Repeaters-2021-Medical-Chemistry

CHAPTER - 05
DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION
NUTRITION
♦ Procurement of nutrients that is necessary for growth, development and other activities of living
organism.
Mode of Nutrition
I. Autotrophs - self feeder
♦ Synthesise their own food
Types of Autotrophs
1) Photoautotrophs
♦ Synthesise their own food through photosynthesis
eg. Green plants, Algae
2) Chemoautotrophs
♦ Synthesise their own food by using inorganic substances
eg. Sulfur bacteria
II. Heterotrophs - other feeder
♦ They can’t synthesis their own food
♦ Depend other organism for food
CLASSIFICATION OF HETEROTROPHS
A) Parasitic - consume liquid food from their host organism
(i) Ectoparasite - Parasite outside the host
eg. Leech
(ii) Endoparasite - Parasite inside the host
eg. Ascaris
B) Symbiotic - Mutual relationship between two organism from which both are benefited
eg. Lichen, Mycorrhiza
C) Saprophytic - Consume dead and decaying organic matter
eg. Fungi, Bacteria
D) Holozoic - Consume whole or parts of plants and animals in liquid or solid form.
Types of Holozoic
a) Herbivores - Consume plants only
eg. Cattle, Deer, Elephant etc.
b) Carnivores - Consume animals only
eg. Lion, Tiger

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c) Omnivores - Consume plants and animals

eg. Man, Crow, Dog etc.
Special categories of Heterotrophs
1. Sanguivores - Consume blood eg. Leech, Ascaris
2. Insectivores - Consume insects eg. Frog, Lizard
3. Larvivores - Consume larva eg. Guppy, Gambusia
4. Frugivores - Consume fruits eg. Squirrel, Birds
5. Granivores - Consume grains eg. Parrot, Pigeon
6. Nectarivores - Consume Honey eg. Honey bee, Butterfly
7. Coprophagus - Consume faecal matter eg. Pig
8. Detritivores - Consume decaying fallen leaves
and soil organic matter [Humus] eg. Earthworm
9. Cannibals - Consume their own species eg. Snakes, some spiders
10. Osmotrophs - absorb liquid food through their eg. Tape worm
body surface
Steps in Holozoic Nutrition
1. Ingestion
2. Digestion
3. Absorption
4. Assimilation
5. Egestion / Defaecation
Human Digestive System / Alimentary system - Consist of Alimentary canal and digestive gland.
I. Alimentary canal - long, hollow, coiled, muscular and glandular tube [length 9 meter]
Parts of Alimentary canal
1. Mouth
♦ entrance of alimentary canal
♦ Transverse slit bounded by upper lip and lower lip
♦ Orbicularis Oris Muscle - Specific muscle associated with lips
2. Buccal cavity
♦ Perform major two functions - Mastification of food and swallowing / deglutition of food
Part of buccal cavity
A) Vestibule - Narrow space between cheek and lips externally and gum and teeth internally.
♦ Contain mucous gland and serous gland
B) Oral cavity - Part of buccal cavity surrounded by teeth

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♦ lined by stratified squamous epithelium

Main structures of Oral cavity
1. Palate - roof of buccal cavity
It has 3 parts.
a) Anterior hard palate
b) Posterior soft palate
c) Uvula / Velum palati
♦ Hind part of posterior soft palate hangs down as cone shaped flap.
♦ Function - prevent the entry of food into the nasal cavity
2. Tongue
♦ freely movable muscular organ
♦ greatly protrusible
♦ Tip of tongue is free and base is attached to the floor of the buccal cavity by small folds of
mucosal membrane called Frenulum linguae
♦ Upper surface of tongue has small nipple shaped projections called papillae. Some of the papillae
bear taste buds.
Types of papillae
a) Vallate / Circum vallate papillae
♦ largest papillae
♦ circular shaped papillae
♦ number - 10 - 12
♦ lie inverted ‘V’ shaped rows near the base of the tongue
♦ contain taste buds
b) Fungiform papillae
♦ round or Mushroom shaped papillae
♦ deep red colored papillae
♦ small and numerous than vallate papillae
♦ lie margin of tongue
♦ contain taste buds
c) Filliform papillae
♦ Conical shaped papillae
♦ White coloured papillae
♦ Smallest and most numerous papillae
♦ Distributed through out the tongue

