a fire
hazard or create difficult conditions for reforestation. When worldng away from mad
surfaces, activities are timed to avoid high soil moisture content to prevent undue
compaction.
Graders, tractors, and other machines use attached brush cutters for roadside brush
control and generally travel on the road surface.
Cable systems can be used to yard unmerchantable material from timber harvest
areas when it poses a fire hazard or impedes tree planting.
Slashbusters are used to mow down slash or unwanted vegetation. Successful uses
in the Pacific Northwest for managing competing and unwanted vegetation includes
mowing down unwanted trees before planting with disease resistant species.
Advantages
The cost of mechanical methods may be less than more labor intensive manual
treatments and high efficiencies are possible. In many cases, the entire plant,
including roots, is removed. Where rainfall is low or seasonal, mechanical methods
have a wide treatment window.
Disadvantages
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Intense disturbance of soil and ground cover is a major disadvantage, particularly
during site preparation. In areas of high or year-roundrainfall, the window for
treatment without inflicting lasting soil damage may be narrow or non-existent.
Mechanical treatment is relatively non-selective; although tractors can be
maneuvered or the blade may be lifted to avoid specific areas, all plants within the
path of the blade are likely to be affected.
Machines with tracks or wheels can only be used on relatively flat terrain. Although
cable systems are commonly used for removal of logging debris on steeper slopes,
their use for treating competing vegetation is rare at this time.
Effects on the Environment
Soil and Water
Tractor piling of slash or scarification for site preparation can cause soil compaction,
puddling of water, and surface erosion. Disturbing the duff layer and removing
organic material can lead to a reduction in site productivity.
Yarding of unmerchantable material involves removing residue which, if left

undisturbed, would be available to decompose and supply organic matter and
nutrients to the soil. This can affect nutrient cycling and long-term productivity.
Increased surface water runoff and sedimentation may result from mechanical
treatment depending on type of soil. operating practices, slope steepness, and
distance to the stream channel.
Vegetation
Mechanical methods can significantly affect site vegetation. Direct effects are
generally limited to the time when activities take place. They may persist, however, if
soils are compacted or if undesirable plants become established on disturbed
ground.
Numerous trees andplants adapted for germination on exposed mineral soils may
become established after mechanical treatment. This includes important conifer
trees such as Ponderosa pine, lodgepole pine, and Douglas-fir. But noxious weeds
and undesired brush or tree species, such as western juniper and read alder, are
also welladapted to disturbed sites. Increases in these species may adversely affect
timber or forage production and result in a need for further treatment.
Productivity may be increased after site preparation if desired species can be quickly
reestablished on the disturbed site prior to the emergence of undesired plants.
Wildlife and Livestock
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Direct effects on soil-dwelling animals such as ground squirrels, pocket gophers and
salamanders may be great with mechanical treatments. Groundnesting birds may
also be affected in the spring.
Downed trees and slash provide important habitat for small mammals, birds, reptiles,
amphibians, insects, and other invertebrates. Removal of this material can reduce
populations of these species. It can also indirectly affect predator or prey populations
by reducing their food sources.
For large grazing animals — deer, elk, and livestock — logging slash or natural
accumulations of woody debris can impair access, reducing their use of an area.
Removal or strategic placement of some of this material can improve access,
allowing the animals to make better use of the forage. Partial or selective removal of
debris can favor grazing by, some animals more than others.
Mechanical treatments may provide opportunities to improve habitat for grazing
animals by providing a good seed bed for establishing high-quality mixes of grasses,
legumes, and forbs.
Scenery and Cultural Resources
Mowing larger vegetation along roadside rightsof-way can sometimes leave a

ragged, ungroomed appearance. Conversely, chopping or chipping of large debris is
used to improve the appearance of vegetation treatments along roadsides.
Of the five approved methods of controlling unwanted vegetation, the use of off-road
mechanical equipment poses the highest potential for damage to cultural resources.
Human Health Effects
The risk of any effect on human health from vegetation treatment is based on two
factors. First, what are the hazardous characteristics of the tool that could cause
illness or injury? Second, when and how would people be exposed to these
hazardous characteristics?
The FEIS made quantitative, or numerical estimates of all known risks associated
with each vegetation management tool and method. It also reviewed the quality of
the scientific data that was used in malting these risk estimates. For individual
projects, site-specific quantitative estimates need not be calculated in order to
assess project risks. Rather, particular characteristics of the project should be
identified that might expose either workers or the public to greater risks than those
estimated in the FEIS. Then planners must identify mitigating measures, from the
FEIS or elsewhere, and qualitatively describe how effective they would be in
reducing particular concerns about exposure
Whole body vibration from heavy equipment used in Canadian site prep operations
was evaluated (Golsse, 1989). Factors which can contribute to d efficiency include
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acceleration levels. Use of tracked machines or wheeled units pushing implements
which had higher vibration levels than wheeled slddders pulling implements.
Lower back pain associated with exposure to vibration from operating heavy
equipment has also been rported as a potential human health effect, (Boshuizen et.
al., 1990). However, it is diffiuclt to separate lower back pain due to vibration from
that due to sitting. Comparing this potential health effect with potential health effects
from sedentary indoor jobs would be speculative.
Hazard
Serious injuries to the operators of mechanical equipment and other workers in the
vicinity can result if the operator loses control of the machine. The steepness,
roughness, and soil type of terrain affect the severity of the hazard.
Accidents may occur when operating machines under conditions of poor visibility,
when encountering a short headwall or roadcut, or when misjudging the slope. When
machines overturn, operators may be seriously injured and flying debris can harm
others. Such accidents are uncommon among experienced operators but they are
difficult to eliminate entirely.
Workers can be struck by falling trees or by debris thrown by the equipment. The
size and type of vegetation being treated can affect the seriousness of this hazard. In
these circumstances, workers on the ground are at greater risk than the operator.
The noise of heavy equipment can cause hearing impairment.
Exposure
The equipment operator and ground crews are the only individuals likely to be
exposed to injury from mechanical equipment operating away from roads.
Risk
The most serious accidents involve the overtuming of machinery. Rolling or snapping
vegetation can also cause injury. Risks to workers are proportional to the length of
exposure, modified by terrain factors, and the type of vegetation being treated.
Risks to the general public from mechanical vegetation treatments away from roads
is very low because the likelihood of exposure is remote. Risks from roadside
brushing and mowing depend on road design factors that influence visibility and
speed. Traffic control and warning systems can reduce these risks.
Quality of Information on Health Effects
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The quality of data on health effects of mechanical methods is poor, there is no real
evidence from forestry to substantiate the intuitive relationship between length of
exposure and injury rate.
Measures for Reducing Environmental and Human Health Effects
Both rubber-tired and treaded tractors are prohibited on slopes exceeding 35 percent
and on soils where there is a high potential for compaction and erosion. The only
exceptions are in designated areas where adverse impacts can be avoided. The
approval of a soil or water specialist is required.
Buffer strips must be left along streams, lakes, and wetlands. The timing of
mechanical treatments is crucial in minimizing the impact on soil and water
For roadside brushing, project risk plans should evaluate risks of accidents to other
forest road travelers and reduce these risks through traffic and/or operational
restrictions.
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Self-Check 2.1-1
Check your mastery in interpretation of plans and details by completing the tasks
below.
FILL IN THE BLANK
1 There are five primary methods for treating and managing competing and
unwanted vegetation: ________, _________, __________, _________, and
__________.
2 ____________ can be used to yard unmerchantable material from timber

harvest areas when it poses a fire hazard or impedes tree planting.
3 ____________ are used to mow down slash or unwanted vegetation.
4 For _____________, project risk plans should evaluate risks of accidents to

other forest road travelers and reduce these risks through traffic and/or
operational restrictions.
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Answer key 2.1-1
Check your answer with the answer key below. if you fail to get it right, refer back to
corresponding resources until you make it perfect.
1. manual, mechanical, prescribed fire, biological, chemical.

2. Cable systems
3. Slashbusters
4. roadside brushing
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LEARNING OUTCOME # 2 Plant forage species
CONTENTS:
1. Forage Species
ASSESMENT CRITERIA:
o Forage species to be planted are determined according to types of
ruminants and availability of forage species.
o Forage planting materials are sourced-out and collected from
recommended sources and other farmers.
o Forage species are planted according to plan and production
requirements.
o Task is performed according to OSHS.
CONDITIONS:
● Feed resources

METHODOLOGIES:
ASSESSMENT METHODS:
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2. Demonstration
4. Third party report
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Learning Outcome # 2 Plant forage species

Forage Species and check yourself by answering the self-
Answer Self-Check 2.2-1 check. You must answer all the questions
(Trainee checks answers against correctly before proceedings to the next
the answer key) activity
Refer to Task sheets, it will help you practice

your skills.
The performance criteria checklist will guide

and help you evaluate your work as you are


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Forage Species
Introduction
Forage is composed of plant leaves

and stems mostly eaten by grazing
animals. It can be herbaceous
legumes, grasses, shrubs or tree
legumes.
What are the Types of Forage?
∙ Grasses:
● Serves as main feed for ruminants
● Produces more biomass than legumes
∙ Legumes:
● Provides better quality feeds
● Provides protein, vitamins and minerals for

more improved performance of animals
● Leguminous crop are cheap source of feeds
● It has lesser chance of ingesting infective

larvae as compared to grazing lower growing
vegetation
∙ Multi – Purpose Tree Species
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Comparative Features
Selection of Forage Species to Plant
● Adaptability to the environment
● Species that do not meet soil & climatic conditions but would need additional
inputs & adjustments in management
● Growth habit determines adaptability to ways of integrating & using a specific

forage
● Nutritive Value * Availability of planting materials
Multi – Purpose Tree Species for Pasture

Common Name Scientific Description
Name
White ball acacia Acaciella
● Drought tolerant
angustissima
● Can be used as a green manure and
ground covering.
● Leaves can be used in composting
● Used as livestock feed
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● High in protein It should only be used
as an additive
to the feed and not the main source,
since it also toxic in high doses

