~='

y Table of Contents 1
CN (Sem VT I EGE / GTU)

Chapter 1 : Introduction to Data Communication & 1.8.1 Service Provided by the Networ!( for
Networking 1·1 to 1-36
Companies ........................................... 1-11
Syllabus : Data cornmunlcation, Use of networks, ·1.8.2 Services Provided by the Network
Internet protocols and standards, Laye1ing of models, OSI
to People ............................................ 1-12
model. TCP/ IP Internet model.
1.9 Social Issues , ..................................................... 1-12
1.1 Introduction to Data ............................................... 1-2 1.10 Network Hardware .............................................. 1-12
1.1.1 Type of Data ........................................... 1-2
1.10.1 Network Classification Based·on
1.2 Introduction to Data Communication ..................... 1-2 Transmission Technolog / ................... 1-12

1.2.1 Definition of Data Communication .......... 1-2 1.11 Network Scale .................................................... 1-13

1.2.2 Characteristics of Data Communicati_on
System . .................................................. 1-2
1.3 Components of Data Communication System ...... 1-3
1.4 Protocols and Standards ........................ ;............. 1-3
1.4.1 Protocols ...................... ........................... 1-3
1.4.2 . Standards .............................. ................. 1-4
1.5 Networks ............................................................... 1-4
1.12 Network Classification by their Geography ........ 1-13
1.12.1 Local Area Networks (LAN) .................. 1-14
1.12.2 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) ....... 1-15
1.12.3 Wide Area Network (WAN) ................... 1-15
1.12.4 lnternetworks :....................................... 1-16
1.12.5 Comparisor:i of LAN, WAN and MAN .... 1-16
1.13 Network Classification by their

1.5.1 Introduction to Computer Networks ........ 1-4 Component Role ............,................................... 1-16

1.5.2 Need and Applications of 1.14 Peer-to-Peer Networks ..... .................................. 1-17

Computer Network .................................. 1-5 1.14.1 When to use Peer to Peer Networks? .. 1-17

1.5.3 Components of a Computer Network ..... 1-5 1.14.2 Features of Peer to Peer Networks ...... 1-17

1.6 Network Topology Types ....................................... 1-5 1.15 Client/ Server Network

1.6.1 Bus Topology .......................................... 1-6 (Server Based Network) ..................... ................ 1-17

1.6.2 Ring Topology .... .-................................... 1-7 1.15.1 Communication in Client-Server

1.6.3 Star Topology ......................................... 1-8 Configuration ............ :........................... 1-18

1.6.4 Mesh Topology ....................................... 1-8 1.16 Factors Influencing the Choice of Network ......... 1-18
1.17 Connection Oriented and
1.6.5 Tree Topology ........................................ 1-9
Connectionless Services .................. .................. 1-19
1.6.6 Logical Topology .....- ..................... .......... 1-9.
1.18 Layered Tasks .................................................... 1-19
1.6.7 Hybrid Topology .................................... :1-9
1.19 . Network Software .... ........................................... 1-20
1.6.8 Comparison of Ring and
1.19.1 Protoco~ Hierarchies
Star Topologies .................................. .. 1-10
(Layered Architecture) .......................... 1-20
1.6.9 Comparison of Bus and
1.19.2 Reasons for having Layered
Star Topologies .................................... 1-10
Protocols and its Benefits ..................... 1-20
1. 7 Types of Communication .................................... 1-10
1.19.3 Disadvantages of Layered
1.7.1 Simplex Systems .................................. 1-10
Architecture .......................................... 1-21
1.7.2 Half Duplex Systems ............................ 1-11 1.19 .4 How does Data
Transfer take Place? ... 1-~1
1.7.3 Full Duplex Sys.terns ............................. 1-11 k A h·t t 1 21

1.8 Uses of Com uter Networks .................... ........... 1-11

Jenil Thakkar
1.20
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Networ re I ec ure .. .. .. .. .. ... .. ... .. .. .. .. ... .. ... .. .. .. .. -
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.-=-=~ ~-- -== -=- === ===_;;;;C~N
'---=- -=--= --=-a a:.~~ -=--= --=-=----= --=- ...;., "l'lJ)
unica tion 1.26.5 Comp arison of Physical address
1.2 0 .1 V irtual Comm and
........ ...... ... .. 1-2 1 Logic al addre ss ... ....... .. .... ... .. .
betwe en Layer s ................. ... .... 1
3
Unive rsity Ques tions and Answ ers ....... ··· • ~
es ......... ... ......... . ......... ....... 1-22 1.27 .······• ...... 1.35
1.21 Interf aces and Servic
• Revie w Ques tions ......... ......... ................. _
1.21 .1 Entitie s and Peer Entities ........... ... ....... 1-22 1 34

1.21 .2 Servi ce Provi der and Servic e User ..... .. 1-22 Chap ter 2 : Physical Layer ...............
2 -1 to 2~
1 .21 . 3 Servi ce Acces s Points (SAPs ) .... ... ....... 1-22 r-- -- :
--
Trans
--
missio
--
n
--
media
--
(Twis ted
--Coa)(i~
pait,
Sylla bus 1
1.21.4 Interf ace Data Unit (IOU) ... .... .. ..... .... .... 1-22 cable , Fiber optic cabJe ), W ireless medium as
Phys· a
ICal
Servi ce Data Unit (SOU) ..... .. ........ ... .. .. . 1-23 layer (Elect romag netic s pectru m, ISM band, Ught wave
1.21 .5
Cable
transm ission ) , Circuit switching, DSL techn ology,
1.21 .6 Proto col Data .Unit (POU) ........... ........ .. 1-23
mode m.
Relationsh ip of Servi ces to Proto cols ..... ............
1-23
1.22
Trans missio n Media ......... ... .... ....... .......................
2-2
Servi ce ....... .. .......... ........... ..... .... .......... 1-23 2.1
1. 22.1
2 .1.1 Class ification of Trans missio n Media ..... 2-2
1.22.2 Proto col ....... .... .......... :...... .. ............ ...... 1-23
Criteria for the Selec tion of Trans mission Media ..
2-2
. 1-23 2.2
1.23 Refer ence Mode ls .. ........... ...... ........ ... ....... ..... ....
1-23 2.2.1 Types of W ired Media ......... ................... 2-2
1.24 OS I Mode l .. ....... ....... ..... ...... ...... .......... ..... ........ ...
Twisted Pair Cable s .................. ....... .................. ..
2-2
Layer ed Ar~hi tectur e ... ..... ... .. .. ..... .. ...... 1-24 2.3
1.24.1
2.3 .1 UTP (Unsh ielded Twisted Pair) ...... .... .... 2-3
1.24.2 A More Detai led OSI Mode l ... ...... ... ...... 1-24
2.3.2 STP (Shiel ded Twiste d Pa ir) ....... ........ .. . 2-3
1.24.3 Peer to Peer Proce sses ..... ..... ...... ...... .. 1-25
2.3.3 Comp arison of Twiste d Pair Cables ....... 2-4
1.24.4 Organ izatio n of the Layer s .. ...... ........ ... 1-25
2.4 Co-axial Cables ..... ..... ..... .:..... ..................... .........
2-4
1.24.5 Funct ions of Differ ent Layer s ... ... ...... ... . 1-26
Optical Fiber Cable s ..... ..... ... ...... ."...... ...... ........ .....
2-5
2.5
1.24.6 Excha nge of Inform ation using the OSI
Mode l ... .... :·......... .. .... .................... .... .... . 1-27 2 .5.1 Characteristics of Optical
Fiber Cable s .. ...... ....... ... .... ...... ... ..... ....... 2-6
1.24.7 Merit s of OSI Refer ence Mode l ...... ...... 1-28
2.5.2 Advan tages of Optical Fibers .............. ... 2-6
1.24.8 Deme rits of OSI Mode l .. ....... ... .... ........ . 1-28
1-29 2 .5.3 Disad vanta ges of Optical Fiber .............. 2-6
1.25 The TCP/ IP Refer ence Mode l .. ..... .... ............ ......
2 .5.4 Applic ations ..... ...... .. .......... .. ... ..... ......... .. 2-6
1.25. 1 Introd uction to TCP/ IP ....... ........ ..... ...... 1-29
2 .5.5 Comp arison of Wired Media ............... .... 2-7
1.25.2 Overv iew of TCP/ IP Archi tectur e .......... 1-29
Wirele ss Media .............. ..... ..... ... ...... ... ......... .... ....
2-7
2.6
f25 .3 Desc riptio n of TCP/ IP Mo~e l ... ........ ..... 1-30
EM Spect rum for Wirele ss Media ... .... ... .. .. ...........
2-7
2 .7
1.25. 4 Comp arison of OSI and
2 .7.1 Comm unica tion Bands ..... ....... .. ....... .. .. .. 2-7
TCP/ IP Mode ls ...... .... ... ... .. ....... .. .......... 1-31
2.7.2 The ISM Band ·········· .... ........... ... .. ...... ... . 2-8
1.25.5 Deme rits of TCP/ IP Mode l .... ... .......... ... 1-32
2 .7.3 Infrar ed Signa ls ....... ....... .... ............ ........ 2-8
1.25.6 Hybri d (Inter net) Refer ence Mode l ....... 1-32
2. 7.4 Visibl e Light ... .. .... .. .... ... .. .... ..... .... .. ....... .. 2-8
Addressing .... .. ..... ·: ... ......... .. .. ....... ... ... .. ... ..... .. ....
1-32
1.26
. · s M e d.1a .. .... ......... ..· .... .. .. ..... ••••·.. · 2-8
Types o f W 1re1es
MAC Addre ss (Phys ical Addre ss) .. ..... .. 1-33 2 .8
1.26.1 8
2.8.1 Radio Wave Trans missio n Syste ms ....... 2-
1.26.2 Logical Addre sses (IP Addre sses) .. ...... 1-33 2 9
· · n S ys te m .. . •••.. -- · •
Micro wave T ransm1ss1o
2.8.2