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♦ Devoid of taste buds

Note
Foliate papillae
♦ flat, leaf like papillae
♦ number - 8-10
♦ lie posterior margin of tongue
♦ found in Rabbit tongue
♦ absent in human tongue
Functions of tongue
(i) It is commonly called ‘universal tooth brush’ - help to clean teeth
(ii) help in taste detection
(iii) help in speaking
(iv) help to food mixed with saliva
Note
Tongue helps in regulation of body temperature in dogs. The phenomenon is called as “Panting”.
3. Teeth
♦ Masticatory apparatus
♦ Ecto-mesodermal structure
a) Maxillary teeth - Upper jaw teeth
b) Mandibular teeth - Lower jaw teeth
→ The hard deposit of calcium phosphate from saliva on teeth is called Tartar
Structure of tooth

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Enamel
→ Hardest part of the body
→ Made of calcium phosphate
→ Ectodermal origin
→ Fluorin hardens enamel
→ secreted by enameloblasts / Ameloblastss
Dentine
→ Major portion of teeth
→ Mesodermal origin
→ Secreted by Odontoblast
Incremental line of Von Ebner - Daily growth layer of dentinal growth
Dentition - Number, kinds and arrangement of teeth

Human dentition − Thecodont,Heterodont and Diphyodont

Types of teeth
I. Based on the attachment of teeth with jaw bone.
1. Thecodont - Each tooth embedded in the socket of the jaw bone.
eg. Mammals, Crocodiles
2. Acrodont - teeth attached on the upper surface of jaw bone
eg. Fishes, Amphibia
3. Pleurodont - teeth attached to the inner side of jaw bone by their base as well as one side.
eg. Reptiles
II. Based on the succession of teeth
1. Monophyodont - Only one set of teeth develops during life.
eg. Platypus, Mole, Marsupials, toothed whale
2. Diphyodont - Two sets of teeth develops during life .
♦ Teeth of first set are known as milk teeth or lacteal teeth or deciduous teeth - temporary teeth,
develop at the age of 6 - 7 month [Number - 20]
♦ Teeth of second set are known as Adult teeth - permanent teeth develop at the age of 6-7 years
[Number - 32]
3. Polyphyodont - teeth can be replaced on indefinite number of times during life.
eg. Fish, Amphibia, Reptilia
III. Based on the morphology
1. Homodont - Structurally and functionally similar teeth.
eg. Fish, Amphibia, Reptilia

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2. Heterodont - different types of teeth

Classification Heterodont
A) Based on the structure and function - 4 types
a) Incisors [I]
♦ Chisel / Shovel shaped crown
♦ Monocuspid
♦ Single rooted teeth
♦ Adapted for cutting and biting
b) Canine [C]
♦ Dagger shaped crown
♦ Monocuspid
♦ Single rooted teeth
♦ Adapted for piercing and tearing
c) Premolar [PM]
♦ Broad shaped crown
♦ Bicuspid
♦ Lower premolar and upper second premolar has one root
♦ Upper first premolar has two roots
♦ Adapted for crushing and grinding
d) Molar [M]
♦ Broad shaped crown
♦ Tetracuspid
♦ Upper molar has three roots
♦ Lower molar has two roots
♦ Adapted for grinding and crushing
According to food and feeding habits, molar teeth are divided into following categories.
(i) Bunodont - Small separate and rounded crown
eg. Human
(ii) Secondont - pointed margin forming sharp cutting crown
eg. Carnivores
(iii) Lophodont - multicuspid conditioned crown with irregular margin
eg. Elephant
(iv) Selenodont - - Crown has crescent shaped ridges
eg. Cattle

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B) Based on the length of crown and root - 2 types

a) Hypsodont b) Brachydont
→ large crown with short root → small crown with deep root
eg. Horse eg. Man

