CHAPTER 1: TEACHING APTITUDE OUTLINE

I. Concept of Teaching
II. Nature and Characteristics of Teaching
III. Aim and Modes of Teaching
IV. Objectives of Teaching
V. Modern Concepts of Teaching
VI. Basic Requirements of Teaching
VII. Factors Effecting Teaching
VIII. Methods of Teaching
A. According to different schools of philosophy
B. Recommended by Secondary Education Commission (1952-1953)
C. Specific Methods
D. Teaching Aids
E. Evaluation Systems

Chapter 1: Teaching Aptitude

I. Concept of Teaching

Education is important for:

· Preservation and transmission of culture
· Preparation for a vocation

A proper definition of teaching should:

· Identify whether teaching is a process or product
· Indicate Constitutional factors
· Reveal Objectives
· Reveal Organizational & Structural Aspect

Definitions of Teaching

1. Morrison
· A disciplined social process
· Where the teacher influences the behaviour of less experienced pupil
· Helps them develop according to the need & ideas of the society

2. Smith
· An organized system of specific activities aimed to help the learner learn something
· Considered a tripolar process involving an agent, goal & intervening variables

3. Brubacher
· Where the pupils play a central role

4. Gage
· Personal relationship between teacher & taught resulting in behaviour modification
 5. Amidon
· A process of cooperative social interaction between teacher and taught

6. Clarke
· All organized activities resulting in behaviour modification

7. Green
· What a teacher does for the development of a child

II. Nature and Characteristics of Teaching

Nature of Teaching:

a. Dynamic, Social & Humane: Influenced by human & social factors

b. An Art & Science: Exercise of being systematic & including talent & creativity
c. Diverse in Application: There are various forms of teaching

Characteristics of Teaching

a. A system of actions
b. A professional activity
c. Subjected to analysis & assessment
d. An interactive process
e. A specialized task
f. A collection of various modes

III. Aims & Modes of Teaching

Aims of Teaching

a. Change the behaviour of students – Teaching

b. Improve learning skills of students – Conditioning
c. Shaping behaviour & conduct – Training
d. Acquisition of knowledge – Instruction
e. Formation of beliefs - Indoctrination

Modes of Teaching

1. Training helps to shape conduct and various skills

2. Instruction & Indoctrination work on a higher footing than conditioning & training
3. Instruction is concerned with the development of knowledge & understanding in an individual
4. Teaching is aimed towards the shaping of a total individual
5. Indoctrination is a high level of teaching shaping beliefs & ideals
IV. Objectives of Teaching

· Desired changes in pupils

· Shape behaviour & conduct
· Acquisition of knowledge
· Improve learning skills
· Formation of a belief system
· Provide a social & efficient member to the society

V. Modern Concepts of Teaching

a. Questioning

· By the teacher to the student and student to the teacher

b. Discussion

· Clears doubts of students

· Expression of thought
· Teacher directs discussion

c. Investigation

· Either individual or group after the teacher presents the information

· Can be followed by expression of thoughts of the students

d. Expression

· Can be in the form of practical activities

VI. Basic Requirements in Teaching

a. Three variables in teaching – Includes the Teacher, Student & Environmental factors
b. Professionalism
c. Suitable Environment
d. Teacher Student Relationship
e. Students Discipline
f. Teacher & Students devotion to teaching & learning

Learner Characteristics

i. Readiness – Motivation, interest & curiosity to learn

ii. Exercise – Practice what is learnt
iii. Effect – Activities associated with pleasure are preferred over those that lead to pain or punishment
iv. Attitudes & Habits – Must be positive & encouraging
v. Absence of anger & jealousy- They weaken learning abilities
vi. Slow beginning followed by gradual development of interests
VII. Factors Effecting Teaching

· The three variables of the teacher, student & environment

· Teacher student relationship
· Methods of teaching used
· Teacher- Administration relationship
· The social environment
VIII. Methods of Teaching

Teaching is an exercise of both talent & creativity involving a repertoire of skills, techniques and
procedures. The teaching profession has faced many challenges and transformations and has
adopted recent and sophisticated technology.