Name
Mulberry Morus sp.
● Leaves and stalks are fed to
ruminants
● It has 70.8% for digestible CP, 48.4
% for total digestible nutrients and
35.6 % for starch equivalent on a dry
basis
● The digestibility of mulberry leaf: in
vivo (goats) 78.4-80.8% and in vitro
are very high (89.2%)
Hairy indigo Indigofera
● Warm season legume and is used as
hirsuta L.
a green manure and cover crop
● Contains 23.8 percent crude protein,
2.0 percent ether extract, 15.2
percent crude fibre, 46.8 percent
nitrogen-free extract, 1.88 percent
calcium and 0.37 percent phosphorus
Kakawate Gliricidia
● Used as cut and carry forage for
sepium
cattle, sheep, and goats
● High in protein
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Name
Madre de Agua Trichanthera
● Contains high concentrations of
gigantea
watersoluble carbohydrates and
starch, and low NDF
● CP content ranges from 12-22%,
IVDMD ranges from 45-60% and
DMD ranges from 50-70%
● Contains comparatively high ash and
calcium concentrations at 16-20%
and 2.4-3.8% of DM, respectively.
● The high ash and Ca concentrations
may be related to the presence of
cystoliths, small mineral concretions
on the leaves and stems
Flamengia; Flemingia
● Contains 22.7 % crude protein (CP)
malabalatong macrophylla
and 8%tannin
● Low digestibility because of high
tannin and fibre content.
● Low palatability to cattle, particularly
in the wet season.
Pigeon Pea Cajanus cajan (L.)

● Used as a protein source or
Millsp.
supplement, due to its high
concentration in CP in both seeds
and leaves
● The leaves are high in fiber,
particularly ADF and lignin
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Name
Ipil-ipil Leucaena
● Provides an excellent source of high-
leucocephala
(Lam.) protein cattle fodder
de Wit
● Contains mimosine, a toxic amino
acid which is metabolized to
goitrogenic DHP
Desmanthus Desmanthus
● It makes a good food plant for cattle,
virgatus
it is not as promising a feed for pigs
● It is very tolerant of grazing
Agati Sesbania
● Crude protein content is greater than
grandiflora (L.)
Pers. 20% and often above 25-30% DM
● It contains less fiber
● The NDF content was estimated to

be 29 and 37% of DM, and the ADF
content to be 15.6 and 25.8% of DM
● The acid detergent insoluble N
content was 2.1% of total N, whereas
lignin content was estimated to be 4-
8% of DM
● The digestibility and degradability of
dry matter and nutrients are generally
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high
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Name
Katuray Sesbania sesban
● A source of cut and carry forage
(L.) Merr.
● Used as a grazed forage
● Leaves are a good source of protein

for cattle and sheep
Legume Plants for Pasture

Name
Calopo Calopogoniummucunoides
Desv. ● Used as cover crop
● It provides soil protection against

erosion, reduces soil temperature,
improves soil fertility and controls
weeds
● can be grazed or cut and fed fresh
● Has a low nutritive value

Peanut Arachis glabrat
● Grown for hay, silage and pasture,
and as ornamental ground cover
● Very palatable and it has greater
digestibility of dry matter, fiber, and
protein,
● A suitable protein and energy
supplement feed
● It is best used as a supplemental
feed to other feeds such as grass
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Grasses for Pasture

Name
Star grass Cynodon
● Can be cut in order to be fed fresh or
plectostachyus (K.
Schum.) Pilger to make hay
● Contains about 10% protein in the
DM while the CP of young grass can
exceed 15% of the DM, and more
than 18% when N fertilizer is applied
● It can produce high levels of
hydrogen cyanide when overstressed
by defoliation, drought and heavy
grazing/trampling
● Does not have a high nutritive value,
particularly during the dry season
Alabang X Dichanthium
● Suitable for grazing and cut-and-
aristatum
carry, and for hay before flowering
● CP values are often low, but can be
increased by N fertilization up to
12.5% CP in young foliage.
● Well eaten by all classes of stock
when leafy
● Low in oxalate
Napier grass, Pennisetum
● A very important forage in the tropics
Elephant grass purpureum
due to its high productivity
● Used in cut-and-carry systems ("zero
grazing") and fed in stalls, or made
into silage or hay
● 25.7% DM, 9.2% CP, 60.5% of DOM
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Name
Stylo Stylosanthes
● Used for hay, cut-and-carry systems
guianensis
and pasture
● Palatable to livestock when mature
and can grow on relatively infertile
soils
● 12-20% CP, 2-60 % IVDMD ,
0.2- .6% P, 0.6-1.6% Ca.
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Self-Check 2.2-1
below.
IDENTIFICATION
Give the common name of the given description
Description Common
Name
1.
● Leaves and stalks are fed to ruminants
● It has 70.8% for digestible CP, 48.4 % for total digestible nutrients and
35.6 % for starch equivalent on a dry basis
● The digestibility of mulberry leaf: in vivo (goats) 78.4-80.8% and in vitro
are very high (89.2%)
2.
● Warm season legume and is used as a green manure and cover crop
● Contains 23.8 percent crude protein, 2.0 percent ether extract, 15.2
percent crude fibre, 46.8 percent nitrogen-free extract, 1.88 percent
calcium and 0.37 percent phosphorus
3.
● Used as cut and carry forage for cattle, sheep, and goats
● High in protein
4.
● Contains high concentrations of watersoluble carbohydrates and
starch, and low NDF
● CP content ranges from 12-22%, IVDMD ranges from 45-60% and
DMD ranges from 50-70%
● Contains comparatively high ash and calcium concentrations at 16-20%
and 2.4-3.8% of DM, respectively.
● The high ash and Ca concentrations may be related to the presence of
cystoliths, small mineral concretions on the leaves and stems
5.
● Contains 22.7 % crude protein (CP) and 8%tannin
● Low digestibility because of high tannin and fibre content.
● Low palatability to cattle, particularly in the wet season.

6.
● Used as a protein source or supplement, due to its high concentration
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in CP in both seeds and leaves
● The leaves are high in fiber, particularly ADF and lignin
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Answer key 2.2-1
1. Mulberry
2. Hairy indigo
3. Kakawate
4. Madre de Agua
5. Flamengia malabalatong
6. Pigeon Pea
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LEARNING OUTCOME # 3 Maintain forage plant
CONTENTS:
1. Maintain Forage Plants
2. Pest Control Measures
ASSESMENT CRITERIA:
o Pest control measures are employed according to Good Agricultural
Practices (GAP)
o Fertilizers are applied according to plant requirements
o Plants are watered according to plant requirements.
o Other maintenance practices are done following GAP and plant
requirements.
o Tasks are performed following GAP and OSHS procedures.
CONDITIONS:
● Feed resources

METHODOLOGIES:
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ASSESSMENT METHODS:
2. Demonstration
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Learning Outcome # 3- Maintain forage plants

Maintain Forage Plants and check yourself by answering the self-
Read Information Sheet 2.3-2 on
Pest Control Measures Refer to Task sheets, it will help you practice
your skills.
Answer Self-Check 2.3-2
(Trainee checks answers against The performance criteria checklist will guide
the answer key) and help you evaluate your work as you are


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Maintain Forage Plants
Introduction
Forage crops are grown specifically for grazing by livestock or harvested to help
make up seasonal shortfalls between feed demand and supply. They form a vital
part of livestock production.
Use Penn State Extension’s vast selection of resources on forage crops and grazing
management of crops such as wheat, alfalfa, fescue, sorghum, corn, rye, canola,
clover, and birdsfoot trefoil. Find tips on determining pasture yield, no-till crop
management, crop rotation, silage, haylage, and baleage.
Growing Forage Crops
Forage crops play an important role in agriculture. However, there are many different
factors to consider if you want to reap maximum benefits from growing forage crops.
Use Penn State Extension’s Forage Management Calendar to find out the
recommendations for each month of the year and join the Forage Management
Workshop that covers the basics of forage management.
There are many different species and varieties of forage crops, each with its own
growing requirements. Perennial warm-season grasses perform well on soils with
low moisture-holding capacity, low pH, and low phosphorus levels. Midsummer is the
best time to plant "fall-seeded" alfalfa because it allows sufficient time for seedlings
to germinate and sufficient root reserves to develop before the first frosts. Late
summer/early fall is the best time for seeding cool-season perennial forages, as the
weather is still warm enough to encourage successful forage crop establishment and
boost growth. It’s also important to identify common forage species in the Mid-
Atlantic region.
Forage crops such as grains are commonly stored and used on a farm for feed. You
can also use legumes, with the added ability to leave nitrogen in the soil for the
benefit of any subsequent crops.
Grazing Management
You can maximize forage utilization with well-planned grazing systems. Manage
where and when livestock graze on forages and it can improve land and pasture
conditions and help make livestock production more efficient.
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In the late summer and early fall, you should avoid grazing too low as there is a
dramatic reduction in the growth of forage crops such as cool-season perennials.
You should take care when grazing cattle during periods of wet weather as there is a
risk of damaging pasture stands and soil structure.
It’s possible to get the most out of the grazing season with careful selection of forage
crops. Sow brassica crops in the spring as a supplement to perennial cool-season
pasture or sow in the summer to extend the grazing season. Interest in grazing
alfalfa is growing, in spite of the higher level of management it requires. Tall grass
grazing is another popular forage option for beef cattle that can also be applied to
dairy grazing.
Penn State Extension’s Pasture Workshops and Grazing 101 online courses provide
all the resources you need to sustainably manage livestock on pasture and
understand variables concerning grazing systems, fencing, paddocks, and forage
quality.
Harvesting Forage Crops
Producers mechanically harvest forages and use them as stored feed. The 3 most
basic forage harvest systems are dry hay, silage, and wet hay or baleage.
Whichever system you use, there are principles or guidelines you should consider
and follow if you want to minimize losses and keep forage quality as high as
possible.
For legume forage crops, frequent cutting produces high-quality forage whereas less
frequent cutting generally leads to increased stand longevity. Birdsfoot trefoil can
persist for many years if properly managed. A cutting height of not less than 3 inches
is recommended.
Alfalfa is a forage crop that can yield more than 7 to 8 tons of hay equivalent per
acre, if properly managed. You can also maintain it successfully for four to five years,
depending on cutting management.
Red clover has the potential to yield 4 to 5 tons of good quality forage, but normally
only lasts two to three years. You can improve the persistence and yields of red
clover with proper cutting management.
Cereal rye is used to make pre-cut rye straw. Cutting takes place after heading but
before seed formation. The cut rye requires rain to bleach it from green to white or
yellow, after which it is raked and baled.
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Hay Production
Forage crop producers face a number of challenges if they want to consistently