-
1 .26.3 PortA ddres s ······ ··· ········· ·· ···· ··· ···· ···· ··· · 1-34 2 10
2 ,8 .3 Use of Infrar ed Light as Mediu m •· ····•· " -
1 .26.4 Specific Addre sses .... : ..... ... ..... .... ... .... .. 1-34
"'A~ TechKn111ledgi
Jenil Thakkar
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Chapter

Introduction to Data
Communication & Networking

Syllabus
Data communication, Use of networks, Internet protocols and standards, Layering of models, OSI model,
TCP/IP Internet model. ·

1.1 Introduction to Data 1.15 Client I Server Network (Server Based Network)

1.2 Introduction to Data Communication 1.16 Factors Influencing the Choice of Network

1.3 Components of Data Communication System 1.17 Connection Oriented and Connectionless Services

1.4 Protocols and Standards 1.18 Layered Tasks

1.5 Networks ' 1.19 Network Software

1.6 Network Topology Types 1.20 Network Architecture
1.7 Types of Communication 1.21 Interfaces and Services
1.8 Uses of Computer Networks 1.22 Relationship of Services to Protocols
1.9 Social Issues 1.23 Reference Models
1.10 Network Hardware 1.24 OSI Model
1.11 Network Scale 1.25 The TCP/IP Reference Model
1.1 2 Network Classification by their Geography 1.26 Addressing
1.1 3 Network Classification by their Component Role 1.27 University Questions and Answers
1.14 Peer-to-Peer Networks

Jenil Thakkar
 • CN (Sem. VI/ ECE / GTU)
V' 1-2 Introduction to Data Communication & Netw
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1.1 Introduction to Data : The transfer of data takes place over a corn
. Puter
Data is defined as information which is stored in the network. A network provides path over which the d
. dd .
can traveI to t h e d esrre .
estrnatron. ata
digital form. A single data unit is called as datum.
Data communication is the process of exchanging the 1.2.1 Definition of Data Communication :
digit~I information between two points.

1.1.1 Type of Data: University Questions

Data can correspond to alphabets, numeric or symbols Q. 1 What is data communication ? List and explain
and it consists of any one or the combination of the fundamental characteristics of data communication
following : microprocessor OPcodes, control codes, user system. (May 19, 4 Marks)

addresses, program data or data base information. Before exchanging information, creaters and t he users
At the source or destination the data is in digital form of data should agree upon how the information should
but during the transmission, it may be in the form of be presented.
analog or digital signals.
An information that is presented in such a form is called
A data communication network can be simply consisting as data.
of two computers connected to each other a public
Data communication can be defined as t he exchange -
telecommunication network.
of data between a source and destination over some
[iiJ kind of transmission medium, such as a co-axial cable,
(wired communication) or air (wireless communication).
Computer 1 Computer 2 1.2.2 Characteristics of Data Communication
(G-1425) Fig. 1.1.1 : A simplest possible data
communication network
System: GTU: May 19

Data communication system are used for University Que~tions

interconnecting all types of digital computing Q. 1 What is data communication ? List and explain
equipments, internet etc. fundamental characteristics of data communication
system. (May 19, 4 Marks)
In this chapter we are going discuss data
communication and networking. The three important characteristics of a data 1
communication system are :
The aim of data communication and networking is to
allow the exchange of data such as audio, text and 1. Delivery 2. Accuracy 3. Timeliness
video between any points in world. 1. Delivery :
The transfer of data takes place over a computer A data· communication system (DCS) must deliver data
network. 2.
only to the user who is intended to use it and not to any
A network is like a path or a road over which the data one else.
travels smoothly from sender to destination. 2. Accuracy :
1.2 Introduction to Data Due to noise the data may get altered or corrected
3.
Communication: when it is travelling over a communication medium.
In this chapter we are going discuss data Errors will be introduced and the accuracy of the
communication and networking. received data is adversely affected.
The data communication and networking allows the
The data communication system (DCS) must be
exchange of data between any points in world.
designed in such a way that the delivered data is
The data can be audio, text, video or of some other
form. accurate and free from any errors.

Jenil Thakkar ~•- TechKno111ledgi

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• CN (Sem. VI / ECE / GTU) 1-3 Introduction to Data Communication & Networking

3. Timeliness : 4. Receiver :
The time delay is unacceptable for the audio and video It Is the device which receives the message and
data as it introduces errors in the reproduced sound or reproduces It.
picture.
A receiver can be In the form of a workstation,
So the DCS should deliver the data without any time telephone handset, a TV receiver, etc.
delay.
5. Protocol :
Such a data delivery is called as real-time transmission
of data. Protocol is defined as the set of rules agreed by the
sender and receiver.
1.3 Components of Data
Communication System : There can be different protocols defined for different
functions. Protocols govern t he exchange of data in true
Block diagram :
sense.
If we specifically consider the communication between A set of such rules is known as a "protocol" of the data
two computers then the data communication system is communication system.
as shown in Fig. 1.3.1.
- · Many different protocols are used in the modern data
It has the following five components. communication system.
1. Message 2. Sender The interconnection of one station to many stations is
3. Medium 4. Receiver and called as networking.
5. Protocol A network is any interconnection of two or more
Message
stations that wish to communicate.
~
~ 1.4 Protocols and Standards :
Medium
Protocol and standards are the two freq uently used
Receiver words in data communication.
(L-2) Fig. 1.3.l : Five components of a data communication
Let us define them first and then explain them .
system
1. Message: 1.4.1 Protocols : idi'IMBIU
Message is nothing but information or data which is to
be sent from sender to the receiver.

A message can be in the form of sound, text, number,

pictures, video or combination of them. For successful communication to occur, it is not en~ugh
2. Sender: for the "sender" to simply transmit the message and
Sender is a device such as .a host, video camera, "assume" that the "receiver" will receive it properly.

telephone, work station etc which sends the message -;- There are certain rules that must be followed to ensure
over the medium. proper communication.

3. Medium: A successful commu11ication of data can be ensured if

The message originating from the sender needs a path
over which it can travel to the receiver. Such a path is
called as the medium or channel.
sender and receiver agree upon certain rules and
procedures in relation with the data.
Definition :

The examples of transmission medium are coaxial cable, A protocol is defined as the set of rules agreed upon by
twisted pair' wire, fiber optic cable, radio waves (used in the sending and receiving computer systems, to
terrestrical or satellite communication) etc. facilitate a proper communication between them.

Jenil Thakkar V
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• C N (Sem . VI / ECE / GTU) Introduction to Data Communication & Networking .Id
-.,

Such rules a nd procedures are called as protocols.

1-4
.
Many other forms of interconnections are possible. 'he
',,,;,
Different types of protocols are used in data most familiar network is the telephone system.
communications.
It is the largest and most sophisticated network of all.
1 -4 -2 Standards :
1 .5 .1 Introduction to Computer Networks:
Definition :
In contest with the computers we can say that a
Data comm · •
unicat1on standards are defined as the "computer network" is a system which allo'II,
guidelines to th d
e pro uct manufacturers and vendors to communication among the computers connected in the
ensure national and international interconn~ctivity. network.
Need:
The computers and communications have been merged 1
Standards are needed f . . .. together and their merger had a very deep impact on
or ensuring the interconnect1v1ty
and interoperability among various hardware and the manner in which computer systems are organized.
software components.
In the old model a single computer used to serve all the
Without standards, it is not possible to ensure computational needs of an organization.
connectivity and interoperability worldwide.
But now it is replaced by a new model in which a large
Classification :
number of separate but interconnected computers do
Data communication standards are classified into two the job.
categories.
. Such systems are called as computer networks.
1. De facto standards 2. De jure standards Definition :
1.5 Networks A computer network is a group of computers and other
computing hardware devices are linked together
Network:
through communication channels to facilitate
Network is a broad term similar to "system". communication and resource sharing among wide
Network is a communication system which supports range of users.
many users.
Two computers are said to be interconnected if they
The interconnection of one station to many stations is exchange infprmation.
called as networking.
The connection between the separate computers can be
A network is any interconnection of two or more done via a copper wire, fiber optics, microwaves or
stations that wish to communicate. communication satellite.
Node: As shown in Fig. 1.5.2, each node in a computer network
Each station in a communication network is called as a is a computer, or a connecting device such as a hub, or
node. a switch etc.

The nodes are connected in different way to each other

to form a network.
0 Of such networks is shown in Fig. 1.5.1.
ne Node

(G-1395) Fig. 1.5.2: A computer network

The computers connected in a network share files,

folders, applications and resources like scanners,
web-cams, printers etc.
(G-13) Fig. 1.5.1 : A simple communication network

Jenil Thakkar The best example of a computer network is the Internet.

1R•T1dlb~
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1f CN (Sem . VI/ ECE / GTU) 1-5 Introduction to Data Communication & Networking

In a computer network we need to make use of Q. 2 Explain variOU!,, network topologies with their
hardware and softwar e. advantages and disadvantages . (May 16, 7 Marks)
The hardware consist s of connecting cables, Q, 3 Defin e topology. Describe any two types of network
connectors, networ k connecting devices and topolog y (May 18, 4 Marks)
the
software consist s of protocols, prog rams etc. Q. 4 Write note on network topology,
This enables the systematic exchange of information (Dec. 19, 4 Marks)
between the compu ters connec ted in the network.
It is possible to connect th e compu ter in many differen t
There are various ways of interconnecting the ways in a network.
compu ters.
The way of co nnecting the compu ters is called as the
1.5.2 Need and Applications of Computer topolog y.
Network: So depend ing on the manner of connecting the

The computer networks are needed because of the computers we can have different network topolog ies.
following points :
Definition :
1. For shari ng the resources such as printers am ong
Topology is defined as the logical arrangement of the
all the users.
nodes (computers).
2. For sharing of expensive softwares and database.
The word physical network topology is used to explain
3. To facilitate communication from one computer t o
the manner in which a networ k is physically connected.
the other.