 2 1 0 2
Dental formula of human milk teeth − I C PM M  × 2 = 20
 2 1 0 2

 2 1 2 3
Dental formula of human adult teeth − I C PM M  × 2 = 32
 2 1 2 3

Note : ♦ First appeared milk teeth in human - Lower Central Incisors

♦ First appeared adult teeth in human - First molar teeth
♦ Cheek teeth / Molariform teeth - Premolar and Molar teeth
♦ Wisdom teeth [vestigial] - Last four molar teeth appear at the age of 18
♦ Monophyodont teeth in human - Premolar teeth [8] and wisdom teeth [4]
♦ Elephant tusk is a modified upper incisor teeth
♦ Walrus tusk is a modified upper canine teeth
♦ Diastema - Natural gap between different types of teeth
eg. Rabbit (between incisor and premolar teeth)
♦ Carnassial teeth - Last upper premolar teeth and first lower molar teeth of Carnivores
3. Pharynx - Common passage for food and air
♦ divided into three parts - Nasopharynx, Oropharynx and laryngopharynx
♦ Oropharynx is important as the food and air passage cross here
Note
♦ The lymphatic tissue of the pharynx and oral cavity are arranged in a ring like manner, which are
collectively called Waldeyer’s ring.
♦ The ring mainly consist of pharyngeal tonsil, Tubal tonsil, Palatine tonsil and Lingual tonsil
4. Oesophagus [Food pipe]
♦ 25cm long tube
♦ it anteriorly opens into pharynx and posteriorly into stomach
Function - Conduction of food
5. Stomach - ‘J’ shaped muscular bag
♦ It consist of four parts.
a) Cardiac region - anterior part into which oesophagus opens.

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b) Fundic region / Fundus - filled with air which act as the main gastric gland
c) Body - largest part of stomach
d) Pyloric region - posterior part which opens into the first part of small intestine
Note : Two types of sphincters are present in the stomach
a) Cardiac sphincter / Gastro - oesophageal sphincter between oesophagus and stomach
b) Pyloric sphincter between stomach and duodenum
Ruminant stomach / Compound stomach
In ruminants, the stomach is differentiated into four chambers
(i) Rumen [Paunch] - largest part, contain symbiotic microorganism related with the fermentation
of cellulose

(ii) Reticulum [Honey comb] 

 This is for mechanical churning and breaking of food
(iii)Omasum[Psaltarium] 
(iv) Abomasum [Rennet] - Considered as ‘True stomach of ruminant’
→ This part secrete gastric juice and shows chemical digestion of food
6. Small intestine
♦ Largest part of alimentary canal
♦ It is approximately 6 metres in humans
♦ It is divisible into three parts.
a) Duodenum - proximal part
♦ U shaped / C shaped tube
b) Jejunum - Middle part, coiled tube
♦ The wall is thicker
c) Ileum - distal part, highly coiled tube
♦ The wall is thinner
Note :
♦ Circular or spiral foldings of mucosal layer of small intestine are called valves of kerckring or valvulae
conniventes or plicae circulares
♦ Meckel’s diverticulum - Congenital distal sacculation of lower part of small intestine. It is the most
common congenital defect of the gastro - intestinal tract.
♦ Sacculus rotundus - It is formed at the distal end of ileum and is expanded to form a small dilated
spherical sac in rabbit.
→ The distal end of ileum leads to the large intestine by ileo-caecal valve in human
7. Large intestine
♦ large diameter [4 - 6 cm]

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♦ It is divisible into following parts.