produce high-quality hay. Penn State Extension Hay Production
Workshop addresses some of these challenges.
Time is of the essence when it comes to baling hay. It’s crucial that you bale the hay
before bad weather arrives. You can reduce the drying time of cut forage with the
use of chemical conditioners. Several factors can affect the quality of baleage such
as timely wrapping, moisture, forage maturity, and density.
Haylage and Silage
Silage is a staple forage on dairy farms, but high-level silage management and
sizable financial outlay is necessary if you want to efficiently produce, harvest, store,
and feed silage. Round bale silage is one storage method, but it does have both
strengths and weaknesses. Problems can arise when using silage as part of your
feed management system. Evaluating the quality of your silage is crucial.
Forage Shrink
This is a problem that forage crop producers have to face. Forage shrink can be as
much as 40% but you can reduce this loss if you follow sound baleage making
principles. You can minimize forage shrink by properly storing any silage crops,
ensuring a dense silage pack, keeping silage coverings in place, using a silage
facer, and managing removal rates based on the season.
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Self-Check 2.3-1
below.
FILL IN THE BLANK
1. ________ are grown specifically for grazing by livestock or harvested to help

make up seasonal shortfalls between feed demand and supply.
2. Forage crops play an important role in ________.
3. You can maximize forage utilization with well-planned __________
4. __________has the potential to yield 4 to 5 tons of good quality forage, but

normally only lasts two to three years.
5. ____________ is one storage method, but it does have both strengths and
weaknesses.
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Answer key 2.3-1
1. Forage crops
2. agriculture
3. grazing systems
4. Red clover
5. Round bale silage
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Pest Control Measures
Introduction
Pests and diseases can have a significant effect on the establishment, yield, and
longevity of your forage crops. Make use of Penn State Extension’s
recommendations for managing pests and diseases in forage crops such as grass
hay, clover, corn, wheat, cereal, barley, and soybeans.
Common Forage Crop Pests and Diseases
The economic impact of a ruined forage crop can have far-reaching consequences
for livestock producers. Being able to prevent the spread of disease and control
pests is always high on a farmer’s list of priorities. Before this step, however, it’s
important for you to be able to identify the most important pests and diseases that
can threaten forage crops.
A variety of pests can affect alfalfa crops. If the weather is warm, it leads to
increased populations of alfalfa weevils. When they are young, the weevils leave pin-
hole sized holes near the tips of the plants, while older weevils leave jagged edges
on the leaves. The alfalfa weevil is one of the two most-damaging insect pests of
alfalfa in Pennsylvania. The potato leafhopper can also cause extensive and costly
damage to alfalfa crops.
Black cutworm is often a pest of corn, but also causes problems in wheat and
tobacco crops. Penn State Extension has been monitoring the arrival of black
cutworm moths using pheromone traps.
winter grain mites are uncommon in Pennsylvania; however, mites were recently
found in fields of rye that were being grown for silage in Chester County.
A range of pests can affect clover. The clover root curculio and the clover root
borer can rescue or eliminate red clover stands. The clover root curculio is a
common insect in Pennsylvania clover and alfalfa fields.
Forage grasses grown in humid temperature zones can be susceptible to diseases

caused by plant pathogenic bacteria such as yellow slime disease and bacterial leaf
blight. While barley yellow dwarf is one of the most widely distributed and destructive
viral diseases that can affect small grains.
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One way to reduce the risk of disease is to use high quality certified seed purchased
from reputable suppliers. Fungicide applications can control various leaf diseases,
but timing is crucial.
Forage Crops Pest Management
It’s possible to control pests by introducing an integrated pest management system.

Combining biological, cultural, physical, and chemical tools allows producers to
minimize economic, health, and environmental risks, while at the same time control
pests efficiently and effectively.
Penn State Extension’s What's New in Agronomic Pest Control online course looks
at the new developments in the agronomic pest market, including insect, disease,
and weed control. The Penn State Agronomy Guide also contains a section on pest
management.
The application of fungicide is one way to control diseases. Scouting and growth
staging can help you decide whether to apply fungicides or you can enlist the help of
a certified crop scout.
If your soil is healthy it can play a significant role in suppressing pests. Healthy soil
supports a diverse microbial community that can suppress pests naturally. However,
pests come in all shapes and sizes. Deer, for example, can cause significant
damage to forage crops. Deer control options include the Deer Management
Assistance Program (DMAP).
You should not overlook weed control in forage production. They can reduce yield by
competing for water, sunlight, and nutrients. Some weeds are simply unpalatable to
livestock, while others, such as poison hemlock, can be highly toxic.
Forage Crops and Pesticides Application
Pesticides can be used to minimize the loss of forage crops due to disease and pest
attack. However, if you’re going to apply certain pesticides, such as restricted-use
pesticides (RUPs) you have to be certified in accordance with EPA regulations and
state, territorial, and tribal laws. Glyphosate, or Roundup, commonly used to control
weeds, is not a restricted use pesticide. Private applicators and commercial
businesses applying pesticides also have to keep records.
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Self-Check 1.3-2
below.
FILL IN THE BLANK
1. _______ and _______ can have a significant effect on the establishment,

yield, and longevity of your forage crops.
2. A variety of pests can affect _________
3. _________ is often a pest of corn, but also causes problems in wheat and
tobacco crops.
4. _____________ are uncommon in Pennsylvania; however, mites were

recently found in fields of rye that were being grown for silage in Chester
County.
5. A range of pests can affect __________
6. __________ can control various leaf diseases, but timing is crucial.
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Answer key 2.3-2
1. Pests , diseases
2. alfalfa crops
3. Black cutworm
4. winter grain mites
5. clover
6. Fungicide applications
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LEARNING OUTCOME # 4 Produce silage
CONTENTS:
1. Silos
2. Silage Making
ASSESMENT CRITERIA:
o Excess forages and other materials for silage are gathered following
established farm procedures.
o Silos are used according to supply of silage materials.
o Ensiling is done following standard procedures.
o Commercial silage additives are mixed according to enterprise
requirements.
o Forage silage is stored following established storage requirements and
condition.
o Forage silage are inspected for quality check
CONDITIONS:
● Feed resources

METHODOLOGIES:
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ASSESSMENT METHODS:
2. Demonstration
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Learning Outcome # 4- Produce silage

Silos and check yourself by answering the self-
Read Information Sheet 2.4-2 on
Silage Making Refer to Task sheets, it will help you practice
your skills.


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Silos
Introduction
A silo is a structure for storing bulk materials. Silos are used in agriculture to store
grain or fermented feed known as silage. Silos are more commonly used for bulk
storage of grain, food products. Three types of silos are in widespread use today:
tower silos, bunker silos, bag silos and silage piles.
1. Tower Silo:
Storage silos are cylindrical structures, typically 10 to 90 ft (3 to 27 m) in diameter

and 30 to 275 ft (10 to 90 m) in height. They can be made of many materials such as
wood staves, concrete staves, cast concrete, and steel panels. Silos can be
unloaded into rail cars, trucks or conveyors.
Advantages;
● Tends to pack well due to its own weight
● Lower Storage Losses
● Requires less area for construction
● Allows greater mechanization during filling and feedout
● Convenient to unload in winter
Disadvantages;
● Higher initial cost
● Unloads more slowly
● Silage moisture cannot be as high as compared to other silo types
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2. Bunker Silo:
Bunker silos are trenches, usually with concrete walls, that are filled and packed with
tractors and loaders. The filled trench is covered with a plastic tarp to make it
airtight.
Advantages;
● Holds large capacity
● Can be filled with conventional farm equipment
● Offers faster unloading rates
● Forage quality changes occur gradually if filled using the progressive

wedge
● Inexpensive
● Well suited to very large operations.
Disadvantages;
● Higher initial cost
● Requires greater care in filling and packing
● Will not work for smaller herds
● Need usually unloading with a tractor and loader.
3. Silo Bags:
Bag silos are heavy plastic tubes, usually around 8 to 12 ft (2.4 to 3.6 m) in diameter,
and of variable length as required for the amount of material to be stored. They are
packed using a machine made for the purpose, and sealed on both ends.
Advantages;
● Lower capital investment
● Flexible storage system
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● Feed is easily inventoried
● Can be used for small and large herds
● Fewer safety and health hazards
● Lower Storage Losses
Disadvantages;
● Specialized equipment may be needed
● Plastic disposal creates extra labor and environmental concerns
● Bags must remain intact, compromised bag can result in a complete loss
4. Silage Piles:
A silage pile is constructed by unloading silage into an elevator and piling up the
silage, much as a quarry piles sand or gravel.
Advantages;
● Inexpensive
● Good for short term storage needs
Disadvantages;
● Large amount of exposed surface area
● Greatest loss of dry matter during storage
● More difficult to pack
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Self-Check 2.4-1
below.
FILL IN THE BLANK
1. _________ are used in agriculture to store grain or fermented feed known as

silage.
2. ___________ are cylindrical structures, typically 10 to 90 ft (3 to 27 m) in

diameter and 30 to 275 ft (10 to 90 m) in height.
3. ________ are trenches, usually with concrete walls, that are filled and packed
with tractors and loaders.
4. _________ are heavy plastic tubes, usually around 8 to 12 ft (2.4 to 3.6 m) in

diameter, and of variable length as required for the amount of material to be
stored.
5. A __________ is constructed by unloading silage into an elevator and piling