4. To have exchange of data and information Devices or no~es in a networ k get con nected to each

amongst the users, via the network. other via communication links and all these links are

5. For sharing of information over the geographically related to each other in one way or the other.
wide areas. The geometric representation of such a relationship of
6. For connecting the computers between various links, and nodes is known as the t opolog y of that
buildings of an organization.
network.
7. For educational purposes.
Types :
1.5.3 Components of a Computer Network: The five basic network topologies are as shown in
Fig. 1.6.1.
Following are some of the importa nt components of a
computer network :

1. Two or more computers.

2. Cables (coaxial, twisted pair or fiber optic) as links

between the computers.
·(G-14(b)) Fig. 1.6.1 : Classification of network topology
3. A Network Interfacing Card (NIC) on each
computer. These topologies can be classified into two types :

4. Switches or other suitable connecting device. 1. Peer to peer

5. A software called network operating system . 2. Primary - secondary

Peer to peer is the relationship where the devices share

1.6 Network Topo logy Type s:
the link equally .
GTU : May 14, May 16, May ·1s, Dec. 19 The examples are ring and mesh topologies.
Univer sity Questi ons In Primary - secondary relationship, one device controls
Q. 1 What is network topology ? Explain different and the other devices have to transmit through it.
network topolog ies with example and compare
For example star and tree topology.
them. (May 14, 7 Marks)

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. . CN (Sem . Vl / ECE / GTU) Introduction to Data Communication & Netw0 11(
1-6 1110
1 -6.1 Bus Topology : · t he bus .1s f ree before ~
it can
A compu t er m ust wait until
transmit.
GTU : Ma 14 Ma 16 Ma 18_
lt)GN§ t➔,4..;1nt1,MIH The bus topology requires a proper t ermination at both
Q. 1 What 1s netwo 1k the ends of the cable in order to avoid reflections.
topology ? Explain different
network
topolog ies with example and compare Since the bus is a passive topology, the electrical signa
them.
(May 14, 7 Marks) from a transmitting computer is free to t ravel over the
Q.2
Explain various network topologies with their
entire length of the cable.
advantages and disadvantages. (May 16, 7 Marks)
Q.3 Without termination when the signal reaches the end 0,
Define topology. Describe any two types of network
topology. (May 18, 4 Marks) t he cable, it returns back and travels back o n the cable
Definition :
The tra nsmitted waves and reflected waves, if they are ,r

The bus topology is a network topology in which nodes phase add and if they are out of phase cancel.

are directly connected to the common linear or Thus additio n and cancellation of wave results in a
branched half duplex link called as bus. standing wave.
The bus topology is usually_used when a network under The standing waves ca n disto rt.th e no rmal signals wh·ct
consideration is small, simple or temporary as shown in are travelling along t he ca ble.
Fig. 1.6.2.
Node 1 This can be avoided by t erminating the bus on bo'"
Node 2 Node 3 Node 4

,~ rL & ends in 50 n load impeda nce.

The terminators absorb t he electrical energy and avoc

reflections.
Characteristics of the bus topology :
Cable end Tap
Tap Cable end
Following are some of the important charact eristics c·
Cable bus the bus topology :
(G-15) Fig. 1.6.2 : Bus topology
1. This is a multipoint config uratio n. There are more
On a typical bus network a simple cable is used without
than two devices con nect ed t o t he medium anc
additional electronics to amplify tlie signa l or pass it
they are capable of t rans mitting on the medium
along from computer to co mputer.'
Hence the Medium Access Control (MAO is
Therefore the bus is a passive t opology.
essential for the bus topo logy.
This long cable called bus is used as backbone to all t he
2. The signal strength of the transmitted signal
nodes.
should be adequately high so as to meet the
The tap is connector that connects t he nod e to the
minimum signal strength requirements of the
metallic core of the bus via a drop line. receiver.
Working : 3.
Adequate Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) should be
When o ne computer sends a signal on the cab le; all the maintained for better quality receptio n.
com puters on the network receive the information. 4.
The signal sh ould not be too strong. This is
However only the one with the address t hat matches necessary to avoid the overloading of transmitter
with the destination address stored in t he message and hence the possibility of signal distortion.
accepts the information w hile all t he others rej ect t he 5.
This is called as signal balancing which is not an
messag e.
easy task at all. Specially the signal balancing
The speed of the bus topology is slow becau se only one
becomes increasingly difficult with increase in th e
computer can send a message at a time. number of stations.

Jenil Thakkar
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• P ubl 1Cat 1 Dn
 •
" CN (Sem. VI / ECE / GTU) 1-7 Introduction to Data Communication & Networking
Transmission media for bus LANs :
Tile messages flow oround the ring in one direction.
We can use the followin g t1 ansrnission media for the Therr is no termination becrJuse there is no end to the
bus LANs : r111g.
1. Twisted pair. 1 oken p~sslng :
2. Baseband co•axial cable Some ring networks do token pa:.sing. A short me:.sage
3. Broadband co· axial cable 4. Optical fi bre called a token is passed around the ring until a
comput er wis hes to send information to another
1.6.2 Ring Topology : computer.

That computer modifies the token, adds an electronic

University Questions address and data and send s it around the ring
Q. 1 What is network topology ? -Explain different
Each computer in sequence receives the token and the
network ·topologies with example and compare
information and passes them to the next computer until
them. (May 141 7 Marks)
Q. 2 Explain varrous network topologies with their either the electronic address mat ches the address of a

advantages and dis~dvantages. (May 16, 7 Marks) computer or t he t oken returns to its origin.
Q. 3 Define topology. Describe any two types of network The • receiving computer returns a message t o the
topology. (May 18, 4 Marks)
originator indicating that the message has been
Definition : received.

A ring topology is a network topology in which each The sending computer then creates another token and

node connects exactly to two other nodes, to form · a places it on the network, allowing another station to

single closed pathway for signal through each node. capture the token and begin t ransmitting.

Data travels from node to node with each node having The token circulates until a station is ready to send and

an access to every packet. capture the token. Faster networks circulate several
tokens at once.
In a ring topology, each computer is connected to the
next computer, with the last one connected to the first Some ring networks have two cou nter-rotating rings

as shown in Fig. 1.6.3. that help them recover from network faults.
NodeO
Active or passive ?

~~-:
~ ~~
Ring . topology is an active topology, because each
station hcis to recreate the packet.
.! ~ Problems faced in the ring topology :

""".• ,. . . . pr
~2
1. If any link breaks or if any repeater fails then the
entire network will be disabled .
. ,- ~ 2. To install a new repeater for supporting a new

4 device, it is necessary to have the identification of

(G-16) Fig. 1.6.3 : Ring topology two nearby, topologically adjacent repeaters.

Rings are used in high-performance networks where 3. It is necessary to take preventive measures to deal

large bandwidth is necessary e.g. time sensitive features with the time jitter.

such as video and audio.
Every computer is connected to the next computer in
the ring and each retransmits what it receives from· the
previous computer hence the ring is an active network.
4. Due to the closed nature of the ring topology it is
necessary to remove the circulating packets.
These problems except for the last one can be rectified
by refinements of the ring topology.

Jenil Thakkar p'ii~ TechKnowledgi

Publl c atlons
 ~-~ CN (Sem . VI I ECE / GTU) Introduction to Data Communication & Netw
1-0 ,
1 ·6
,_ Ori,J~ 1
-3 Star Topolog ~ GTU: Ma 1·4 Ma 1G A pi.lsslvo hub 1s a wiring panel or punch dow~
,\,,,
[fo itf24 i.-ti ......U[ :F111•11t-.."1
····- S '~
which octs 05 o connection point. '
Q. 1 V\ t It docs not ;1mpllfy or regenerate the signal.
s nel\,ork topology ? Explam different
etvrnrk topologies with example and compare Passive hubs do not require electrical power supply
then,
(May 14, 7 Marks) Several types of cables can be used to implement a sta,
2
Q. E,plain var ous network topologies wrth their
ad\antage s and disadvantages. (Ma 16, 7 Marks) network.

Definition : A hybrid hub can use different types of cable in tr,@

same star network.
Star topology ·
1s a network topology, .in which
.
each Active or passive topology ?
nd
i ividual piece of a network is connected to a central Star topology networks can be either active or pas:: e
node called as a hub or switch.
depending on the following factors.
In a star topology all the computers are connected via If the central node performs processes like amplifcatc,
cables to a central location where they are all connected
or regeneration then it is an active topology. Othe!Wi~
by a device called a hub as shown in Fig. 1.6.4.
it is a passive topology.
NodeO
If the network actively controls the data transit, then it 1
active otherwise passive.

-~
If the network requires electrical power sources then it 1
2
active otherwise passive.
When is star topology suitable ?