The act of teaching has three phases mainly,

· Pre-Active: Planning phase

· Inter-Active: Implementation of what was planned i.e. actual teaching
· Post- Active: Evaluating activities that serve as feedback

There are five steps involved in the process of teaching:

a. Preparation

· Of both the teacher and student

· Teacher must identify the level of the children
· The teacher can introduce the lesson by asking appropriate questions from a previous chapter
to connect it to the new chapter
· Relevant topics/stories can be discussed & narrated in class
· Introduction must be brief and create interest to stimulate curiosity in students

b. Presentation

· Teacher must state the aim of the lesson to be taught so that the students can prepare themselves
for what they are expecting
· The teacher then presents the lesson by using different materials, presenting facts and other
principles relevant to the lesson
· The teacher can leave some area of the lesson for the student to explore

c. Comparison

· The third step of learning where the student is presented with the opportunity to compare two sets
of facts

d. Generalization
· By observation and comparison various conclusions can be drawn
· Teachers must aid the students when they arrive at incorrect generalizations
· The students must understand the law/principle taught by the teacher for this stage to be
successful

e. Application

· Knowledge loses half its value unless if used in the discovery of further facts and their
application to new situations
· Makes learning meaningful and permanent
· Serves purpose of revision of what has been learnt
· Children can be evaluated through examinations

A. Methods of Teaching According to Different Schools of Philosophy

a. Methods by Idealism

- They speak of the general nature of teaching methods only

- They don’t specify any method to be adopted while learning (used during
the Upanishadic period too in India)
- aka informal dialectic method
- Idealist value use of well prepared & presented lectures
- Socrates – Question method
- Plato – Conversational method
- Aristotle – Inductive and Deductive methods
- Hegel – Logical method
- Pestalozzi – Self activity method
- Herbart – Discussion method
- Froebel’s metaphor of ‘Kindergarten’

b. Methods by Naturalism

- Rousseau believed education lasts throughout life & is gained everyday through various life
experiences
- He believes learning should be based on actual experience & a practical problem must be
studied in its natural setting
- Learning can also take place in the spirit & methods of play
- The methods recommended by Rousseau maybe identified with the heuristic method &
experimental method advocated by John Dewey

c. Pragmatic Methods

- Focus on child and society and the activities therein

- Learning occurs as a result of an activity
- Children must learn how to discover & method of teaching experimental
- It must develop reflective thinking in children so that they ask ‘Why?’
- The Project method of teaching is where a problematic act has to be carried out in completion
in its natural setting
 d. Existential Methods

- Ask questions until an acceptable conclusion is reached.

- Focuses on Inductive thinking
- Emphasis on individual education
- Homeschooling preferred over School Education
- Does not believe in indoctrination but enhancing the child's creativity

B. Methods of Teaching recommended by Secondary

School Commission (1952-1953)

i. Methods of teaching must provide opportunities for children to develop clear thinking &
expression

ii. Individual - centered methods & opportunities for practical application of knowledge must be
adapted

iii. Activity and Project method must be used in school practice

iv. Experimental & Demonstrative Schools must be encouraged (e.g: NCC)

C. Specific Methods in Teaching

1. Inferential Problem Solving Technique

It involves Inductive and Deductive Reasoning which is the basis for problem solving

Steps in Inductive Reasoning

i. Recognition of the problem

ii. Searching for data
iii. Organization for data
iv. Framing tentative solutions
v. Elimination
vi. Verification

(Note: For Deductive Reasoning one begins from vi. to i.)

2. Team - Teaching / Co-operative teaching

- Its a recent idea in the field of education

- Here two ore more teachers make a plan of the subjects cooperatively, carry it out and evaluate
the effects on the students periodically

3. Micro - Teaching
 - Term coined by Dwight Allen of Stanford University in 1963

Features of Micro - Teaching

i. Teacher training technique

ii. Focus on developing teachers skills
iii. Reduces class size to 5-10 students
iv. Topics taught are small
v. Individualized training skill
vi. Feedback for trainee's performance
vii. Effective device to prepare competent teachers
viii. Learners are provided with immediate knowledge of the correctness of response.

Steps in Micro - Teaching

i. Defining the skill

ii. Demonstrating the skill
iii.Planning the lesson
iv. Teaching the lesson
v.Discussion
vi. Re planning
vii. Re- Teaching
viii. Re-discussion
ix. Repeating the cycle till desired level of skill is achieved

4. Question Answer technique in teaching

Purpose of questioning

i. Test knowledge
ii. Locate difficulty
iii.Arouse motivation
iv. Participation of students
v. Apply knowledge

D. Teaching Aids

Teaching aids helps students to improve their skills and make learning fun. There are various
kinds of teaching aids.