a) Caecum
♦ Small blind sac which hosts some symbiotic microorganism
♦ Vermiform appendix is vestigial and narrow finger like twisted structure
b) Colon - long in human, distinguished into five as ascending colon, transverse colon, descending
colon and sigmoid / pelvic colon
Note
♦ Haustra - small paunches in colon adapted for water absorption
♦ Taenia coli - Three longitudinal smooth muscles strips on the outside of the colon of large intestine
c) Rectum - Single dilated sac like in human. It is concerned with storage of faeces.
d) Anal canal - It connects rectum with anus.
♦ Anus is the terminal inferior opening of Alimentary canal, bounded by internal (involuntary) and external
(voluntary) sphincter.
Histology of alimentary canal / Gut
♦ The wall of lower oesophagus to rectum possesses four respective layer (from outer to inner)
namely serosa, muscularis, submucosa and mucosa.
1. Serosa - outermost layer and is made up of thin mesothelium
2. Muscularis - formed by smooth muscle usually arranged into outer longitudinal muscle layer and
an inner circular muscle layer.
→ An oblique muscle layer is present in some regions like stomach
3. Submucosal layer - formed by loose connective tissue containing nerves, blood and lymph vessels
→ Brunner’s gland are also present in submucosa of duodenum of small intestine.
4. Mucosa - The inner most layer of Alimentary canal
→ Mucosal layer composed three layer
a) Muscularis mucosa - Composed of longitudinal and circular muscle layer
b) Lamina propria - Made of loose connective tissue, contain blood and lymph vessel, some lymphoid
tissue
c) Simple columnar epithelium - Single layer of columnar cells
Note :
♦ Rugue - Irregular folds of mucosal layer of stomach
♦ Villi - Regular small finger like folding of mucosal layer of small intestine
These modifications increase the surface area enormously
→ Villi are supplied with a network of blood capillaries and a large lymph vessel called lacteal
Digestive glands - Categorised into three group.
1. Accessory digestive glands - Salivary gland, Liver and Pancreas
2. Submucosal gland - Brunner’s gland [Duodenal gland]

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3. Mucosal glands - Unicellular goblet cell, gastric gland and crypts of Lieberkuhn [Intestinal gland]
A) Salivary glands - Consist of Acinar cells secrete saliva [Amount - 1.5 L/day ; pH - 6.8]
♦ Salivary gland under neural control
♦ Parasympathetic nerves increase salivation
♦ Sympathetic nerves decrease salivation
Major salivary glands - Three pairs
a) Paired parotid salivary glands
♦ largest salivary gland
♦ situated near the ear
♦ duct of parotid salivary gland is called Stensen’s duct
b) Paired sub maxillary / Submandibular salivary glands
♦ situated at the lower jaw
♦ duct of submaxillary salivary gland is called Wharton’s duct
c) Paired Sublingual salivary glands
♦ Smallest salivary gland
♦ Situated beneath the tongue
♦ Duct of sublingual salivary gland is called Bartholin’s duct / duct of Rivinus
Minor / Accessory salivary glands
a) Unicellular goblet cell - secrete mucus
b) Nuhn’s gland [located in the tip of tongue] - Secrete mucus
c) Weber’s gland [located in the margin of tongue] - Secrete mucus
d) Ebner’s gland [located in the base of tongue] - Secrete lingual lipase
Contents of Saliva
♦ 99.5% contain water and remain 0.5% contains,
(i) Mucus - provide lubrication of food
(ii) Electrolytes - Na+, K+, Cl–, HCO3– etc
(iii) Thiocyanate ions - act as antimicrobial agent
(iv) Different enzymes - Lysozyme [act as antibacterial agent] and salivary amylase / pytalin
Function of salivary amylase

Starch  pH-6.8
   Maltose
→ + Isomaltose + Limit dextrin
Salivary amylase

B) Gastric glands - Secrete gastric juice [Amount - 1.5L/day, pH - 1.5 - 3 (average - 1.8)]
→ These are numerous microscopic, tubular glands formed by the epithelium of the stomach
→ Gastric glands have following types of gland cells

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(i) Mucus neck cells - Secrete mucus

(ii) Parietal cells / oxyntic cells - Secrete HCl and Castle’s Intrinsic Factor [CIF]. This factor helps for
the absorption of vitamin B12 (Cyanocobalamin)
(iii) Mast cells - Secrete Histamine
(iv) Peptic cells / Chief cells / Zymogen cells - Secrete pepsinogen, prorennin and gastric lipase
♦ Pepsinogen and prorennin are inactive proenzymes
♦ Pepsinogen, prorennin and gastric lipase secreted in infant mammals. Pepsinogen and gastic
lipase secreted in adult mammals. But prorennin is not secreted in adult mammals.
(v) Argentaffin cells / Enterochromaffin cells - Secrete Serotonin and histamine
(vi) Gastrin cells [G cells] - Secrete gastrin
C) Pancreas
♦ Second largest gland of the body
♦ Single flat, leaf like, yellowish gland
♦ Weight about 60 - 80 gms
♦ Present between ascending and descending limb of duodenum
♦ Pancreas is a heterocrine (mixed) gland because it has endocrine part and exocrine part
Endocrine part - Islets of Langerhans, about 1% of pancreas.
It consist of following types of cells.
(i) Alpha / α cells [15%] - Secrete glucagon [Hyperglycemic hormone]