The star topology is preferred under the followin£

circumstances :
4 L If the centralized network control is expected.
(G-18) Fig. 1.6.4 : Star topology 2. If high reliability is more important than cost
There is no direct connection s among the computers. 3. If the network is to be expanded frequently.
All tre connectio ns are made via the central hub.
1.6.4 Mesh Topolog y: GTU : May 14, May .16
Stars are used in concentra ted networks, where the
endpo·nts are directly reachable from a central location; University Questions
when network expansion is expected and when the Q. 1 What fs network topology ? Explain different
greater reliability of a star topology is needed. network topologies with example and compare
them. (May 14, 7 Marks)
Each computer on a star network communicates with a
Q. 2 Explain various network topologies with their
central hub. advantages and disadvantages. (May 16, 7 Marks)
T.,e hub then resends the message to all the computers
In a mesh topology every device is physically connected
n a broc:1dcast star network.

.•,
to every other device with a point to point dedicated
It will resend the message only to the destination
link as shown in Fig. 1.6.5.
computer in a switched star network. NodeO

The hub in a broadcast star network can be active or

passive. Node 4 a l~ a l Node 1

An active. h b
u gen erates the electrical signal and sends
it to all the computers connected to it.
This type of hub is usually called a multiport repeater.

Active hubs require external power supply.

Node 3 l-~~-
(G-21)
Ir
Node 2

Fig. 1.6.5 : Mesh topology

Jenil Thakkar
 1-9
-
" CN (Sem. VI / EGE / GTU)
The term dedicated means that the link carries data only
between two devices connected on it.
The mesh topology is also called as complete
topology.
The mesh topology does not have the traffic congestion
problem, because dedicated lines are being used to
connect the nodes.
These links are not being shared.
So the ·special protocol called Media Access Control
(MAC) protocol is not required to be used.
This topology has an advantage of data security due to
the use of dedicated links. It is robust.
lf one link fails, the rest of the network can continue to
function. The fault diagnosis and isolation of fault also
is easy.
The only disadvantages of this topology are the cable
length, the cost of the cable and the associated
complexity.
A fully connected mesh network therefore has n(n-1)/2
physical cables to connect n devices. To accommodate
that many links every device on the network must have
n-1 input/output ports.
So too many cables are required to be used for the
mesh topology.
Using this formula for a network of 1000 nodes, we will
require 1000 (1000 - 1)/2 = 499500 cables or links. So
this topology is suitable only for small networks. ·
1.6.5 Tree Topology:
Definition :
Tree topology is a special type of structure in wbich
many connected elements are arranged like the
branches of a tree.
A tree topology is a variation of a star.
As in a star, nodes in a tree are connected to a central
hub that controls the entire network.
However, every computer is not plugged into the
central hub.
Most of them are connected to a secondary hub which
in turn is connected to the central hub as shown in
Fig. 1.6.6.
Jenil Thakkar
Introduction to Data Communication & Networking
Control hub
A
orheadend
Hub
• '
(G-22) Fig. 1.6.6 : Tree topology
The central hub in the tree is an active hub which
contains repeater.
The repeater amplify the signal and increase the
distance a signal can travel.
The secondary hubs may be active or passive. A passive
hub provides a simple physical connection between the
attached devices.
In this topology, there can be only one connection
between any two nodes. Therefore it is also called as a
parent-child topology.
Note : The advantages a.rid disadvantages of a tree
topology are generally the same as those of a star.
1.6.6 Logical Topology :
Logical topology describes the manner in which the
stations are logically connected to each other for the
purpose of data unit exchange.
Physical topology discussed earlier can be different
from the logical topology, of the network.
As an example consider the bus topology. The bus acts
as a central controller.
It receives data and forwards it to the various nodes.
Thus the st.ations have a logical connection to the bus
which acts as a centralized controller.
Therefore the logical topology of a bus is star topology,
eventhough the physical topology is bus.
1.6.7 Hybrid Topology:
Definition :
We have discussed various basic topologies such as bus,
ring, mesh, star etc.
~~ TecbKnowltdgi
Y Publlcatlons
-·••-~C~N_,.(S_,e;,;,m;.;,. ..;:V;.:,I~/~1.:~C;;,:E;,-=:_I~G~T~U~)______ ____.,..~1~.1~0~:::::::;=~ln;_;;tr~o;;d;u;ct~io~n~~;_--o_D_a~t=a=C=o=m;=m=u::n::ic::at::io~n~&~N;etw~or't\i
11
H, b d topology is the one which makes use of two or Sr ~
more basic top I • Ring Star
o og1es mentioned above, togethe1 . No.
There ate ditte1 ent ways an which a hybrid network is 6. Adding and removing Adding and , rem
created. computers disrupts the the computers ov,llg
F' network. relatively easier.
ig. l.G.7 shows the hybrid topology in which bus, star
nd
a ring topologies are used simultaneous ly. 1.6.9 Comparis on of Bus and Star
, 2
Topologie s :

Sr.
Bus Star
No.
STA R 1. Uses a cable as bus or Uses a central hub ~
8 backbone to connect all connect the nodes
nodes. each other.

2. Baseband or broadband Twisted pair, coax.a

(G- 23) Fig . 1.6.7: Hybrid topology coaxial cable is used. cables or optical flbe,
In Fig . 1.6.7, the nodes 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 are connected in cables are used.
the bus topology, nodes 6, 7 and 8 form a star and the
3. If a part of bus fails, the Failure of the central hu:
nodes 4 , 9, 10, 11, 12 are arranged in a ring t opology. whole network fails. will make the enfi,
The p ractical networks generally make use of hybrid network collapse.
topology.
4. Adding an new node is Adding and removing ,
Many complex networks can be reduced to some form difficult. node is relatively easy.
of hybrid topology.
5. Fault diagnosis is Fault diagnosis is easy.
The -hybrid topology which is to be used for a particular relatively difficult.
application depends on the requirements of that
application . 1.7 Types of Commun icat ion:
1.6.8 Comparis on of Ring and Star
Based on whether the given communicati on syster
Topologi es:
communicate s only in one d irectio n only or in both th,
Sr. directions, the commun ication system s are classified as
Ring Star
No.
1. Simplex systems.
1. Media failure on Media faults are
uni-direction al or single automatically isolated 2. Half duplex systems.
loop ring causes to the failed segment. 3. Full duplex systems.
complete network failure .
difficult to Relatively easy to 1.7.1 Simplex Systems:
2. Relatively
reconfigure . configure. Definition :
3. It is difficult to Easy to troubleshoot.
A simplex communicati on th e
1,8,
troubleshoot . is defined as
of one The failure of single communicati on in only one direction.
4. The failure
computer can affect the computer · or cable In these systems the information is communicated in
whole network. doesn't bring the
network down . only one direction.

5. No computer has a Failure of the central The communicati on from CPU to monitor or keyboa rd
monopoly over the hub causes the whole to CPU is unidirectional.
network. network failure.

Jenil Thakkar • Ttcllltl~~

• puo11ca
~ CN (Sem. VI / EGE / GTU) 1-11 ~troductio_n to Data Communication & Networking

1_7_2 Half Duplex Systems : These computers may be within the same building,
campus, city or different cities.
Definition :
Cventhough the computers are located in different
A half duplex communication is defi ned as t he locatlons, the organist.1tions want to keep track of
bidirectional communication which does not ta ke place inventories, monitor productivity, do the ordering and
simultaneously. billing etc.
These systems are bi-directional, i.e. they can transmit The computer networks are useful to the organisations
as well as receive but not simultaneously. in the following ways :

In half duplex transmission, the entire capacity of the 1. Resource sharing:

channel is utilized by the transmitting (sending) system. It allows all programs, equipments and data available to
anyone on t he network irrespective of the phJsical
1.7.3 Full Duplex Systems :
location of the resource and the user.
Definition : 2. High reliability due to alternative sources of data :
A duplex communication is defined as the type of It provides high reliability by having alternative sources
communication · in which a simultaneous flow. of of data.
information takes place at any given time.
For e.g. all files could be replicated on more than one
In a full duplex data communication system each station machines, so if one of them is unavailable due to
can transmit and receive simultaneously. har.dware failure or any ot her reason, the other copies
In full duplex mode, signals going in either direction can be used.
share the full capacity of link. The aspect of high reliability is very important for
The link may contain two physically separate military, banking, air traffic cont rol, nuclear reactor
transmission paths one for sending and another for safety and many other applications where continuous
receiving. operations is a must even if there are hardware or

Otherwise the capacity of channel is divided between software failures.

signals travelling in both directions. .3. Cost:

Computer networking is an important financial aspect

1.8 Uses of Computer Networks : for organisations because it saves money.

Organisations can use separate personal computer one

per user instead of using mainframe computer which
are expensive.

The organisations can use the workgroup model (peer

The computer networks are playing an important role in to peer) in which all the PCs are networked together
and each one can have the access to the other for
providing services to large organisations as well as to
communicating or sharing purpose.
the individual common man.
The organisation, if it wants security for its operation it
1.8.1 Service Provided by the Network for can go in for the domain model in which there is a
Companies : ldiiiMiN@ server and clients.

University Questions All the clients can communicate and access data
Q,f through th~ server.
4. Communication medium :

Many organisations have a large number of computers A computer network provides a powerful
communication medium among widely separated
in operation.
employees.