up the silage, much as a quarry piles sand or gravel.
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Answer key 2.4-1
1. Silos
2. Storage silos
3. Bunker silos
4. Bag silos
5. silage pile
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Silage Making
Control of moisture content in raw materials
Ensilage can only be successful, with minimum DM and nutrient losses, when the
moisture content of the raw material is kept to a suitable level. Although silage may
be made within a large range of moisture contents, DM should be over 20 percent to
assure silage quality.
There are many disadvantages to ensiling crops with high moisture content. First,
ensiling of wet materials results in the generation of a large volume of effluent, which
not only poses disposal problems, but also carries off valuable, highly digestible
nutrients in solution. The amount of effluent increases with silo height, due to
pressure. Effluent is produced when moisture is above 75 percent. Secondly, the
critical pH value for clostridial growth varies directly with the moisture content of the
plant material, and unless soluble carbohydrate levels are exceptionally high,
ensiling wet crops will encourage clostridial fermentation, resulting in high losses and
reduced nutritive value. Thirdly, even if the water-soluble carbohydrate (WSC) levels
are adequate to ensure lactic fermentation, very wet silages may still be nutritionally
undesirable because voluntary DM intake of these is frequently low. Finally, drier
plant materials are preferred because they are easier to handle and a higher quantity
of DM can be carried per trailer load.
Moisture content of forage and grasses is above 80 percent when harvested at a

suitable stage. Therefore the moisture content should be reduced by field wilting. It
takes 4 to 6 hours to wilt in dry regions such as the north western provinces and
Inner Mongolia, and 6 to 10 hours in north eastern and northern areas. Longer
periods may be needed in southern provinces, depending on climate and weather,
but it is not desirable to exceed 24 hours. When weather conditions are
unfavourable, field wilting should be avoided to prevent nutrient loss due to rain
leaching. In these cases, other methods should be considered.
In contrast, the moisture content of cereal straw is generally too low to allow tight
packing, so cereal straw and stover should be finely chopped. Sometimes water
should be added to bring moisture content to a suitable level.
Sweet potato vines are high in moisture content and wilting is necessary. Chopped
vines are usually mixed with finely chopped straw or bran prior to ensiling to increase
overall DM content.
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The moisture content of plant materials may be measured with instruments, but it is
usually estimated manually on farm. Samples of chopped and minced grass or
leguminous forage are grasped tightly by hand for one minute or so to estimate
moisture content. If juice can be extracted, moisture content is above 75 percent. If
the material remains together but without juice, moisture content is between 70-75
percent. If the material has elasticity and spreads out slowly, moisture content is 55-
65 percent. If the material spreads out quickly, moisture content is about 55 percent.
If the material breaks, moisture content may be below 55 percent.
Chopping, compaction and sealing
Prior to ensiling, plant materials should be chopped. The fineness of chopping varies
with moisture content and nature of the material. The following guidelines can be
used, but, in principle, rough and hard materials should be finely chopped, while
delicate and soft materials can be roughly chopped.
High moisture forage (Moisture chop to 6.5-25

>75%) mm
Wilted materials (Moisture 60-70%) chop to 6.5 mm
Whole maize plant chop to 6.5-13

mm
What are the advantages of chopping? Firstly, chopping facilitates compaction and
thus reaching the anaerobic stage. When most oxygen is removed, clostridial growth
is discouraged and lactic acid fermentation encouraged. Secondly, chopping
releases plant juices, stimulating the growth of lactic acid bacteria. Thirdly, chopping
may increase silage intake by improving quality of fermentation and by accelerating
rate of passage of feed particles through the rumen. However, very finely chopped
silage reduces the rumination and may decrease milk fat content. Thus, 10-15
percent of the silage material should be above 25 mm in length in order to maintain
an effective fibre function.
Factors influencing silage quality
Quality of silage fermentation is influenced by several factors, including moisture,

WSC content of raw materials, degree of compaction and effectiveness of final
sealing. Stage of maturity influences a forage's nutritive value and thus quality of
silage. Leguminous forages at budding stage have optimal energy, protein and
carotene contents, but DM yield and nutritive value decrease with maturity (Table 4-
1). Grass at heading stage is highest in caloric value and protein content. When
leguminous forages reach late flowering stage or grasses reach seed stage, the
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energy value has decreased by 70-75 percent, digestible CP by 67-83 percent, and
carotene content by 75-84 percent.
Table 4-1. Yield of dry matter and nutrients in legumes and grasses by growth stage
Yield (ton/ha)
Growth stage
Fresh D Feed Digestible
yield M unit CP
Legumes
Pre-bud 13.0 2. 2.3 0.44

7
Mid-bud 16.5 4. 3.8 0.58

2
Flowering 14.8 4. 3.7 0.54

2
Full bloom 8.4 3. 1.9 0.19

5
Green seed pod 7.1 2. 1.2 0.13

8
Milky ripe and dough 6.8 2. 0.5 0.10

seed 8
Grasses
Heading 17.2 5. 4.6 0.49

0
Early bloom 17.3 5. 3.8 0.40

2
Full bloom 9.1 3. 2.3 0.19

8
Green seed pod 8.4 3. 1.2 0.08

0
Milky ripe 8.0 3. 1.1 0.06
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0
Dough seed 7.8 2. 0.7 0.05

6
Therefore, it is important to harvest forage crops at their optimal stages. Legumes

should be harvested at budding stage, grasses at heading stage, and whole maize
plant at late milky to early dough seed stage.
Grass is highest in protein at pre-heading, and highest energetically at dough seed

stage. Many grasses can not head again after the first cutting, and the re-growth
may be collected 4 to 5 weeks after the first harvest. The appropriate stages at which
plants may be harvested are indicated in Table 4-2.
Table 4-2. Appropriate harvest stages for grasses and forage crops
Grass and forage Stage of growth Moisture

crops (%)
Alfalfa Late bud to 1/10 bloom 70-80
Red clover Late bud to early bloom 75-82
Orchard grass Pre-head to heading
Awnless bromegrass Pre-head to heading 75
Timothy Pre-head to heading
Sudan grass About 90 cm in height 80
Mixed grasses Pre-head to early heading
Mixed legume and Depending on grass

grass
Grain forage Pre-head to early heading
Whole-crop maize Dough seed 65-70
Maize stover Soonest after maize harvest 50-60
Whole-crop sorghum Early to mid-dough seed 70
Sorghum stover Soonest after sorghum 60-70
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harvest
Oat Pre-head to early heading 82
Oat Milky ripe 78
Oat Early dough seed 70
Barley Late bud to early dough seed 82-70
Rye Late bud to early dough seed 80-75
Because straw and stover are harvested after grain collection, their nutritional value
is generally low. It has been recently shown that yield and grain quality do not
change when harvest is shifted to an earlier stage (by 7-10 days). However, this shift
may be beneficial in terms of improved nutritional value of straw and stover.
Silage additives
The purpose of using additives is to ensure silage quality by encouraging lactic acid
fermentation, by inhibiting undesirable microbes or by improving its nutritional value.
Common silage additives include bacterial cultures, acids, inhibitors of aerobic
damage, and nutrients.
Bacterial cultures
A dominant lactic acid fermentation is the key to making good silage. Lactic acid
bacteria are normally present on harvested crops together with clostridial bacteria in
a ratio of about 10 to 1. Considerable nutrient loss usually occurs at initial stages of
ensiling when oxygen is still present. Addition of lactic acid bacterial cultures during
filling-up increases their population rapidly, encouraging lactic acid fermentation and
pH reduction to a level that inhibits clostridial development. Different strains of lactic
acid bacteria look similar under the microscope, but their biological activities are very
different. Only those acid-tolerant strains that possess a homo-fermentative pathway,
producing the maximum amount of lactic acid from hexose sugars readily available,
and a growth temperature range extending to 50°C, should be used as a silage
additive.
The environment under which lactic acid bacteria multiply favourably is also
important. Lactic acid bacteria are anaerobic, and hence air should be removed and
the silo should be kept airtight. These micro-organisms ferment soluble sugars to a
mixture of acids, but predominantly lactic acid. Plant materials should contain at least
2 percent WSC, otherwise soluble sugars (e.g. molasses) should be added. Starch
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may also be added along with amylase in order to provide lactic acid bacteria with
soluble sugars.
Cereal straws and stovers are high in lignocellulose. A mixture of inoculum or

enzymes, or both, containing cellulase and xylanase is often used. Enzymes
degrade lignocellulose, liberating soluble sugars for bacterial use. A number of
commercial preparations are available from foreign companies, and some have been
registered by government authorities and can be sold in China. During the Ninth
Five-Year Plan, Chinese scientists successful produced a special additive for
ensiling fresh cereal straws and stovers.
Mineral or organic acids
The original proposal to use acids as silage additives dates back to 1885. In the late
1920s, Virtanen from Finland, adopted this approach and recommended the rapid
acidification of the crop with mineral acids (AIV process) to a pH of about 3.5, which
was originally thought to inhibit microbial and plant enzyme activity. This AIV process
was widely used in Scandinavia until quite recently. Due to the difficulties in handling
corrosive acids, organic acids were later used as silage additives. When acids are
added, plant materials sink quickly and are easy to consolidate. Acidity may arrest
plant respiration and reduce heat production and nutrient loss. Rapid acidification
may also inhibit clostridia. However, addition of acids increases effluent and can be
potentially toxic to animals. Furthermore, acids are corrosive to people, animals and
machinery. Reduction of moisture content may minimize effluent, and addition of
calcium carbonate can be used to adjust silage acidity. Appropriate concentrations of
different acids as silage additives are recommended as follows:
● sulphuric and hydrochloric acids: 50-80 litre of dilute acid (concentrated acid
diluted with water at 1:5 v/v) per tonne
● formic acid: about 3 kg/ton
● acetic acid: 5-20 kg/ton
● propionic acid: 1 litre/m2 of surface to prevent mould development.
Inhibitors of aerobic deterioration
The most common inhibitors of aerobic deterioration are sodium nitrate, sodium
nitrite, sodium formate and formaldehyde. These chemicals do not contribute to the
improvement of fermentation, but are effective in preventing silage deterioration.
Some plant parts, such as larch leaves, contain natural bactericides that may safely
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function as antiseptics. Formaldehyde is a well-known sterilizing agent and is
commercially available as formalin, which contains 40 percent of the gas in aqueous
solution. Scientists are interested in the additives because of their bacteriostatic
properties, and because of their known properties of protecting plant proteins from
rumen microbial degradation. Adding formaldehyde at 3-15 kg/ton may result in a
well-preserved silage.
Nutrients
Nutrient additives are defined as substances which, when added to ensilage