1. Chart - Shows group facts in the form of a diagram, table or graph & includes an outline or word
definitions

2. Flash Cards - A set of cards that have number, letters, pictures or words on it & are used for facts
and enhance memory

3. Flip Charts - Useful for teaching large groups at a time and while teaching a lesson which
involves stages or a process.
4. Maps - Used in social studies so that students can understand spatial relations

5. Newspapers - Used to learn about different places, cultures, grammar & current events.

6. Graphs - Can be used in any subject. To compare population growth in social studies, numbers &
ratios

7. Surveys - Can be used by the teacher to gain feedback.

8. Audio Visual Aids - Things to remember while using AV aids:

- Select the one suited for the topic
- Use AV to support or reinforce the activity
- Make sure the AV aid can be seen & heard clearly
- Practice using the aids before hand

9. Hardware - Radio, TV & Tape recorder

10. Software - Board, Cartoons & Models

E. Evaluative Systems

They are a device through which we can gauge what exactly a student achieve from the teaching-
learning experience

1. Examinations

- Help in testing achievements of students

- Evaluating students interests, aptitude & intelligence
- Helps to classify students and provide them guidance

2. Psychological Evaluation

-Helps to know about the physical, mental, emotional and social behavior of the individual
- Aids in guidance of the pupil
- Three methods of personality assessment: Psychometric, Projective & Behavioral

Projective Tests

- Helps to uncover unconscious motives

- An ambiguous stimulus is presented to the client who interprets it as they like thus
projecting their personality through their responses.
- Two widely used Projective tests are : Rorschach Test & Thematic Apperception Test

a. Rorschach Test

- Developed by Swiss psychiatrist Hermann Rorschach in the 1920's

- Series of 10 cards each displaying different inkblots either colored or black & white
- The subject is asked to look at each card one at a time & report everything seen on the card
- After all 10 cards are done, the examiners goes over every response to ask them what features
 of the blot game them that particular impression

b. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

- Developed at Harvard University by Henry Murray in 1930's

- Less ambiguous than Rorschach as it consists of actual scenes on 20 cards
- The subject is asked to base a story depending on the picture
- The test is intended to reveal the 'themes' that occur in the persons imaginations
- Apperceptions is perceptions of things in a certain way due to past experience
- If a problem is bothering a particular subject, they may show up in a number of stories.

3. Philosophical Evaluation

- Evaluation based on mastery of subject matter

- Test the memory, mastery and ability to apply the skills learnt

Chapter Outline: Research Aptitude

CHAPTER 2: Research Aptitude

1. Meaning of Research

2. Characteristics of Research

3. Aims and Objectives of Research

4. Types of Research

5. Research Requirements

6. Steps of Research

7. Methods of Research

8. Research Ethics

9. Thesis Writing

10. Typing a Report

Chapter 2: Research Aptitude (Topics 1-5)
1. What is research

- An attitude of inquiry.
- An attempt to elicit facts
- A systematic and scholarly application of the scientific method
- A state of mind

2. Characteristics of Research

- It’s a scientific investigation

- It helps in developing and evaluating concepts and theories
- Expands the limits of knowledge
- Findings through research cannot be implemented immediately
- Its an essential tool for good decision making

3. Aims and Objectives of Research

Main aim : To find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet
- Gain familiarity with a phenomenon and to achieve new insights
- Portray accurately the characteristics (description)
- Determine the frequency with which something occurs (diagnosic)
- Test hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables

4. Types of Research

i. Classification - I

a. Fundamental research

- Used when developing theories, generalizations and principles

- Methods: Sampling, Hypothesizing and laboratories

b. Applied Research
- Utilizes principles made by fundamental research to know the problems with best possible
manner
- Undertaken to solve an immediate problem

c. Action Research
- Immediate application but not any development of theory

ii. Classification - II

Descriptive Analytical
Description of the state of affairs as it exists Has to use facts that are readily available
Also known as Ex post facto research Facts analyzed to make a critical evaluation
Researcher has no control over the variables