Jenil Thakkar ~~ TechKno111ledge

.,.,,, Publi c ations
 ~~•..,,,.-
· :C~N:
em.,.;(~S~~~~~~
VI/ ECE ~~~....-----== -----t~ ---~ln~1-1
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~ t~ro~d ~u~c~ ti~o~n2
to=D~ a.. c..o..m..m....
ta..... "...t..io..:n.........
u n_,i..,ca & N""e~tw;;;o~rL ~g
1
Using netw k . . ~
or It 1s easy for two or more employees, 2· Video on demand .
who are separa t d b
e Y geographical locations to work on 3. Partlc'1potion in live TV programmes likes .
~ report, docum ent or R and D simultaneously contest, discussions etc.
9u1~
i.e. on - line.
1.8.2
Servi ces Provi ded by the Netwo rk to ~-~
1 9 ~~: ..::::::..::.=.~--------.....
socia l Issues :
Peop le : ccjuiffifi(J New social, ethical and political problems have beei
m,1.:.;1-11«.. MMii-l.Ui faced as the compu ter networks have expanded in size.
1
Q. Briefly explain uses of compu ter networks. A popular feature of many networ ks is newsgroups c.r
(May 19, 3 Marks) bulletin boards.
The compu ter networ ks offer the followin g services to Here people can exchange messages their views about a
an individ ual person :
topic.
1· Access to remote informa tion
But trouble comes when newsgroups discuss sensitive
2·
Persori to person commu nicatio n topics such as religion; politics or sex.
3. E-com merce
There are many such social issues associated with the
4. Interac tive enterta inment . compu ter networks.
1. Acces s to remote inform ation :
1.1 o Netw ork Hard ware :
Access to remote
informa tion involves interaction
Now let us discuss the technical issues involved in the
betwee n a person and a remote database.
network design.
Access to remote inform ation comes in many forms
Two importa nt dimensions of a compu ter networ k are:
like_: Home. shoppi ng, paying telepho ne, electricity bills,
e-bank ing, on line share market etc. 1. Transmission techno logy and 2. Scale.

Newsp aper is on-line and is personalised, digital library 1.10.1 Netwo rk Class ificati on Based on
consis ting of books, magazines, scientific journal s etc. Trans missi on Techn ology :
World wide web which contain s informa tion about the
The transmission techno logy can be categorised broadly
arts, busine ss, cookin g, govern ment, health, history,
into two types_:
hobbie s, recrea tion, science, sports etc.
1. Broadcast networks and
2. Perso n to person comm unicat ion :
2. Point-t o-point networks.
Person to person commu nicatio n includes :
1. Broadcast networks :
Electro nic-ma il (e-mai l)
In a broadcast networks all the machines on the
R~al time e-mail i.e. video confere ncing allows remote
networ k use or share commu nicatio n channel that is
users to commu nicate with no delay by seeing and
shared or used by all the machines on the network.
hearin g each other.
Short messages called packets sent by any machin e are
Video- con f erenci.ng ,·s being used for remote school,
. received by all the others(Fig. 1.10.l(a)).
getting me d',ca 1 opinio n from distant specialists etc.
· p s in which one person posts a Broadcast systems generally use a special code in th e
World wide newgr ou
address fie ld for addressing a packet to all th e
messa ge an d a II other subscr ibers to the newsgr oup can
co ncerne d compu ters.
read it or give their feedba cks.

Inte ra ctive entert ainme nt : This mode of operati on is call ed broadc asting.
3.
· ment include s : Some broadc ast systems also suppor t transmission to
Int eractiv e enterta in
o nly a grou p of few machin~s known as multicasting.
l . M u lti person rea I- f 1me simula tion games.
Jenil Thakkar Tl# Ted11Cno11ldrs
~ Poblfca tlO
" CN (Sem. VI/ ECE / GTU) 1-13 Introduction to Data Communication & Networking
..,.a When a packet is received, a machine checks the geographical area~ (such as WAN) use point·to•point
address field. tran!> mission.
If the packet is addressed to it then the packet is
1.11 Notwork Scalo :
proce ssed , otherwise the packet is ignored.
Broadcasting is used primarily in the local area This is iln ullernative criterion fo r clc1:;si f1ration of

a
networks. networks.

Table 1.11.1 gives the networ~ cla:;s1f1rr1•1on based on

their physical size. All these syst£>ms are multiprocessor

-Datal f1•
· •)
systems.

\r-Paoket---l

~
Header
a Table 1.11.1 : Network classification according to scale
Interprocessor
distance
Processors are
located in
Exampl'=! of
network

•
0.1 m Same circuit Data flow
board machine
1m Same system Multicomputer
(G-2394) Fig. 1.10.l(a) : Broadcast network
10 m Same room LAN
2. Point-to-point networks :
100 m Same building LAN
In point to point · networks there exist . of many
1 km Same campus LAN
connections between individual pairs of machines.
10 km Same city MAN
To go from the source to the destination a packet on
100 km Same state WAN
this types of network may have to go through
1,000 km Same continent WAN
intermediate computers before. they reach the desired
10, 000km Same planet Internet
computer.
As a general rul e small networks which are localized in a Beyond the multicomputers are the tru e networks, in
geographical sense tend to use broadcasting (e.g. LAN) which the computers communicate by exchanging
whereas networks located in wide geographical areas messages over long cables.
use point to point transmission (e.g. WAN). Such networks are divided into following categories :
In point to point networks (Fig. 1.10.l(b)) packets can 1. Local area networks
take multiple roots to reach the same destination. 2. Metropolitan networks and
Hence routing algorithms play an important role in the 3. Wide area networks.
point to point networks.
Internetwork :

The connection of two or more networks is called as an

~ '3-"J tl)(j) internetwork.
Sender Receiver
The best example of internetwork is the Internet.

@ 1.12 Network Classification by their

~ ~
Geography:

University Questions.
GTU: May 12, May 16

Q. 1 List the classification of network in detall according

(G-2395) Fig. 1.10.l(b): A point to point network
to the area covered. Also explain each
Small, localized networks (e.g. LAN) tend to use the classiflcatlon of network In detail.
broadcasting, whereas networks located over wide (May 12, May 16, 7 Marks)

Jenil Thakkar ~•,;; Tech Knowledge

"Ir' P ubl l c atlu n s
 • CN(S Introduction to Data Communication & Networi\j
em . VI / ECE / GTU) 1•14
Computer~
Computer netw01 k
can be classified based on the
:heographical area they cover, i.e. the a1 ea over which
e network is spread.
Cablo
Such a classification is shown in Fig. 1.12.1.
i;;:;..--rl"""-=r= :=:.....-ir-..... (Bus)
In this section . •
• we w1 11 discuss the following categories
of networks : Computers

.
PAN
....
LAN
r Networks l
.--
MAN
.. • (a) Bus topology (b) Ring topology
(G-32)fig. 1.12.2 : LAN topologies
(Personal WAN CAN
(Local (Metropolitan
Area (Wide (Campus
Area Area Depending on the needs of an organisation and the
Network) . Network) Area Area
Neh'Vork) Network) Network) type of technology used, a I.AN can be as simple as a
(G-l4 00)Fig. l.12.1 : Network categories few computers and a printer at home or it can contain
many computers in a company and include voice, sound
1.12.1 Local Area Networks (LAN) : and video peripherals.

GTL): May 12, May 14, May 16 LANs are widely used to allow resources to be shared
University Questions between personal computers or workstations. The
Q.1 List the classification of network in detail according resources to be shared can be hardware like a printer or
to the area covered. Also explain each softwares or data.
classification of network in detail.
In a LAN one of the computer can become a server
(May 12, May 16, 7 Marks)
serving all the remaining computers called clients.
Q. 2 Exp1ain the terms: LAN, MAN, WAN, Internet.
Software can be stored on the server and it can be used
(May 14, 4 Marks)
by the remaining clients.
Definition :
LAN 's are also distinguished from MAN's and WAN's
The Local Area Network (I.AN) is a network which is based on the transmission media they use and
designed to operate over a small physical area such as topology.
an office, factory or a group of buildings. In general a given LAN will use only one type of
LANs are very widely used in a variety of applications. transmission medium.
LANs are easy to design and troubleshoot. The most common networking topologies used are bus,
The personal computers and workstations in the offices ring and star.
are interconnected via I.AN. The data rates for LAN can now range from 10 Mbps to
The exchange of information and sharing of resources 16 Gbps.
becomes easy because of I.AN. Important characteristics / Features of LAN :

In LAN all the machines are connected to a single cable. 1. Very high degree of interconnection between th e
computers.
Different types of topologies such as Bus, Ring, Star,
2· High rate of data transmission.
Tree etc. are used for LANs.
LAN uses a layered architecture and they are capable of 3. Physical connection of computers in a LAN is easy.

operating at hundreds of Mbits/sec. 4. Every computer in the LAN can communicate with
every other computer.
A Local Area Network (I.AN) is usually a privately owned
and links the devices in a single office, building or S. The ' medium used for data transmission is
inexpensive.
campus of upto a few kilometres as shown in Fig. 1.12.2.