(ii) Beta / β cells [65%] - Secrete insulin [Hypoglycemic hormone]

(iii) Delta / δ cells [5%] - Secrete somatostatin

(iv) Pancreatic polypeptide cells (PPC) / F cells [15%] - Secrete pancreatic polypeptide (PP)
Exocrine part - Consist of Acinar cells [Acini], about 99% of pancreas.
♦ Acinar cells of pancreas secrete pancreatic juice [Amount - 1.5L/day, pH - 7.1 - 8.2]
♦ Pancreas juice contain digestive enzymes such as trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, Procaryboxy
peptidase, proelastase, pancreatic amylase [Amylopsin], pancreatic lipase [Steapsin] and nuclease
♦ Trypsinogen, Chymotrypsinogen, Procarboxy peptidase and Proelastase are inactive proenzymes.
D) Liver - Secrete bile [Amount - 800ml - 1000ml/day, pH - 7.6 - 8.6]
♦ largest gland of the body
♦ weight about 1.2kg - 1.5kg
♦ lies in the upper right side of the abdominal cavity just below the diaphragm
♦ The liver is divided into two lobes - right and left lobs
♦ The basic structural and functional unit of liver is the hepatic lobule
♦ Each hepatic lobule is covered by a thin connective tissue sheath called Glisson’s capsule

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♦ Hepatic lobule containing hepatic cells arranged in the form of cords

♦ The mammalian liver also contain kupffer cells [stellate - reticulo endothelial cells]. That are
phagocytic cells and eat worn out RBC and germs.

Contents of Bile - digestive enzymes absent in bile

(i) Bile pigments - Bilirubin, Biliverdin
(ii) Bile salts - Sodium glycocholate, Sodium taurocholate
(iii) Phospholipid
(iv) Cholesterol
Functions of liver
1. Production of Bile, it breaks and emulsifies the fat.
2. In the liver, haemoglobin of the wornout erythrocytes breaks down to bile pigments bilirubin and
biliverdin
3. Kupffer cells in the liver sinusoid phagocytose and remove wornout RBC and foreign particles
4. Secrete heparin [anticoagulant]
5. Produce angiotensinogen, which help kidneys in maintaining body fluid osmoregulation.
6. Produce prothrombin, fibrinogen, help in clotting of blood
7. Liver cells store fat soluble vitamin [A, D, E, K]. Besides it is the principal storage organ for vitamin
B12 (Cyanocobalamin)
8. Liver is the site of detoxification of different toxic substances either produced in the body or taken
along with food
9. Synthesis vitamin A by using plant pigment, carotene
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10. Regulate carbohydrate, fat and protein metabolism
[Glycogenesis, glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, lipogenesis]
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11. Site of deamination, process by which the amino group is removed from the amino acid resulting in
the production of ammonia which is converted into urea.
12. Liver produce RBC in the embryo

Note :
♦ The opening of hepato-pancreatic duct into duodenum is guarded by the sphincter of Oddi
♦ Sphincter of Boyden surround in opening of the bile duct before it joined with the pancreatic duct
Gall bladder
Slate blue coloured, pear shaped sac
Functions
(i) Stored bile
(ii) Concentrate bile
Cholecystectomy - Surgical removal of gall bladder.
E) Intestinal gland - Secrete intestinal juice / Succus entericus [Amount - 2 - 3L/day, pH - 7.6 - 8.3]
♦ Intestinal gland in mammals is a collective names for Crypts of Lieberkuhn and Brunner’s glands.
(I) The Crypts of Lieberkuhn - Simple, tubular structures which occur through out the small intestine
between villi
♦ The mucus is secreted by the goblet cells where as water and electrolytes are secreted by
enterocytes present on the intestinal crypts. These crypts have at the base paneth cells and Argentaffin
cells.
♦ Paneth cells secrete lysozyme.
♦ Argentaffin cell [Enterochromaffin cells] - Secrete serotonin