materials, contribute significantly to the nutritional value of the silage. Most of
nutrient additives can also favour lactic acid fermentation. A number of materials are
considered to be in this category.
Nitrogenous compounds
Certain crops, such as maize and most cereal straw, are nutritionally deficient in
nitrogen, and when fed to ruminants as silage require supplementing with a protein
supplement. An alternative approach is to improve the CP content of the silage by
adding urea during ensiling. When applied to maize, urea produces silages with
higher pH values and fermentation acid contents than in untreated silages. Urea
addition has also a marked effect on nitrogenous components of the silages,
resulting in higher CP, true protein, free amino acids and ammonia. Addition of urea
to cereal straw and stover may also have an ammoniation effect, which is associated
with higher CP and lower fibre content. However, attention should be paid to the
rapid release of ammonia from urea in the rumen. High concentrations of ammonia
in the rumen may cause ammonia poisoning. One solution is to add the urea or other
nitrogenous compounds together with soluble sugar sources, such as molasses and
starchy grains.
Urea may be added at 0.5 percent of fresh materials. When whole maize plant was
added with urea at 0.5 percent, the CP of the resulting silage increased to 12.9 from
8.7 percent in the untreated silage. Urea may also be added prior to feeding the
animals.
Carbohydrate-rich materials
Carbohydrate-rich materials are added to silage crops in order to increase the supply
of available energy for the growth of lactic acid bacteria, and are of particular
importance in crops such as legumes, which are deficient in soluble carbohydrate
content. Materials that have been used for this purpose include molasses and
cereals. Molasses is a by-product of the sugar industry, and has a DM content of 70-
75 percent and a soluble carbohydrate content of about 65 percent of DM. In order to
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obtain maximum benefit, it should be used at 4 percent (w/w) for grass silage and 6
percent (w/w) for legume silage. Cereals have been used as additives in an attempt
to improve both the fermentation quality and the nutritional value of silages. Cereals
contain 50-55 percent of starch that can be hydrolysed to soluble sugars and then
utilized by lactic acid bacteria. If amylase or amylase-rich materials, such as malt,
are added with the cereal to ensiled crops, they will be more effective as fermentable
carbohydrate sources.
Minerals
In addition to being nutritionally deficient in N, most straw and stover is a poor source
of Ca and many micro-elements. Limestone is sometimes added to silages as Ca
supplement and to alleviate silage acidity. Calcium carbonate may be added at 0.45-
0.50 percent to obtain maximum benefit. Common salt has a high osmotic pressure
to which clostridia are sensitive, but lactic acid bacteria are not. Addition of salt may
increase lactate content, decrease acetate and butyrate, resulting in silage with good
quality and palatability.
Other minerals may be used in ensiled materials. Examples of mineral sources

include copper sulphate (2.5 ppm), manganese sulphate (5 ppm), zinc sulphate (2
ppm), cobalt chloride (1 ppm) and potassium iodide (0.1 ppm).
Finally, it has to be pointed out that recommendations on the use of silage additives
must be based not only on the results of scientific research, but also on sound
economic return.
Evaluation of silage quality
The nutritive value and the quality of silage should be accurately evaluated. Working
on behalf of the Bureau of Animal Production and Health (BAPH), MOA, researchers
at Zhejiang University drafted methods of evaluating nutritive value and quality of
silage, which have been tested in China since 1996. This handbook includes
subjective methods (on-farm) and chemical methods (for use in laboratory).
Subjective methods of evaluation
The pH value and certain simple subjective criteria such as colour, smell and texture
are used to evaluate the quality of silage on-farm. These criteria are briefly reviewed
below.
pH value
The pH is the simplest and quickest way of evaluating silage quality, and may be
determined on-farm using wide-range pH test papers such as bromophenol blue
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(range 2.8-4.4), bromocresol green (range 4.2-5.6) and methyl red (range 5.4-7.0).
The classification of silage based on pH value is:
pH below 4.0 excelle

nt
pH between 4.1 and good

4.3
pH between 4.4 and averag

5.0 e
pH above 5.0 bad
Colour
Good silage usually preserves well the original colour of the standing plant. When
green raw material produces silage with green or yellow colour, it can be considered
of good quality. Temperature is one of the important factors affecting silage colour.
The lower the temperature during ensilage, the less colour change. Above 30°C,
grass silage becomes dark yellow. Above 45 to 60°C, the colour becomes closer to
brown. Beyond 60°C, the colour darkens towards black due to caramelization of
sugars in the forage.
However, silage quality can be misjudged by on a colour basis. For example, silage
from red clover or Chinese milk vetch is often dark brown instead of light brown.
Despite its excellent quality, it may be considered a failure due to colour. A more
useful indicator is colour of the silage juices. It can generally be said that the lighter
the colour of the juice, the greater the success.
Smell
Good silage usually has a mild, slightly acidic and fruity smell, resembling that of cut
bread and of tobacco (due to the lactic acid). A rancid and nauseous smell denotes
the presence of butyric acid and signifies a failed silage. A musty smell is a sign of
deficient compaction and presence of oxygen. A distinctive unpleasant smell, of
sow's urine and faecal matter, is always indicative of marked protein degradation
during ensilage.
Texture
Plant structures (stems and leaves) should be completely recognizable in the silage.
A destroyed structure is a sign of severe putrefaction. A viscous, slimy appearance
reveals the activity of pectolytic (sporulating) micro-organisms.
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Taste
This test is more suitable for specialists. It is of little value to the farmer, whose basis
is the palatability to farm animals.
Integrative evaluation
It is obvious that silage quality can not be satisfactorily evaluated on any one of the
above subjective indicators. The following methods of integrated evaluation (BAPH,
1996) have been on trial. Tables 4-3, 4-4 and 4-5 present indicators of integrated
silage evaluation from maize stover, Chinese milk vetch or alfalfa, and sweet potato
vines, respectively.
From overall evaluation scores (based on the parameters given below in Tables 4-3
to 4-5), silage quality can be classified as follows:
Class Good Satisfacto Avera Bad

ry ge
Score 100- 75-51 50-26 Below

s 75 25
Table 4-3. Integrated evaluation of silage from maize stover using scores
Score(1) pH(2) Moisture Smell Colour Texture
25 20 25 20 10
3.4(25), 70%(20), Pleasant Light Loose and

3.5(23), 71%(19), and yellow
Good 3.6(21), 72%(18), sweet, acidic soft, non-

3.7(20), 73%(17),
3.8(18) 74%(16), (18-25) (14-20) viscous (8-

75%(14) 10)
3.9(17), 76%(13), Light acidic Brown (Medium)

4.0(14), 77%(12), yellow
Satisfacto 4.1(10) 78%(11),

ry 79%(10),
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80%(8) (9-17) (8-13) (4-7)
4.2(8), 81%(7), Irritative, (Medium) Slightly

4.3(7), 82%(6), alcohol,
Average 4.4(5), 83%(5), acidic viscous

4.5(4), 84%(3),
4.6(3), 85%(1) (1-8) (1-7) (1-3)

4.7(1)
Rancid and Dark Putrefactive

brown &
Bad Above Above 86%(0) musty smell agglutinativ

4.8(0) e
(0) (0) (0)
NOTES: (1) The figures in parentheses represent the scores.

(2) The pH value is determined using wide-range pH test paper.
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Table 4-4. Integrated evaluation of silage from sweet potato vines using scores
25 20 25 20 10
3.4(25), 70%(20), Pleasant and Brown Loose and

3.5(23), 71%(19),
Good 3.6(21), 72%(18), sweet acidic soft, non-

3.7(20), 73%(17),
3.8(18) 74%(16), (18-25) (14-20) viscous (8-

75%(14) 10)
3.9(17), 76%(13), Light acidic (Medium) (Medium)

4.0(14), 77%(12),
Satisfacto 4.1(10) 78%(11),

ry 79%(10),
80%(8) (9-17) (8-13) (4-7)
4.2(8), 81%(7), Irritative, (Medium) Slightly

4.3(7), 82%(6), alcohol,
Average 4.4(5), 83%(5), acidic viscous

4.5(4), 84%(3),
4.6(3), 85%(1) (1-8) (1-7) (1-3)

4.7(1)
Rancid and Dark Viscous and

brown
Bad Above Above 86%(0) musty smell agglutinativ

4.8(0) e
(0) (0) (0)

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Table 4-5. Integrated evaluation of silage from Chinese milk vetch or alfalfa
25 20 25 20 10
3.6(25), 70%(20), Pleasant Light Loose and

3.7(23), 71%(19), and yellow
Good 3.8(21), 72%(18), acidic soft, non-

3.9(20), 73%(17),
4.0(18) 74%(16), (18-25) (14-20) viscous (8-

75%(14) 10)
4.1(17), 76%(13), Sour and Golden (Medium)

4.2(14), 77%(12),
Satisfactor 4.3(10) 78%(11), alcoholic yellow

y 79%(10),
80%(8) (9-17) (8-13) (4-7)
4.4(8), 81%(7), Irritative Light Slightly

4.5(7), 82%(6), acidic yellow
Average 4.6(6), 83%(5), brown viscous

4.7(5), 84%(3),
4.8(3), 4.9(1) 85%(1) (1-8) (1-7) (1-3)
Rancid and Dark Putrefactive

brown &
Bad Above 5.0(0) Above 86%(0) musty agglutinative
(0) (0) (0)