Jenil Thakkar
" CN (Sem. VI / ECE I GTU)
LAN topologies :
Network topology is defined as the pattern in which the
network elements are connected to each other.
Different network topologies are : Bus, Ring, Star etc.
various topologies are possible for the broadcast LANs
such as Bus topology or Ring topology.
1.12.2 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):
Mi'NMMrlMN!•Mtltii
University Questions
Q. 1 List the classification of network in detail according
to the area covered. Also explain
classification of network in detail.
(May 12, May 16, 7 Marks)
Q. 2 Explain the terms : LAN, MAN, WAN, Internet.
(May 14, 4 Marks)
Definition :
ically a bigger version of a LAN and
A MAN is bas_
normally uses similar technology.
It is designed to extend over a larger area such as an
entire city.
The MAN can be in the form of a single network such as
a cable network or it can be a combination of multiple
LANs as shown in Fig. 1.12.3.
Public city network
(G·33)Fig. 1.12.3 : Metropolitan area network
A MAN may be w~olly owned and operated by a private
company or it may be a service provided by a public
company, such as a local telephone company (telco).
Jenil Thakkar
1-15 Introduction to Data Communication & Networking
1.12.3 Wide Area Network (WAN) :
GTU : Ma 12 Ma 14 Ma 16
Unlvorslt Questions
Q. 1 List the classlficatlon of network In detail according
to the area covered Also eYplain each
classification of network In detail
(May 12, May 16, 7 Marks)
Q. 2 Explain the terms . LAN, MAN, WAN , Internet
May 14, 4 Marks)
When a network spans a large distance or when the
computers to be connected to each other are at widely
separated locations a local area network cannot be
used.
each
For such situations a Wide Area Network (WAN) must
be installed.
The communication between different users of "WAN" is
established using leased telephone lines or satellite links
and similar channels.
It is cheaper and more efficient to use the phone
network for the links.
Definition :
A WAN is a telecommunications network or computer
network that extends over a large geographical distance
/ place.
Wide area networks are generally established with
leased telecommunication circuits.
Most wide area networks are used for transferring large
blocks of data between its users.
As the data is from existing records or files, the exact.
time taken for this data transfer is not a critical
parameter.
An example of WAN is an airline reservation system.
Terminals are located all over the country through
which the reservations can be made.
It is important to note here that all the terminals use the
same centralized common data provided by the central
reservation computer.
Because of the large distances involved in the wide area
networks, the propagation delays and variable signal
travel times are major problems.
Therefore most wide area networks are not used for
time critical applications.
As explained earlier they are more suitable for transfer
·
of data from one user to the other which is not a time
critical application.
--;--; TechKnowledge
"V" PuUllcatlons
 CN (Sen,. VI / ECE / GTU)
Introducti on to Data Commun ication & Network,
Wide area 1-16
networks b
networks . are asically packet switching Commun ication facility is provided .
2.
A WAN provides 1 3, Centralized informati on is created and used
voice • ong di stance transmiss ion of data,
image and v·d . WAN spans over a large distance.
geograp h· 1
ea informati on over large 4.
1
tea areas that
continen t or may comprise a country, a 1 .12.4 lnterne tworks :
. even the whole world
F19. 1.12.4. as shown in Definition :

Whe n two or more networks are connected t 0

9eti
they are called as internetw ork or internet as sho\'/r

Fig. 1.12.5.

(G-lS)Fig . 1 · 12-4 : Wide area network

Charact eristics / features of WAN :
Followin g are some f th . . .
o e importan t characteristics of
WAN:
(G-39)Fig. 1.12.5 : Internetw ork
l. Remote data entry and access is possible.

1.12.5 Compa rison of LAN, WAN and MAN:

Sr.
No. Paramet er LAN WAN MAN
1. Ownersh ip of network Private Private or public Private or public
2. Geograp hical Area Small Very large (states or Moderate (city)
covered countries)
3. Design and Easy Not easy Not easy
maintena nce

4. Commun ication Coaxial cable PSTN or satellite links Coaxial cables, PSTN, optical fiber
medium cables, wireless.
': ..
5. Data rates (speed) High Low Moderate
• :t!'
Each station can transmit and
6. Mode of
commun ication receive
Each station cannot
transmit
Each station can transmit or receive

.%
~·
7. Principle Operates on the principle of Switching Both
broadcas ting

8. Propaga tion delay Short Long Moderate

9. Bandwid th Low High Moderate

1.13 Netwo rk Classi ficatio n by their The relationsh ip between each PC or device on 1111
Comp onent Role : network with the others in terms of control will bl
dependen t on the choice of network type.
orks are classified into two types :
The loca I area n etw . · ed frl
For these two types, the special software 1s requir
tw O rks 2 Client server networks.
1_ Peer to peer ne · • controllin g the flow of informatio n between t h ~

Jenil Thakkar •'""

-J'J/f Tecllllll•, ,,,,
V pub11c1
 I.
• CN (Sen, VT / oc" / GTU) Data Communication & Ne~- I'
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Definition of client : 11 1
"- utcrs typically are more Pow~
A I' · Server comp . . f . lhi
c •ent Is a con1pute1 running a program that requests l rs or are opt1m1sed to unction as •
client compu e 5e~'er:
services from a server.
No user can access the resources of the servers lJ %1
The individual workstations in a network are clients. has been au thenticated (permitted) by the servf'r 0 ~''
Definition of server :
so.
Operating system :
1
j
A server is simply a computer that makes the network
resources available and provides service to other We can use any common operating system 5,J,,h ~ j
computers when they request for it. Windows 7 for a client. J
Local Area Networking (LAN) is based on the client- But t he server ·,s loaded with a special operating 51•' -1es ,

such as M.1crosoft Windows Server 2008.

server network relationship. You can construct a client l
server network by using one or more powerful 1_15 _1 Communicatior in Client-Server
Configuration :
networked computers as a servers and the rest of as
clients. Fig. l.lS.2 explains the principle of communicatio~
1
the client server configuration. '
Client-server network typically uses a directory service
Response~
to store information about the network and its users.

A client-server network is one in which all available

~--------------- ~
L::J. Request
.
network resources such as files, directories, applications '
(G-4 2)Fig. l.lS.2 : Client/server communication
and shared devices, are centrally managed, stored and
then are accessed by client. The client places a request on the server machine whe- ,
ne wants an access to the centralised resources.
Network configuration :
The server responds to this request and sends the signa .
Fig. 1.15.1 shows client-server network configuration.
accordingly to the client as shown in Fig. 1.15.2.

I
The software run at the client computer is called!
client program.

g~
This software configures that particular computer to ac
as a client.

Similarly the software run on the server computer ! '

ll,, cPc,,t•I · · · -r~k,

called as server program. It configures that particuli'

F~~1 computer to act as a server.

Client en
1.16 Factors Influencing the Choice of
(G-41) F.19. 115
· ·1 ·. Client server network relationship Network:
In the client server networks the servers provide security
and administration of the entire network. The factors which influence the choice between the peer
-
to peer or client server networks are as follows :
.
In client-server networks the processing tasks are
1. Need of network security.
divided between clients and servers.
2. Is the network administration needed ?
.
Clients . s such as file storage and printing
request service
and servers deliver them. 3. Is the central storage of files essential ?
Server: 4.
How much important is cost effectiveness ?
The central computer wh,c . mo re powerful than the
. h ,s . 5. Is resource sharing necessary ? J
clients and which allows t he cr,e nts to access its 6.
Will there be any future expansions of tht
softwares and database is called as the server. network?

Jenil Thakkar
. . CN (Sem. VI/ ECE / GTU) 1-19 Introduction to Data Communication & Networking

1.17 Connection Oriented and Definition of layer :

Connectionless Services : In a software, a layer is the term used to describe
different levels of hierarchy.
Any layer can offer two types of services to t he layer .
above it. The OSI model defines a networking framework to
implement protocols at different levels called as the OSI
1. Connection orient ed service
layers.
2. Connectionless service.
The concept of layers is used in our daily life. Take an
1. Connection oriented service :
example of two friends with one friend wants to send a
The connection oriented service is similar to the one
gift to the other via courier service.
provided in th e t elephone system.
Fig. 1.18.1 shows the steps involved in this process.
The service users of the connection oriented service Sender Receiver
undergo the following sequence of operation :

1. Establish a connection.
Higher layers

2. Use the connection.

3. Release the connection.

Middle layers
The connection acts like a tube. The sender pushes bits
from one end of the tube and the receiver takes them
out from the other end.
Lower layers

The order is generally preserved. That means the order

in which the bits are sent is same as the order in which
Box carried from source
they are received. to destination

(G-1546) Fig. 1.18.1 : Layered tasks

Sometimes after establishing a connection, the sender
In Fig. 1.18.1, we have three important persons involved
and receiver can discuss and negotiate about
namely the sender, the receiver and the carrier who
parameters to be used such as maximum message size,
carries the gift box, from one city t o the other.
quality of service and some other issues.
Hierarchy of tasks :
2. Connectionless service :
The point t o be noted is that in order t o complete a task
The connectionless service is similar to the postal
in day t o day life small actions are being done in a
service.
hierarchical way or layered manner.
Each message (analogus to a letter) carries the full 1. At the sender :
address of the destination. Each message is routed
Upper layers :
independently from source to destination through the
The tasks of higher layers :
system.
1. ' Get t he gift item 2. Pack it in a box
It is possible that the order in which the messages are
3. Write the destination address on the box.
sent and the order in which they are received may be
Middle layer : Carry the addressed bo'X to the offi ce of
different
a courier comp~ny.
1.18 Layered Tasks: id■IIMNf:i Lower layer: Give the box to a person who will take it
to the destination city.

2. At the receiver :
layer. AISC) expfiln OSI rnodel.
'(May 18, 7 Marks) Tasks of lower layers : The box is delivered to the
courier company office in the destination city.

Jenil Thakkar · ~'8

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• b ox 1s
. car · d b h Id b e establ's I h d
e , maint '·- .
the d . ne y another pc, son to com municat1on llnk s ou a1ried
estinat1on address and the box is delivered. and relea sed .
Upper layers : Vio lation of the protocol w ·ill Iea d to t he communicat,o~
1. Receive the box U k. 2 difficu lties or fai lure.
· npac 1t 3. See the gift
Hierarchy and layered tasks : Peer:
Th is discussion d A three layer network is shown in Fig. 1.19.1. The entitie,
emonS t rates that the imp orta nt tasks
are carri ed o ut b th h. comprising the q:,rresponding layers on different
Y e igher layers whereas the simpler
t asks are carri ed o ut by the midd le and lower layers. machines are ca lled as peers.
In t he network prot I The comm unication actua lly takes place between the
. o co s as w ell t he layered archit ecture
1s used. peers usi ng t he prot ocol.