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Note :
Enteroendocrine cells in Intestinal gland
a) s cells - secrete secretin
b) cck cells - secrete cck
c) k cells - secrete Enterogastrone / Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) / Glucose dependent insulinotropic
peptide.
d) Brunner’s gland - found only in the submucosal layer of duodenum. It secrete mucus and bicarbonate
Physiology of Digestion
♦ Digestion is a process of conversion of complex food into simple absorbable form with the help of
digestive enzymes.
♦ Digestive enzymes belongs to enzyme group hydrolase
♦ The process of digestion is accomplished by mechanical and chemical processes.
1. Digestion in buccal cavity
♦ The buccal cavity perform two major functions, mastication of food and facilitation of swallowing
♦ Food is masticated by teeth. The masseter muscle is a facial muscle that plays a major role in the
chewing of solid food.
♦ Masticated food is mixed with saliva with the help of tongue.
♦ About 30% of starch is hydrolysed in the buccal cavity

Starch  pH-6.8
   Maltose
→ + Isomaltose + Limitdextrin
Salivary amylase

♦ Mucus in saliva helps in lubricating and adhering the masticated the food particles into a bolus.
The bolus is then conveyed into the pharynx and then into oesophagus by swallowing or deglutition.
♦ The bolus further passes down through oesophagus by successive wave of muscular contractions
called peristalsis.
2. Digestion in stomach
♦ Stomach stored food for 4 - 5 hours.
♦ The food mixed thoroughly with the acidic gastric juice of the stomach by churning movement of its
muscular wall and convert the food into paste form called chyme [Partially digested food]
A) Digestion of food in Infant stomach

Pepsinogen  HCl
 →
Pepsin

Prorennin  HCl
 →
Rennin

♦ Gastric lipase digest small amount of fat.

Casein [Milk protein]  Curdling

 /Coagulation
  of  Paracasein
 →
Rennin
Casein

2+
Paracasein  Ca calcium paracaseinate  Pepsin
→   Peptones
→

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B) Digestion of food in Adult stomach [Prorennin absent]

Pepsinogen  HCl
 P
→epsin
♦ Gastric lipase digest small amount of fat.
Proteins  Pepsin
  Proteose
→ + Peptones + Peptides

Casein [Milk protein]  Curdling/Coagulation

   of    →
HCl
casein Paracaseinate

2+
Paracaseinate  Ca calcium paracaseinate  Pepsin
→   Peptones
→
Note
In infant stomach and adult stomach, coagulation of casein in small intestine catalysed chymotrypsin.
The mucus and bicarbonates present in gastric juice play an important role in lubrication and protection
of the mucosal epithelium from excoriation by the highly concentrated HCl
3. Digestion in small intestine
Bile, Pancreatic juice and the intestinal juice are the secretions released into the small intestine.
A) Bile

(i) Fat Emulsification

   →
Bile salts
Micelles

(ii) Activate lipase

B) Pancreatic juice

Trypsinogen  Enterokinase
   → Trypsin

Chymotrypsinogen  Trypsin
  →
Chymotrypsin

Procarboxy peptidase  Trypsin

  →
Carboxy peptidase

Proelastase  Trypsin
  →
Elastase
Pancreatic amylase [Amylopsin]
Pancreatic lipase [Steapsin]
Nuclease

Proteins  Trypsin
  →
Dipeptides

Peptones  Chymotryp
  sin →
Dipeptides

Proteose  Carboxypeptidase
    Dipeptides
→
Elastin  Elastase
   →
Dipeptides

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Polysaccharides  Pancreatic
  amylase
   →
Disaccharides [Maltose, Isomaltose, Limit dextrin, Lactose, Sucrose]

Fat [Triglycerides]
 Pancreatic
  ↓
  Diglycerides
lipase
→  Pancreatic
  ↓
  Monoglycerides
lipase
→
Fatty acid Fatty acid