From the above review it can be seen that subjective criteria by themselves are
insufficient to determine quality, and that an objective laboratory analysis is
necessary.
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Chemical methods of evaluation (laboratory methods)
Evaluation of silage in the laboratory is mainly based on chemical analysis. It

includes pH determination and assay of organic acids (acetic, propionic, butyric and
lactic), which are the main fermentation metabolites in silage. Fermentation
characteristics may be estimated based on total acids or on proportions of individual
acids. Free ammonia assay, and better still the ratio of ammonia nitrogen to total
nitrogen, is the most valid criterion for protein degradation.
Before discussing the value of such analyses, it is necessary to emphasize the

necessity for the sample to be truly representative. Samples must be taken with a
probe from several places at different layers in the silos. The sampling points should
be more than 30 cm from the edge of the silo to prevent misleading results. Samples
should preferably be sent to the laboratory in sealed plastic bags or glass bottles to
avoid aerobic deterioration (secondary fermentation). Ammonia nitrogen and pH
should be determined as soon as possible.
Silage evaluation by pH
The pH of silage should be measured in the laboratory using a precise pH meter. For
fresh grass silage (moisture above 75 percent) and maize silage at all DM contents,
the pH is both the simplest and quickest method of evaluation. Research has shown
that there is a very close relationship between pH value, fermentation quality and DM
during ensiling. The criteria for evaluation of silage from pH values have been shown
in the preceding section.
Silage evaluation by the ratio of ammonia-N to total N
The ratio of ammonia-N to total N (NH3-N/TN) in silage provides information on the

stage of protein degradation and it undeniably constitutes a test of the state of
conservation of the ensiled proteins. The higher the ratio, the more protein has been
degraded, and the worse the quality. In the system proposed, a maximum of 50
points is given for a ratio lower than 5 percent, and points are deducted for a ratio
higher than 35 percent. Table 4-6 presents the point scale for the evaluation of silage
from ammonia N.
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Table 4-6. Scale for silage evaluation from the ratio of ammonia-N to total N
Silage % Poin Silage % Point

quality NH3-N/TN ts quality NH3-N/TN s
Very good <5 50 Average 15.1-16.0 22
Good 5.1-6.0 48 16.1-17.0 19
6.1-7.0 46 17.1-18.0 16
7.1-8.0 44 18.1-19.0 13
8.1-9.0 42 19.1-20.0 10
9.1-10.0 40 Bad 20.1-22.0 8
Satisfactory 10.1-11.0 37 22.1-26.0 5
11.1-12.0 34 26.1-30.0 2
12.1-13.0 31 Very bad 30.1-35.0 0
13.1-14.0 28 35.1-40.0 -5
14.1-15.0 25 >40.1 -10
Silage evaluation using various organic acids
The presence of lactic acid and various volatile fatty acids, especially acetic,
propionic and butyric acids, is a reflection of the fermentation that has occurred. It is
appropriate therefore to take into account, when judging silage success, both the
type of acids and the amount present. The higher the proportion of lactic acid, the
better the quality. The evaluation system is basically that of Flieg from 1938 with a
maximum of 100 points given. Full points are given for lactic acid (25) above 68
percent, for acetic acid (25) below 20 percent and for butyric acid (50) below 0.1
percent. Individual acids are scored independently, and the total is the sum of the
three acids. Table 4-7 presents the key for silage evaluation according to Flieg (0 -
20 = failure; 21 - 40 = poor; 41 - 60 = satisfactory; 61 - 80 = good; 81 - 100 = very
good.
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Table 4-7. Key for the evaluation of silage according to organic acids
Points Points
Percent Percent
Lact Acet Butyr Lact Acet Butyri
ic ic ic ic ic c
0.0-0.1 0 25 50 28.1-3 5 20 10
0.0
0.2-0.5 0 25 48 30.1-3 6 19 9
2.0
0.6-1.0 0 25 45 32.1-3 7 18 8
4.0
1.1-1.6 0 25 43 34.1-3 8 17 7
6.0
1.7-2.0 0 25 40 36.1-3 9 16 6
8.0
2.1-3.0 0 25 38 38.1-4 10 15 5
0.0
3.1-4.0 0 25 37 40.1-4 11 14 4
2.0
4.1-5.0 0 25 35 42.1-4 12 13 3
4.0
5.1-6.0 0 25 34 44.1-4 13 12 2
6.0
6.1-7.0 0 25 33 46.1-4 14 11 1
8.0
7.1-8.0 0 25 32 48.1-5 15 10 0
0.0
8.1-9.0 0 25 31 50.1-5 16 9 -1
2.0
9.1-1 0.0 0 25 30 52.1-5 17 8 -2
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4.0
10.1-1 0 25 28 54.1-5 18 7 -3
2.0 6.0
12.1-1 0 25 25 56.1-5 19 6 -4
4.0 8.0
14.1-1 0 25 24 58.1-6 20 5 -15

6.0 0.0
16.1-1 0 25 22 60.1-6 21 0 -10

8.0 2.0
18.1-2 0 25 20 62.1-6 22 0 -10

0.0 4.0
20.1-2 1 24 18 64.1-6 23 0 -10

2.0 6.0
22.1-2 2 23 16 66.1-6 24 0 -10

4.0 8.0
24.1-2 3 22 14 68.1-7 25 0 -10

6.0 0.0
26.1-2 4 21 12 >70 25 0 -10

8.0
SOURCE: Flieg, 1938.
Integrative silage evaluation from ammonia-N and organic acids
In order to integrate the information from both protein and carbohydrate in the silage,
an evaluation system based on the points from ammonia-N and organic acids is
proposed. There is a maximum of 100 points in the scale, 50 points for proteins and
50 points for carbohydrates. Points for carbohydrates are obtained by dividing the
data in Table 4-8 by 2.0. The following table is used for evaluation of silage quality
from protein and carbohydrate:
Total points 0-20 20- 40-60 60- 80-100

40 80
Overall Very Bad Avera Goo Very
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quality bad ge d good
Feeding silage
Silage is suitable for feeding some 6-7 weeks after ensiling. The basic principle for
silage use is to minimize the area exposed to air, with as little churning as possible.
Silage should be taken from one side of the trench, and the exposed surface should
be immediately covered to minimize re-entry of air and avoid secondary
fermentations. Material taken out from the silo should be fed as soon as possible,
since it rapidly deteriorates upon contact with air. Silage left in the trough must be
cleaned away in time to prevent putrefaction.
Some animals may not like silage when offered for the first time. In these cases,
some adaptive measures should be taken. For example, silage can be placed in the
bottom of the trough, and covered with concentrates. When animals are adapted to
silage, the offer can be increased.
Silage can be fed to all kinds of animals: replacement cattle, fattening cattle, dairy
cows, sheep, goats and even pigs. The amount of silage offered depends on the
animal and its age, as well as on the type and quality of silage. Taking cattle as an
example, the recommended amount to be fed daily is:
Grass silage 4 kg per 100 kg

liveweight,
Legume silage 3 kg per 100 kg

liveweight,
Maize stover silage 4 kg per 100 kg

liveweight,
Starch-rich forage (whole-maize 5 kg per 100 kg

silage) liveweight,
Therefore a cow with liveweight of 500 kg may be daily fed 20 kg maize stover
silage.
Sometimes the milk from cows fed on silage has a taint. Because this smell is only
transmitted through the air, the following points should be observed to prevent it:
1. Handling Silage should never remain in the cowshed, and it should be offered in
amounts exactly as required.
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2. Feeding method Silage should not be given before milking. The effect on milk
taste is more marked when the silage is fed 2 hours before milking, and least when
given 6 hours after.
3. Hygiene and cleanliness Both floor and operators should be clean and the shed
well ventilated.
4. Milk and milking Equipment should be kept clean, and milk cooled as soon as
possible.
It is sometimes believed that ensiled forage has an adverse effect on the general
health of the animal, especially on the skeleton of young animals. This criticism has
no scientific evidence. It is certain that musty silage adversely affects animals, but
such material should never be fed in the first place. It must be pointed out that silage
is a good feed, but it is certainly not a "complete feed." For example, maize silage
contains insufficient Ca and P, and should be supplemented. P content in ensiled
alfalfa is sufficient for heifer growth and Ca more than enough. Animals fed on silage
should be properly supplemented with the nutrients that are insufficient for the
animals' requirements.
It must also be emphasized that the nutritional value of silage depends on the quality
of the original forage, harvest time, conservation method, etc. Nutritional values of
different silages therefore vary substantially. When it is impossible to analyse silage
at the laboratory, one should refer to feed manuals and roughly assess the nutritional
value of the silage to be fed, in order to formulate a ration that matches the animal's
requirement.
Self-Check 2.4-2
below.
FILL IN THE BLANK
1. ________ is highest in protein at pre-heading, and highest energetically at

dough seed stage.
2. The purpose of using additives is to __________ by encouraging lactic acid

fermentation, by inhibiting undesirable microbes or by improving its nutritional
value.
3. __________ are normally present on harvested crops together with clostridial

bacteria in a ratio of about 10 to 1.
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4. Cereal straws and stovers are high in ___________.
5. _____________ are defined as substances which, when added to ensilage

materials, contribute significantly to the nutritional value of the silage.
6. ____________ usually preserves well the original colour of the standing plant.
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Answer key 2.4-2
1. Grass
2. ensure silage quality
3. Lactic acid bacteria
4. lignocellulose
5. Nutrient additives
6. Good silage
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LEARNING OUTCOME # 5 Perform work to completion
CONTENTS:
1. Good Housekeeping
2. 3 R’s
ASSESMENT CRITERIA:
o Tools and equipment are cleaned, maintained and stored according to
established standard practices
o Maintenance of clean and safe area is undertaken throughout and on
completion of work.
o Records of silage production are compiled for reference and reporting
purposes following enterprise procedures and 5S principles.
o Work output is reported to concerned person or authority according to
industry practices.
CONDITIONS:
● Feed resources

METHODOLOGIES:
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ASSESSMENT METHODS:
2. Demonstration
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Learning Outcome # 5 Perform work to completion

Good Housekeeping and check yourself by answering the self-
Read Information Sheet 2.5-2 on 3
R’s Refer to Task sheets, it will help you practice
your skills.