1 -19 The dotted lines in Fig. 1.19.1 shows the virtual

Network Software
communication and physical co mmunication is shown
The software used in networks .1s equa II y important as by solid lines.
the hardware.
1.19.2 Reasons for having Layered
The network software is highly structured now a days. Protocols and its Benefits :
1.19.1 Protocol Hierarchies
(Layered Architecture) : University Questions
Q. 1 What are two reasons for using layered protocols?
Most networks are organ ized in the form of a series of
What is one possible disadvantages of using
layers or levels as shown in Fig . 1.19.1. layered protocols ? (Dec. 18, 3 Marks)
Host 1 Lay er 3 Host 2

Layer 3 r·--P.~!?~.<?~~~-- ► 1 Layer 31 The process of establishing a link between two devices
to commun icate and share information is complicated.
Layer2/3
interface ! Layer 2 !' ........ Virtual
communication
Layer 2 r·.~:~~~~~-- ► 1 Layer 2 I Actual
There are many functions w hich are t o be t aken into
consideration to allow an effective commun ication to
Layer 1/2
interface ! Layer 1 t communication
take place.
Layer 1 f-···P.~~~-'?~~~--• I Layer 1 I To organize all these functions in an organ ized way the

! ! designers felt the need to develop network architecture.

In the network architecture various tasks and functions
Physical medium
are grouped into related and manageable sets called
(G-49) Fig. 1.19.1 : Layers, protocols and interfaces LAYERS.
To reduces the design complexity. A network architecture can be defined as a set of
The number of layers, the name of each layer, the protocols that tell how every layer is to function.
contents of each layer and the function of each layer The reasons and advantages of using the network
differ from network to network. architecture are as follows :
The purpose of each layer is to offer certain services to 1. It simplifies the design process as the functions of
the higher layers. each layers and their interactions are well defined.
Layer n on one machine (source) will communicate with 2. The layered architecture provides flexibility to
layer n on another machine (destination). modify and develop network services.

The rules and conventions used in this communication 3. The number of layers, names of the layers, and the
tasks assigned to them may change from network
are collectively known as the layer "n" protocol.
to network. But for all the networks, always the
Basically a protocol is an agreement between the two
lower layer offers some services to its upper layer.
Jenil Thakkar
· · mach·rnes about how th e
communicating
~•• TechKno111ledP
.,-,,, Pulll l t atfons
" CN (Sem. VI/ ECE / GTU) 1-21 Introduction to Data Communication & Networking

4. The concept of layered architecture ls a new way of Interface:

looking at the networks.
An Into, face doflnes the operations and services offered
5. Addition of new services and management of by lower layor to tho uppN loyer
network infrastructure becomes easy.
There Is on interface botween ec1ch pair of adjacent
6. Due to segmentation (layered structure), it Is
layers.
possible to break difficult problems into smaller
and more manageable tasks. 1.20 Network Architecture :
7. Logical segmentation allows parallel working by
Definition :
different teams on different tasks simultaneously.

1.19.3 Disadvantages of Layered A set of layers and protocols is called as network

Architecture : @ui■i44l:J architecture.

university Questions Protocol stack is defined as a list of protocols used for a

Q. 1 What are two reasons for using layered protocols ? certain system, one protocol per layer.
What is one possible disadvantages of using
layered protocols? (Dec. 18, 3 Marks) 1.20.1 Virtual Communication between
1. The problem associated with the layered protocols
Layers:
is that we loose touch with the reality.
Let us now go into technical details of the
2. Layering is a kind of hiding information.
communication between say layer 5 of two machines.
3. Layered architecture can sometimes result in poor
Refer Fig. 1.20.i' and go through the steps given below
performance.
to understand the communication.
1.19.4 How does Data Transfer take Place?
SteJr1f;f;?: A messages M is produced by layer 5 of
~
Data does not get transferred directly from layer n of machine 1 and given · to layer 4 for
one machine to layer n of the other machine.
transmission.
Instead the data transfer takes place as explained below. Step 2 : Layer 4 ·adds a header H4 rn front of the
The data and control information is passed on to the
message so as to identify the message and
lower layers until the lowest layer (layer 1) is reached.
passes the (header + message) to layer 3.
Below layer 1 lies the physical medium such as coaxial
A header includes the control fnformation and it
cable, through which the actual transfer of data and
control information takes place.
allow a layer 4 in . machine 2 to deliver the
messages in right order,
- This is shown in Fig. 1.19.2.
Machlne1 Machlne2 Step 3 : Layer 3 breaks up the incoming messages into

Layer 3 Layer3 small units, packets and appends a !,ayer 3

adder to each packet M1 and M2 as shown In
Fig. 1.20.1 and passes these packets to
Layer 2 Layer2
layer 2.

Step 4 : Layer 2 1:1dds header as well as trailer to each

l.ayar, Layer 1 packet obtained from layer 3 and hands over
the resultant unit to layer 1 for 'physical
Physical medium
transmission

This sequence of operation taking place at machine 1. is

Data and control information shown in Fig. 1.20.1.
{G-50) Fig. 1.19.2 : Data transfer
. "'i#
Jenil Thakkar Y
TechKnowledgi
PuUllcatlons
 • CN (Sem. VI/ ECE / GTU)
1-22 ° Data communication & Network1rig
Introduc tion t

Layer 5
Message
M
The example of so
ttware entity is a process and that of
.
·ty is an intellige nt I/0 chip.
hardwar e en t 1
a '
Layer4 layer but on differen t machines a
Entities in the same re
H4 = Layer 4 header called as peer entities .
r---L-.--,
Layers . Provid er and Servic e User ·
1.21.2 Servic e ·
•• r n implem ent services for the laye
The ent1t1es at 1aye th r
H3 = Layer 3 header
(n + 1) which is above the n layer.
. h provides service is called as service
So layer n w h IC •
Layer 1 (Physica l H 2 = Layer 2 header . d r (n + 1) which takes this service ,s
provider an Iaye
transmiss ion) T 2 = Layer 2 trailer
called as service user.
Machine - 1
Message + Header + Trailer
(Source machine) 1.21.3 Servic e Acces s Points (SAPs ) :
(G-51) Fig. 1.20.l : Informa tion flow for virtual . to underst and the definitio n of SAPs.
Refer F19. 1 .211
•
commu nication betwee n layers S
The long form of SAP is service access point They are
The control informa tion placed in headers is used at the
available at the interface of n and n + 1 layer as shown
destina tion machin e (machin e 2) to convey the message
in Fig. 1;::.2:,::1~.1:.:.·_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
to layer 5 as shown in Fig. 1.20.2. 1
IOU
M Layers
~1
Layer ICI sou
(n + 1)

H = Header s H4 Layer4
SAP SAP SAP
T= Trailers Interface ....

H3 H4 M1 H3 M2 Layer3
Layern

sou
M2 T2 Layer 2
Header n - POU
(G-56) Fig. 1.21.1 : Relation between layers at an interfac e
Layer1
Machlne -2 Services are available at SAPs. That means the layer n
(Destina tion
machine )
=~========:=J · Physical medium SAPs are those places at the interfac e where layer
(n + 1) can access the services being offered.
(G-S2) Fig. 1.20.2
Each SAP has a unique address for its identification.
1.21 Interf aces and Servi ces :
1.21.4 Interfa ce Data Unit (IDU) :
The basic function of each layer in the layered structur e
For successful exchang e of informa tion between two
is to provide service to the layer above it.
layers, a set of rules about the interfac e should be
Now we will discuss exactly what service does it provide. present.
But before that, let us define some ·mporta
,
nt terms.
As shown in Fig. 1.21.2, the layer (n + 1) entity passes an

1.21.1 Entitie s and Peer Entitie s : IDU (interfac e data unit) to the layer n entity through
the SAP.
.
An entity is defined as the active I ment in each layer.
ee
An IOU consists of two parts namely SOU (service data
An entity can be either a softwar e entity or a hardwar e
unit) and IO (interfac e control informa tion).

- -~e :nt: ity~ ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- -,(w'CI
Jenil Thakkar
re;i ;;~-
. . TedtKne..141'
V PubllL,. t 10 " '
 CN (Sem. VI/ ECE / GTU) 1-23 Introduction to Data Communication & Networking

IOU= ICI sou 13ut It does not say anything about how these
operations would be implemented.

Service data unit 1.22.2 Protocol:

Interface control infonnatlon A p, otocol Is u set of rules. The format crnd rneanmg of
(G-57) Fig. 1.21.2 : IDU
frames, packets or messtiges thc1t arn being sent and
1.21.s Service Data Unit (SOU) : received by the communicating peer entities is
governed by the protocols.
SDU is a part of IDU. The SDU i~ the information passed
across the network to the peer entity and then upto The entities use protocols so as to implement their

layer (n + 1). services. Once their predecided services are ensured,

they are free to change the protocol.
IO contains the control information which is necessary
to help the lower layer (n) to do the necessary job. 1.23 Reference Models :
1.21.6 Protocol Data Unit (POU):
After discussing about the layered networks, now we
In order to transfer the SDU, the layer n entity has to will discuss two work architectures or reference models.
divide it into many smaller pieces.
The two most important reference models are :
Each piece is given a header and sent as a se'parate PDU 1. The OSI reference model and
(Protocol Data Unit) such as a packet.
2. The TCP/IP reference model.
The PDU headers are used by the peer entities to carry
The International Standards Organisation (ISO) covers
out their peer protocol.
all aspects of network communication in the Open
Some PDUs contain data while other PDUs contain the Systems Interconnection (OSn model.
control information. An OSI model is a layered framework for the design of
The PDU headers will identify or differentiate between network systems that allows for communication across
different types of PDUs. all types of computer systems.