Nucleic acid  Nuclease

  → Nucleotides

Ribonucleic acid  Ribonuclease

   Ribonucleotides
→ 
 
Deoxyribonucleic acid      Deoxyribonucleotides
→
Deoxyribonuclease

Note :
(i) “Universal enzymes” - Trypsin
(ii) “Enzyme of enzyme” - Enterokinase
C) Intestinal Juice
Digestive enzymes in intestinal juice are Dipeptidase, Aminopeptidase, Erepsin, Disaccharidase
[Maltase, Isomaltase, Dextrinase, Lactase, Sucrase or Invertase]
Enteric lipase, Nucleotidase, Nucleosidase

Dipeptide  Dipeptidase
   Amino→ acids
Peptides  A   Amino
min opeptidase
→ acids

Peptones  Erepsin
  →
Amino acids
[Disaccharides  Disaccharidase
    →
2Monosaccharides]
Maltose  Maltase
  →
1glucose +1glucose
Isomaltose Isomaltase
  1glucose
→ +1glucose
Limit dextrin  Dextrinase
  1glucose
→
Lactose  Lactase
  →
1glucose +1galactose
Sucrose  Sucrase/Invertase
    1glucose → +1fructose

Monoglycerides  Enteric lipase

     1→ glycerol + acid
1 fatty
Diglycerides 

Nucleotide  Nucleotidase
   Nucleoside
→ +
Phosphate group

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Ribonucleotide → Ribonucloside + (P) 

Ribonucleotide → Ribonucleoside + (P)
 

Nucleoside  Nucleosidase
   Pentose
→ sugar +
N2 Bases

Ribonucleoside → Ribose sugar + A,G,C,U 

Deoxyribonucleoside → Deoxyribose sugar + A,G,C,T 
 
Note : Major portion of digestion takesplace in duodenum of small intestine.
Absorption of digested food
Major portion of absorption takesplace in small intestine [90%] and also absorption takes place in
mouth, stomach and large intestine [10%]
Mechanism of Absorption
a) Simple diffusion - Aminoacids, glucose, Cl–, HCO3–, fat soluble vitamins [A, D, E, K], water soluble
vitamins [B and C]
b) Osmosis - Water
c) Active transport - Na+, Aminoacids, glucose, galactose
d) Facilitated transport [Protein carrier] - Amino acids, glucose, Fructose
Absorption in different parts of the Digestive system

Mouth Stomach Small Intestine Large Intestine

Principal organ for absorption

of nutrients and water. The
Certain drugs coming in
digestion is completed here
contact with the mucosa Absorption of water,
and the final product of Absorption of water,
of mouth and lower side simple sugars and
digestion such as glucose, some minerals and
of the tongue are alcohol etc.
fructose, fatty acid, glycerol drugs takesplace.
absorbed into the blood takesplace.
and amino acids are absorbed
capillaries lining them.
through the mucosa into the
blood stream and lymph.

→ Fatty acids and Monoglycerides are first incorporated into small droplets called micelles which
move into the intestinal mucosa. They are reformed into very small protein coated fat globules called
chylomicrones which are transported into the lymph vessel [Lacteal] in the villi. These lymph vessel
ultimately release the absorbed substance into the blood stream.

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Note : Milk lymph formed due to the absorption of chylomicrons into the lymph is called chyle.
→ The absorbed substances finally reach the tissue which utilise them for their activities. This process
is called assimilation.
→ The egestion of faeces to the outside through the anal opening [defaecation] is a voluntary process
and is carried out by a mass peristaltic movement.
→ Brownish colour of faeces is due to stercobilin and stercobilinogen.

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Regulation of Digestion - Hormones and Neural Control

I. Hormone regulation of digestion

Hormones Source Target Organ Action

1. Gastrin Pyloric stomach Gastric gland Stimulate gastric juice secretion

2. Enterogastrone / GIP /
a) Gastric gland inhibit gastric juice secretion
Glucose dependent insulino k cell of duodenum
b) Beta cells of pancreas stimulate insulin secretion
tropic peptide
Release bicarbonate in the
a) Pancreas (Acini)
pancreatic juice
3. Secretin s-cells of duodenum b) Liver
Increase the secretion of bile
c) Gastric gland
decrease gastric juice secretion
4. Vasoactive intestinal a) Blood vessels of gut Dilation of blood vessel
Small intestine
peptide (VIP) b) Gastric gland Inhibit gastric juice secretion