Used to discover causes when variables

cannot be controlled

Fact finding enquires and field surveys

Method of research: Survey

Applied
Find solution for immediate problem
Research is aimed at a solution
Solution to some pressing practical problem
Fundamental
Generalizations and formulation of a theory
Concerns natural phenomenon or math
Finding information that has a broad base of
application

Adds to the existing body of scientific

knowledge

Quantitative Qualititative
Phenomena that can be quantified Used in behavioural sciences
 Used when studying human behaviour
Projective techniques used
Phenomena involves quality or kind

Conceptual Empirical
Based on some ideas on theory Relies on experience or observation
Used by philosophers and thinkers Data based research
Experimental research

One time research: Confined to a single time period

Longititudinal research: Research carried over several time periods
Field Setting Research or Laboratory research: Depending on the environment
Clinical or Diagnostic Research: Goes deep into the causes of events or things
Exploratory or Formalized: Development of hypothesis/ Testing hypothesis
Historical : Uses historical resources to study events or ideas of the past
Problem oriented research: To look for solutions to the problem
Decision oriented: Done for the need of the decision maker.
Operational: Example of decision making research. Provides a quantitative basis for taking up a
decision

5. Research requirements

i. Planning
- Definition and Classification or purpose and scope of operations
- Analysis to determine the meaning of facts
- Planning helps in bringing a good result in the conclusion

ii. Guidance
- Helps researcher concentrate on problems
- Concerned with the selection of problems
 iii. Experts
- Knowledge in the area being studied
- Must be able to guide properly and formulate a well planned project for research

iv. Training
- They know how to plan, organize and maximize educational output

v. Finance
- Problems taken for study require financial help from the state

vi. References
- Well planned project
- Preliminary work done helps while investigating the problem

vii. Library
- Provides materials through books which enhances the quality and quantity of the research

viii. Research Journals

- Provides studies and research done nationally and internationally
Chapter 2: Research Aptitude (Topic 6)

6. Steps of Research

1. Formulating the research problem

- Maybe related to states of nature or relationships between variables

- A researcher must single out problem to be study and must decide the aura of interest
- Feasibility of a particular solution has to be considered before working on the problem
- Two steps in formulating a research problem: Understanding the problem thoroughly and
Rephrasing the same into meaningful terms
- Discuss the problem with experts
- Examine available literature both conceptual and empirical
- Reevaluate the problem and focus on its specifics
- Make sure the problem can be defined unambiguously
- State the objective
- Pertinent terms in relation to the problem must be defined

2. Extensive Literature Survey

- Brief summary of the problem after the problem is formulated

- Write a synopsis of the topic and submit it to the committee or research board
- Literature survey by abstracting journals and reading up bibliography

3. Development of working Hypothesis

- It’s made so as to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences
- Discuss with work colleagues and experts about the problem
- Examine past data and records
- Review similar studies in that area
- Personally investigate the problem with interested parties

4. Preparing the research design

- Means of obtaining the information

- Ability and skill of the researcher and staff
- Explaining the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be organized and the
reasoning leading to selection
- Time available for research
- Cost factor relating to research

5. Determining Sample Design

- the items selected constitute what is called a sample

- Sample design is a plan determined before any data are actually collected for obtaining a
 sample from a given population
- Samples can either be:

Probability Sample - Each have an element of being included in the sample and are based on
Random, Systematic,Stratified, Cluster/Area Sampling.

Non Probabilty Sample - Based on Consciences Sampling, Judgement Sampling and Quota
Sampling

- Some of the important sample designs are:

(i) Deliberate Sampling

 Purposive or deliberate selection of particular units of the universe for constituting a sample that
represents the universe.
 When population elements are selected based on access it's known as convenience sampling
 Judgement sampling is when a researchers judgement is used to select items he considers to be
representative of the population
(ii) Simple Random Sampling
 Each and every item in the population has equal chance of inclusion in the sample and each one
has the probability of being selected.
(iii) Systematic Sampling
 An element of randomness is usually introduced into this kind of sampling by using random
numbers to pick up the unit with which to start.
 Useful when sample frame is in form of a list
 Selection process starts by picking some random point on the list and then every nth element is
selected until the desired number is secured
(iv) Stratified Sampling
 If the population from which a sample is to be drawn doesn't constitute a homogeneous group,
then stratified sampling technique is applied so as to obtain a representative sample
 The population is stratified into a number of non-overlapping subpopulations or strata and
sample items are selected from each stratum.
 If the items selected from each stratum is based on simple random sampling, the entire
procedure, first stratification and then simple random sampling is known as stratified random
sampling.
(v) Quota Sampling
 When interviewers are simply given quota to be filled from different strata, tge actual selection
of the items for sample being left to the individual's judgement
 Size of quota is proportionate to size of stratum in the population
 Form of non probability sampling.
(vi) Cluster sampling
 Grouping of population and then selecting the groups or the groups or the clusters rather than
individual elements for inclusion in the sample
 Sample size must often be larger than the simple random sample to ensure same level of
accuracy as in cluster sampling there is a chance of various biases and error
 However this procedure is relatively easier than others and can be used in the case of personal
interviews
(vii) Area Sampling
 Area is divided into smaller non overlapping areas = geograpical clusters and a number of these
smaller areas are randomly selected
 Field interviewing is made more efficient through this technique and when there's no list of the
population
(viii) Multi stage Sampling
 Meant for large geographical areas like an entire country
(ix) Sequential Sampling
 Ultimate size of the sample is determined as the survey progresses

6. Collecting the data

 Various ways - experiment or survey

 Survey methods include - observation, personal interviews, telephone interviews, mailing of
questionnaires, schedules

7. Execution of the project

 Its necessary to collect adequate and dependable data in a systematic manner and in time
 Careful watch on uncontrollable factors
 Survey must be under statistical control
 Must deal with non respondents
8. Analysis of Data
 Categorize raw data
 Coding to transform categorized data to symbols - editing can also be done at this stage
 Tabulation is done to put classified data in form of tables
 Statistical inferences are drawn through the assistance of computers
9. Hypothesis testing
 Chi-square, t-test, f-test
 Either accepts the hypothesis or rejects it
10. Generalization and Interpretation
 If hypothesis is tested and upheld its easy to build a theory
 Triggers new questions in the hypothesis
11. Preparation of the report/ thesis
 Introduction
 Summary
 Main Report
 Conclusion
 Bibliography
Chapter 2: Methods of Research (Topic 7)
7. Methods of Research
 Provide new and useful information in an orderly and precise manner.
A. Experimental Method
 Matter of logic not location
 Special laboratories to control conditions
 Labs are generally located in universities or a research institute
1. Laboratory
 Control conditions and take measurements of variables in an orderly manner
2. Variables
 Independent Variable - Independent of what subject does
 Dependent Variables - Variable affected by changes (measure of subject behaviour)
3. Degree of Control
 Use of precision instruments to control unseen variables
4. Value of an experiment

B. Observational Method
 Observation in natural environment
C. Survey Method - Field Studies
 Either through the use of questionnaires or interviews
D. Case Studies
 Scientific Biographies
 Reconstruction of a person's life events
 Used in Longitudinal studies
E. Test Method
 Measures all kinds of abilities, interests, attitudes and accomplishments
 Subjects are presented with a uniform situation to a group of people who vary in aspects relevant
to the situation
Chapter 2: Research Ethics, Thesis Writing, Typing of a Report (Topics 8, 9, & 10)
8. Research Ethics
 Researcher must ensure that data is accurate
 Researcher must not try to intentionally prove a point
 Researcher must ensure that data is sufficiently investigated and findings are totally accurate
 Researcher must not misrepresent the statistical accuracy of data nor must they over represent the
results by altering the findings
 Researcher must ensure privacy, anonymity and set out a code of ethics
9. Thesis Writing & 10. Typing of Report
 Final stage of research
 Provides overall view and solution to the problem
 Provides all the elements of the project taken for study
 Bears the total summary of the work
 Satisfies all researchers by providing partial or detailed knowledge over their problems
A) Format of Thesis Writing
1. Preliminary Section

* Title Page
* Acknowledgement
* Table of Contents
* List of Tables
* List of Figures

2. Main Body

* Introduction to the topic

* Analysis of Literature
* Design of the study
* Presentation and Analysis of Data
* Summary and Conclusions

3. Reference Section

* Bibliography
* Appendix
* Footnotes