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Good Housekeeping
Introduction
5S or good housekeeping involves the principle of waste elimination through

workplace organization. 5S was derived from the Japanese words seiri, seiton,
seiso, seiketsu, and shitsuke. In English, they can be roughly translated as sort, set
in order, clean, standardize, and sustain. The cornerstone of 5S is that untidy,
cluttered work areas are not productive. As well as the physical implications of junk
getting in everybody’s way and dirt compromising quality, we all are happier in a
clean, tidy environment and hence more inclined to work hard with due care and
attention. 5S and good housekeeping are core elements of lean thinking and a visual
workplace and are a fundamental platform for world-class manufacturing.
5S provides the foundation for all quality improvement programs. It is a process to

create more productive people and more productive companies through motivation,
education, and practice. It involves the creation of a strong corporate culture with a
productivity mindset.
The Principles of 5S
The 5S methodology is one of the main

methods for improving manufacturing
processes & practices. It enables
companies to streamline manufacturing
processes and organize a workforce
more effectively, ensuring that the
entire staff of a manufacturing plant is
involved with productivity, efficiency,
and safety goals.
Learn more about how the 5S methodology can improve manufacturing

processes with this guide.
History of the 5S Methodology
The principles of 5S were devised at the Toyota Motor Corporation in

Japan in the 1950s. The principles of 5S were initially 4S as employed
by Toyota, with the “Set in Order” and “Shine” principles combined into
one.
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The 5S methodology was created to improve efficiency at
manufacturing plants and integrate the workforce more closely into the
manufacturing process. It has been identified as an important
development in manufacturing, partly for its role as a precursor to the
“just in time” delivery system. Still, the 5S methodology has benefits
stretching far beyond its historical impact.
The “S” characters are the beginnings of each principle in both

Japanese and English. When translated to English (with the Japanese
original in brackets), the principles of 5S are as follows:
● Sort (Seiri)
● Set in order (Seiton)
● Shine (Seiso)
● Standardize (Seiketsu)
● Sustain (Shitsuke)
These principles enabled Japanese manufacturing to lead the world in

the decades following the adoption of the 5S methodology. They
constituted an early form of lean manufacturing that gave workers
greater control and responsibility for ensuring that best practices were
followed and significantly reduced outdated supervision practices that
treated workers as parts of the process that required constant
micromanagement.
The principles of 5S have always had their home in a manufacturing

setting and continue to be essential components of successful
management in industrial settings today. However, the principles of 5S
have also directly influenced many work environments, including:
● Software engineering
● Product development
● Healthcare provision
● Education
The core principles of 5S remain consistent – that workers’ connection

to the manufacturing process is key to achieving high-quality results
consistently and to enable continuous improvement. The increased
involvement and responsibility of the workforce also mitigates the need
for over-involved management, freeing up management figures to
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address the core needs of the business and building a more trusting
employer-employee relationship.
What Are the Principles of 5S?
The principles of 5S are as follows: sort, set in order, shine,

standardize, and sustain. Below are the requirements to meet each of
the principles of 5S.
Sort
This stage of the 5S methodology is concerned with ensuring that the

only items present in a manufacturing area are those that are essential
for the process at hand. Workers sort through the work environment
and remove any tools, materials, or equipment that will not be used in
the immediate future.
Unnecessary items are typically “tagged” and filed according to where

they should be taken. This avoids clutter and helps streamline the
workstation so that there is no confusion over the purpose of the work
area. It also helps useful items be taken back to their proper stations,
and waste materials can be tagged appropriately to be disposed of or
recycled.
This method also helps to identify key shortages in equipment. If a

necessary tool is missing, it will become obvious during the sorting
process in a way that is impossible with a cluttered working
environment.
Sorting enables a workforce to guarantee efficiency during production

and helps organize the manufacturing workplace simultaneously. It
reduces production times, the risk of faults and allows workers to take
responsibility for their environment.
Set in Order
“Set in order” is the part of the 5S methodology that enables a

workplace to be organized for maximum efficiency once sorting is
complete. All tools and equipment are taken to a designated “home”
area where they will be easily accessible from stations where they are
needed most.
This minimizes the need for workers to move around during the
manufacturing process, maximizing staff efficiency while on the floor
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and reducing the risk of confusion. Floor and wall markings often form a
key part of setting a manufacturing floor in order, clearly denoting where
important items and stations are.
Visual management aids are important parts of maintaining worker

morale, providing a well-organized environment for staff that minimizes
confusion and allows staff to perform their roles effectively. The “set in
order” principle of 5S also reduces the need for active supervision on
the manufacturing floor, as staff easily understand what is required of
them. This way, management time can be spent more productively
elsewhere.
Shine
Of all the principles of 5S, “shine” is perhaps the most self-explanatory:

it means intensive cleaning of the work environment. There are several
benefits to the “shine” part of the 5S methodology:
● Hygiene. Unsanitary environments can lead to sick workers.

Ensuring that problems like dust build-up are addressed every
day means minimal chance for workers to become sick on the
job. An unclean work environment is detrimental to staff
morale and will also increase sick days.
● Safety. Spillages, wet floors, blocked parts of manufacturing

equipment, and other safety hazards are huge problems in
disorganized manufacturing plants. Using the principles of 5S,
worker safety is prioritized highly, and workers are
encouraged to take responsibility for an environment that they
feel proud to operate in. This also minimizes the risk of
auditors finding dangerous practices and potential action.
● Pride. Studies have found that staff in all industries dislike

operating in dirty environments. Increased engagement with
the workforce can’t be achieved without providing a clean,
safe environment, and the organization-wide pride that drives
the 5S methodology can never be enacted.
This step also involves maintaining elements of “set in order,” such as

replacing loose floor tape and making sure that visual management
aids are clean and easily visible.
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Standardize
Standardization is key to continuous improvement. Among the

principles of 5S, this one calls for a written plan. Today, this can be
communicated to employees through software, providing a checklist
that helps keep track of progress in real-time.
Standardization involves:
● Writing up every action that was taken in the previous 3 steps
● Ensuring that workers understand these steps
● Ensuring that workers understand the benefits of the first 3

steps
● Make sure that the relevant actions and instructions are

communicated to every staff member (where appropriate)
● Creating a checklist so that workers can track and report their

progress to ensure that the first 3 steps are conducted
properly every day
● Using an up-to-date system for reporting. This is great since

paper can be wasteful and inefficient. Software apps are often
preferable for efficiency.
Sustain
Once standardization has been implemented, the last of the principles

of 5S is ensuring the practices are sustained going forward. This
involves building a culture of mutual pride between the workforce and
management in implementing the 5S methodology. In turn, this creates
a safe, clean, productive workplace and enables staff to understand the
control they have over their work environment.
A workforce learns from good practices. Once management has put

these in place, and the staff understands the benefits, workers
appreciate the care shown by management.
Encouraging staff to present ideas for continuous improvement to

management builds better employer-employee relationships and can
lead to valuable developments in best practices. Improvement and
engagement are key elements of sustainability.
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Benefits of 5S Audits
The 5S methodology is designed to optimize efficiency but is just a

process by itself. Even the principles of 5S can stand to be tested for
efficiency, which is why 5S audits are used to ensure that the 5S
methodology is being properly implemented.
Benefits include:
● Checking that the principles of 5S are understood by

management and the workforce: if not, why not?
Communication is key to the success of the methodology, and
communication practices need to be reassessed if workers
appear confused
● Ensuring that staff understands the benefits of the 5S

methodology in terms of the hygiene, safety, and efficiency of
the manufacturing floor. The 5S methodology relies on staff
recognizing the benefits of the system to each staffer and that
it is not merely a management tool
● Make sure that staff is checking items off properly according

to the first 3 principles of 5S. Audits can ensure that it is
understood that every item on a checklist is mandatory and of
benefit to the workplace as a whole; there are no unnecessary
tasks in the methodology
● Enabling management to check if tasks are being completed

properly. The checklist should never be treated as a non-
essential chore but as an integral part of the working day. If
staff is answering that tasks are completed, an audit allows
management to perform quick inspections and identify
problem areas easily.
Implementing the 5S Methodology Today
The principles of 5S remain as useful to manufacturing today as they

were to Toyota in the 1950s. However, today, manufacturers have
access to intuitive software that allows them to implement the process
seamlessly and keep track of progress on the manufacturing floor in
real-time. These solutions make the methodology more manageable
and effective than ever before.
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Rever is Your Tool to apply the Principles of 5S
Rever is all about sharing and reusing, doing, and tracking for the
connected worker. Continuous improvement and executing 5S
principles becomes a hundred times easier with our innovative digital
platform. Using Rever’s dashboard, you can monitor the performance of
your teams, the summary of their impact, and easily identify the people
making the biggest difference at your company.
Rever Cycle is our version of the PDCA methodology and guides your
teams on the exact steps to follow to execute their own ideas. It allows
them to capture the entire process, from identifying a problem to
experimenting and implementing a solution. They can use it to capture
the before and after with pictures, notes and drawings, making their
ideas a reality in no time. The time of your team is too valuable to be
wasted in handmade drawings and complex explanations.
At Rever, we believe that anybody can be a knowledge worker and

thrive. What makes us human is the capacity to grow our intellect and
will, and to use them for good. We observe, especially at work, that
most people are asked to stop thinking and do as they are told. We
want to change that. We enable people to achieve their full creative
potential.
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Self-Check 2.5-1
below.
FILL IN THE BLANK
1. ___________ involves the principle of waste elimination through workplace

organization.
2. The _________ is one of the main methods for improving manufacturing

processes & practices.
3. _________ enables a workforce to guarantee efficiency during production and

helps organize the manufacturing workplace simultaneously.
4. ____________ is key to continuous improvement. Among the principles of 5S,