5. Cholecystokinin (cck) or a) Pancreas (Acini) Stimulate pancreatic juice secretion

Duodenum
Pancreozymin b) Gall bladder Stimulate the release of bile

Delta cells of a) Alpha cells Inhibit glucagon secretion

6. Somatostatin
7. Pancreatic polypeptide
(pp)
8. Duocrinin
9. Enterocrinin
pancreas b) Beta cells Inhibit insulin secretion
PPC/Fcells pancreas (Acini) Inhibit pancreatic juice secretion
Stimulate mucus and bicarbonate
Duodenum Brunner's gland
secretion
small intestine Intestinal gland Stimulate intestinal juice secretion

10. Villikinin Small intestine villi of small intestine Accelerate the movement of villi

II. Neural regulation of digestion

Two types of nervous system control the action of the digestive system.
A) Intrinsic neural system / Enteric neural system
a) Meissner’s plexus / Submucosal plexus - Network of sympathetic nerve fibres and nerve
cells. It regulate digestive enzyme secretion
b) Auerbach’s plexus / Myenteric plexus - Network of parasympathetic nerve fibres and nerve
cells. It control peristalsis
B) Extrinsic neural system - Consist of sympathetic, parasympathetic, sensory and motor nerves.
a) parasympathetic nerves
Stimulate the rectum and anal canal to contract and internal anal sphincter to relax. This allows
faeces to pass through the anus.
b) Sympathetic nerves
Stimulate the rectum and anal canal to relax and internal anal sphincter to contract, to maintain
continence.

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c) Sensory and motor nerves

innervation of the bowel and pelvic floor is through the vagus nerves
The sight, smell and presence of food in gastro-intestinal tract act as stimuli for the secretion of
saliva. This happens by the stimulation of vagus nerves.
Gross caloric value - Amount of energy produced from complete combustion of 1gm of food in
bomb calorimeter.
Physiologic value - Amount of energy produced on oxidation of 1gm of food in the body

Gross Calorific Physiologic value

Nutrient
Value (kcal/gm) (kcal/gm)

1. Carbohydrate 4.1 4

2. Protein 5.65 4

3. Fat 9.45 9

3 1 1
Balanced diet should have carbohydrate ,protein ,fat
5 5 5
Disorder of digestive system
1. Appendicitis - Inflammation of Vermiform appendix
2. Mumps - Inflammation of parotid salivary gland
Pathogen - Paramyxovirus
3. Gingivitis - Inflammation of gum
4. Gastro-enteritis - The inflammation of the stomach and intestinal tract due to bacterial or
viral infections
5. Jaundice - The liver is affected, skin and eye turn yellow due to the deposit of the bile
pigments
6. Vomiting - Ejection of stomach contents through mouth. This reflex action is controlled
by the vomit centre in the medulla oblongata. A feeling of nausea
proceeds vomiting.
7. Diarrhoea - The abnormal freequency of bowel movement and increased liquidity of
the faecal discharge. It reduce the absorption of food.
8. Constipation - The faeces retained within the rectum as the bowel movement occur
irregularly
9. Indigestion - The food is not properly digested leading to the feeling of fullness.
Causes of indigestion - Inadequate enzyme secretion, anxiety, overeating, food poisoning and spicy
food.

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10.Lactose intolerance - Indigestion of lactose occur due to lack of enzyme lactase

Protein - Energy Malnutrition [PEM]
1. Kwashiorkor - It is due to lack of proteins
Usually observed in children in the age of group of 1 - 5 years.
Deficiency Symptoms
♦ Weak muscles
♦ Thin limbs
♦ Retard growth of body and brain
♦ Swelling of legs
♦ Reddish hair
♦ Pot belly
♦ Diarrhoea
2. Marasmus - due to lack of protein and calorie
Usually affect infants below age of one year
Deficiency symptoms
♦ Impaired growth and replacement of tissue and proteins
♦ Thin limb
♦ Dry, wrinked and thin skin
♦ Diarrhoea

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