this one calls for a written plan.
5. ____________ is all about sharing and reusing, doing, and tracking for the
connected worker.
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Answer key 2.5-1
1. good housekeeping
2. 5S methodology
3. Sorting
4. Standardization
5. Rever
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3 R’s
Introduction
The 3r’s of solid waste management occurs in the order of ranking or priority of the
actions that can be taken to help cut down on wastes. The 3r’s of waste
management is also called the hierarchy of waste management.
What are the 3rs of Waste Management?
The 3r’s of waste management stands for:
● Reduce
● Reuse
● Recycle
Humans produce wastes that continually result in environmental degradation. A

common type of garbage is the municipal solid waste which is a general waste
collected by the municipalities. It is generated mainly by households, street
sweeping, commercial activities and the construction or demolition debris. This can
be from farming to routine food consumption.
It may not be possible to eliminate waste disposal, but we can make a significant
contribution to cut waste generation down to help preserve our environment.
Waste management involves putting into action the 3r’s waste management actions.
Importance of the 3r’s of Waste Management
The importance of 3r’s of waste management elements is to help:
● Cut down on the waste disposals.
● Conserve natural resources, landfill spaces, and energy.
● Save land and money that communities use to manage wastes.
● Reduce air pollution and contribute to a healthier planet.
The 3r’s of waste management is a continuous cycle. Let’s explore further the 3r’s
definition and have an in-depth look at what each R represent and actions to take to
contribute to each goal.
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The 3r’s of waste management means exercising measures that help reduce, reuse
and recycle wastes.
1. Reduce
The first R in the 3r’s of waste management stands for Reduce. It means taking
measures that help cut down wastes. If we decline to buy items that we don’t need or
purchase multi-purpose items, then we can help reduce the waste products that go
into the trash bin.
The primary step towards lowering wastage is doing a thorough examination of what
one needs and its purpose.
Here are three valuable steps to assess the value of each item:
– The first step is assessing whether there is already something else in place of
what we want, that can be used to accomplish the purpose we intend to do.
We need to check if the items that we have can serve as multi-purpose. To
reduce wastes, we need to buy things that can do more than one job.
– Another critical consideration is assessing if what one intends to do with the

item is something that is necessary. It is vital to consider whether or not what
the object enables one to do, have any real meaning or purpose.
– The final step is to assess if the items are a part of something crucial that one
will need to do or may encounter in life? It is essential to create a limit to the
things that we buy as a precaution, or we envision we will need to use in life.
It is vital always make sure that what we consume, or keep in our lives as
preparation for certain situations, matches the reality of potential opportunities
in life.
Some of the practical actions that can be done to reduce wastes at home and in the
workplace include:
– Printing papers on both sides to reduce paper wastage.
– Using electronic mail to reach out to people instead of sending paper mails.
– Using cloth napkins instead of kitchen towels or paper napkins.
– Borrowing things not used often.
– Finding ways to save energy and water like buying energy star bulbs and
items that consume little water while in use.
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– Reducing the environmental damage caused by cars instead use carpooling
with friends, taking the bus or walking instead of self-driving. Investing in
an ebike conversion kit to turn your bicycle into a motorized electric bike is
another great alternative to carbon-spewing car rides.
– Avoiding use of disposable plates, spoons, glass, cups, and napkins.
– Avoiding the purchase of items that are over-packaged with foil, paper, and
plastic since the excess packaging goes to waste.
– Buying items in bulk to reduce the overall amount of packaging used.
– Buying durable goods that have an extended warranty because they can
generally last longer and save on landfill space.
The concept of this first r in the hierarchy of waste management is only to acquire or
use what is necessary. If we buy or consume less, then the result is less wastage.
We thus need to focus more on the source of the wastes that is where it is coming
from and cut it.
The goal of this rule is to lessen the overall amount of waste and rubbish that
humans’ produce. Here are several ways to go low waste, which will help you reduce
your consumption.
2. Reuse
The second R in the 3r’s of waste management is Reuse. It means putting an item
into use again or for another purpose. It is when we can use an object again or
differently compared to what it is intended to do. It also means passing on things to
others instead of throwing them away.
Broken pieces can be put into a different use instead of putting them in a bin.
Collecting items or trash picking to create something new is another way also
essential to waste hierarchy.
Some practical actions of reusing include:
● A good example today is the modular construction of office buildings and

homes out of discarded shipping containers. The large, semi-truck sized metal
containers are nowadays put up as homes and offices which mean they don’t
go into the landfills and using them doesn’t require the additional expenditure
of natural resources to meltdown and reconfigure the metals used to create
them.
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● Using old tins and pots to store items in the kitchen or store loose items
together such as computer wires.
● Using cloth sacks instead of plastic bags.
● Using re-usable lunch bags in place of disposable ones.
● Donating old toys, clothes, and furniture to the needy or the poor.
● Writing on paper can be done on both sides.
● Making old tires into valuable items like seats and tables or in making tire-
swing.
● Using splintered woods as firewood or in woodcraft.
● Using old newspapers to wrap and package details.
● Donating old books on to others or public libraries.
● Giving old or unwanted clothes to street children or charity institutions.
● Giving old electric equipment to schools or NGO’s that can use them.
● Using rechargeable batteries, again and again as opposed to using regular

cells.
● Building a compost bin in your backyard or getting an indoor compost

container to compost in an apartment and reusing many waste items like used
tea bags or wastes that degrades and turns into compost that can help grow
plants.
● Using sealable containers instead of plastic wraps.
● Investing in some reusable shopping bags or bringing old ones with you to the
store.
● Looking into upcycling ideas from the everyday household items as many
have different uses you may never have thought.
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3. Recycling
The third r in the waste hierarchy stands for Recycle. To recycle means to change or
transform waste and non-useable items into raw materials that can be used to create
new objects.
There is a need for recycling stations to help with the process of recycling.
Different sectors have made contributions towards this goal.
For example, governments have created agreements and incentives with industries
that process waste materials. Some ISO standards related to recycling are the ISO
15270:2008 which is for plastics waste and ISO 14001:2004 that is for environmental
management control concerning recycling practice.
Recycling reduces the use of energy and consumption of raw materials. It also
reduces air and water pollution. Usage of recyclable materials can help conserve the
environment and make it green again.
Here are some actions that can contribute to this goal:
● Buying eco-friendly products or products that are made up of recycled

materials.
● Inventing new ways to recreate different items.
● Avoiding buying of hazardous materials that could be difficult to reuse.
● Buying non-toxic products, whenever possible.
● Using recycled paper for printing or making paper handicrafts.
● Putting cereal boxes, newspapers, and bottles into a recycling bin to make
sure that less waste goes to landfill and recreating more materials into new
things.
● Checking with the local garbage company to see if they have a recycling
option.
● Checking with local recycling facilities to look at the items they accept.
Here is how to find the right recycling center.
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Conclusion on the 3 R’s of Waste Management
The 3r’s of waste management is an ideal solution to the ever increasing

environmental, health and economic issues caused by increased wastage and
pollution.
Practicing the 3r’s of waste management will conserve the environment and allow us
to reap the numerous benefits of going green.
Self-Check 2.5-2
below.
FILL IN THE BLANK
1. The ______________ occurs in the order of ranking or priority of the actions that
can be taken to help cut down on wastes.
2. __________ means taking measures that help cut down wastes.
3. _________ means putting an item into use again or for another purpose.
4. To ________ means to change or transform waste and non-useable items into

raw materials that can be used to create new objects.
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Answer key 2.5-2
1. 3r’s of solid waste management

2. Reduce
3. Reuse
4. recycle
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COMPETENCY BASED LEARNING MATERIAL

QUALIFICATION : ANIMAL PRODUCTION (RUMINANTS) NC II

UNIT OF COMPETENCY : PROVIDE FORAGE

MODULE TITLE : PROVIDING FORAGE

ORCHARD VALLEY INC.

The unit of competency, “Provide forage”, is one of the competencies of

In this module, you are required to go through a series of learning activities in

● Read information sheet and complete the self-checks.

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No. Unit of Competency Module Title Code

1. Maintain housing, farm Maintaining housing, farm AFF621901

2. Provide forage Providing forage AFF621902

3. Perform breeding of Performing breeding of AFF621903

4. Raise dairy animals Raising dairy animals AFF621904

5. Raise meat-type animals Raising meat-type animals AFF621905

CBLM ON PROVIDING FORAGE Developed by: Page 2 of 82

UNIT OF COMPETENCY : Provide forage

MODULE TITLE : Providing forage

MODULE DESCRIPTOR : This unit covers the knowledge, skills and

● Fence is set-up in the perimeter following site plan.

● Safety measures are practiced according to Occupational Health and Safety

LO2 - Plant forage species

CBLM ON PROVIDING FORAGE Developed by: Page 3 of 82

● Task is performed according to OSHS.

LO3 - Maintain forage plants

● Plants are watered according to plant requirements.

● Other maintenance practices are done following GAP and plant

LO4 - Produce silage

● Ensiling is done following standard procedures.

● Commercial silage additives are mixed according to enterprise

LO5 - Perform work to completion

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● Farm with forage area and facilities

● Silage production area

● Supplies and materials appropriate to the activity

● Tools and equipment appropriate to the activity

● All workers involved in different activities must be fully oriented and

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Learning Outcome # 1 - Prepare area for forage plantation

The performance criteria checklist will guide

Evaluate your own performance using the

If you have questions and clarification fell free

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Effects on the Environment

Soil and Water

Yarding of unmerchantable material involves removing residue which, if left

Wildlife and Livestock

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Scenery and Cultural Resources

Mowing larger vegetation along roadside rightsof-way can sometimes leave a

Human Health Effects

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The noise of heavy equipment can cause hearing impairment.

Quality of Information on Health Effects

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Measures for Reducing Environmental and Human Health Effects

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2 ____________ can be used to yard unmerchantable material from timber

3 ____________ are used to mow down slash or unwanted vegetation.

4 For _____________, project risk plans should evaluate risks of accidents to

CBLM ON PROVIDING FORAGE Developed by: Page 14 of 82