They also provide sequence numbers and counts. The purpose of each layer is to offer certain services to
Host -1 Host - 2
the higher layers.
Layer n ....... ,_,, ... , ... _..............-...._........... Layer n Layer n on one machine (source) will communicate with
entity entity
1 sou 1 layer n on another machine (destination).
'--.,---'
n-PDU
The rules and conventions used in this communication
are collectively known as the layer n protocol.
(G-SB)Fig. 1.21.3 : Layer n entities exchange n-PDUs in their
layer n protocol Basically a protocol is an agreement between the two
communicating machines about how the
1.22 Relationship of Services to communication link should be established, maintained
Protocols: and released.

Services and protocols are two completely different S I

1.24 0 I Mode :
concepts and should not be mixed up. --------------------
GTU: May 12, Dec. 13,- May 1s; Dec. 15, Dec. 16, May 18,
1.22.1 Service : MPl-144?•
University Questions
It is defined as a set of operations that a layer can
Q.1 Draw and explain the OSI reference model for
provide to the layer above it
network. Also gives its application and critiques.
- A service defines or states the operations a layer is (May 12, Oec. 16, 7 Marks)
I --..:...re;;.:a:.::dL..::.to~e::rf~o:..:..:rm..'...!.:.....- - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - , ~ - - - -
Jenil Thakkar TechKnowledge -=-~
V l'ubll ca tlon~
 ctlon to Data Communication & Ne1..
• CN (Sem VI / ECE / GTU) Introd u
1-24 ''l'IOrr
Q.2 est layer is physical layer and highest
Draw the TCP- IP and OSI reference mode I~
The '
l. ~
Desc ribe the two ways In which they are the same called as the application layer.
and descr ibe the two ways they are different ter on a netwo rk uses a series of pr
with
each other Each comp U .
(Dec. 13, 7 Marks) ot~
Q.3 the functions assigned to each layer
Expla in OSI refere nce model in detail. to pe rform ·
(May 15, May 19, Dec. 19, 7 Marks) These layers collectively form the protocol
stack c,
Q.4
Expla in the OSI reference model wlth the diagra networking stack.
m.
Also enlis t its critique !11 various applications.
At the top of the stack we have the application
al\d
(Dec. 15, 7 Marks) the botto m is the physical medi um which
Q.5 Defin e proto col and layer. Also explain OSI mode actua
l. connects the computers to form a netwo rk.
(May 18, 7 Marks)
The users of a comp uter netwo rk are locate Who developed the OSI model ?
d over a
wide physical range i.e. all over the world. The OSI model was developed in two differe
nt ar.:
There fore to ensure that natio nwide and world completely independent projects by the Interna
wide data tiona
comm unica tion systems can be developed Or~anization for Standardization(ISO) and the
and are
comp atible to each other, an internationa Consultative Committee for Intern ation al Teleph
l group of one an:
stand ards has been devel oped . Telegraphy (COTT} which is now known as ITU-T
.
These sta11dards will fit into a framework which Both these organizations developed their own
has been seve·
deve loped by the "International organ layer models.
ization of
stand ardiz ation (ISO)". Then in 1983 the two projects were combined togethe
r
This frame work is called as "Mod el for open OSI protocol suite :
system
interc onne ction (OS0 " and it is normally referr
ed to as The OSI model was originally developed as a model
for
"OSI refere nce mode l".
creating a 7 layer proto col suite.
1.24 .1 Lay ered Arch itec ture : But this seven layer proto col suite never came
into
Fig. 1.24. 1 show s the seven layer architecture existence.
of ISO-OSI
refer ence mode l. In fact none of the proto col suites existing today
exact~
User match the seven layer structure of the OSI mode
l.
But still the OSI reference mode l is so simple
yet
Laye r? Applic ation layer powerful that it is being used as a teaching,
reference
Prese ntatio n layer and communications tool.
Laye r6
The reason why real proto col stacks differ from
Laye r5 Sessi on layer the OSI
model is that many proto cols used today
Laye r 4 Trans port layer were
developed before the OSI model was developed
.
Laye r 3 Netw ork layer
The TCP/IP protocols which are used extens
ively in
Laye r 2 Data link layer practice have their own layered model. The
TCPJlP
Physi cal layer reference model is discussed later on.

1.24.2 A More Detailed OSI Model :

layer ISO-OSI reference model
(G-59) Fig. 1.24. 1 : A seven
Fig. 1.24.2 shows a more detailed OSI model th
or layers in a complete wi twO
It defin es seven leve Is hosts A and B communicating with each other.
comm unica tion system.

Jenil Thakkar
• CN (Sem. VI / ECE / GTU) 1-25 Introduction to Data Communication & Networking
Name of
unit
exchanyed I towever between two machines A and B of Fig. 1.24.2

Applloabon prol<>Col
P!~l3 ! layer x on mdchlne A will communicate with layer x on
•• . • ......... ....... ...... .. ♦ ApphC11llt>11 Ai'DU mJchim• U.
Peer to peer protoool

This communication Is bt1sod on some mutually agreed

Pri1S81llabon protocol rules called protocols.
Peer to peer protocol
The processes on edch machine which communicate at
a given layer are called as peer-to-peer proces$9s.
Session protocol

Peer to peer protocol 1.24.3 Peer to Peer Processes :

All the applications need not use all the seven layers
n-ansport protocol
• ••••• .. •••• • ••••• • •• •• •• • •• u ••••• • •••••••• • •• • •••••
shown in Fig. 1.24.1.
Peer to peer protocol

Network layer host router protocol The lower three layers are enough for most of the

l~
'--"""1'"'.....i .... ·· Nemw+·•-·-~ Nemo~ r -· . . ______. . applications.

Each layer is built from electronic circuits and/or

software and has a separate existence from the
Data link ........., Data link remaining layers.

Each layer is supposed to handle message or data from

1 Physical

Host A
· 1 Physical 14•-~--···
______.......,.;;,i
Rou18t
Phys' - - - - Bit
the layers which are immediately above or below it.

This is don~ by following the protocol rules. Thus each

layer takes data from the adjacent layer, handles· it
Data link layer host router protocol
Physical layer host router protocol according to these rules and then passes the processed
(G-60} Fig. 1.24.2 : The OSI reference model data to the .next layer on the other side.

Interface: Interlayer Communication :

An interface defines the operations and services offered In order to get an idea of interlayer communication, let

by lower layer to the upper layer. us take a simple example first.

There is an interface between each pair of adjacent We want the data to get transferred from layer-3 of
machine-A to layer 3 of machine-B.
layers as shown in Fig. 1.24.2.
But the data does not get transferred directly from layer
Peer:
3 of one machine to layer 3 of the other machine.
The active elements present in each layer are known as
The data and control information is passed on from the
entities. The entities can be hardware entities or
topmost layer to the lower layers until the lowest layer
software entities,
(layer 1) is reached. Below layer 1 lies the physical
The entities comprising the corresponding layers on medium such as coaxial cable, through which the actual
different machines are called as peers. communication takes place.

The communication actually takes place between the This is shown in Fig. 1.24.2. This is called as the actual

peers using the protocol. communication between the layers.

The dotted lines in Fig. 1.24.2 show the virtual 1.24.4 Organization of the Layers :
communication and physical communication is shown
The seven layers in the OSI model can be considered to
by solid lines.
belong to three subgroups as follows :
Within a single machine, each layer uses the services of
1. Subgroup 1 : Physical, data link and network-
the layer just below it.
network support layers. (layers 1, 2 and 3)

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"Y" Publications
~·---
- • CN (Sem VI / ECE / GTU)
Introduction to Data Commun ication & Networki
1-26
2. Subgrou p
appl 2 Name of the
. Session, Presenta tion and Function s
1cat1on-use1 su I Level layer
3.
pport ayers. (laye1 s S, b and /) L---L-...:: .!..:: .--+- ------ ----
---.
Subgrou p 3 . Trans Session To manage and synchroni ze
1 and 2. . port layer linking of subgroup s 5.
layer conve rsation between two
systems. It controls logging on
The first subgr . and off, user identification
cup consists of layers 1, 2 and 3 i.e the
physical, data link and network I billing and sessio~
ayers. managem ent.
They are importa nt for th
d .
e physical aspects of moving 6.
Presenta tion It works as a translating layer.
-
ata from on e compute r to the other. layer
The second subgrou p . Retransfe rring files of
-
ts m ade u p of t he upper t hree 7. Applicatio n
layer informati on , LOGIN, password
layers (5, 6 and 7)
i.e. session, present ati o n and checking etc.
applicat ion layers.

This is call ed as the user su pport layers.

1.24.5 Functi ons of Differe nt Layers :

They allo w th e intera ct io n between unrelated software MJ••N@i\i!Mrii@IZ•M•114ii•14◄ m

sy st e ms. ••ieM4Hi4 hiM•MeH 11

Q. 1 Compare OSI reference model and TCP/IP model

The third subgrou p consists of only the fourth layer i.e.
Describe the functions of data link layer, network
th e tra nspo rt layer. It links the subgroup s 1 and 2. layer and transport layer of OSt reference model.
Th e u ppe r lay ~rs are impleme nted using software only (May 13, 7 Marks)
Q. 2 Which of the OSI layers handles each of the
wh ereas t he lower layers are a combina tion of
following :
hard w are and software .
1. Determin e wh ich ro ute through the subnet to
Th e p hysical layer is impleme nted by only hardware . use.
Tabl e 1.24.1 shows various layers and its functions . 2. Dividing the transmitted bit stream into
frames.
Table 1.24.1 : Function s of the layers of ISO-OSI model
3. Encryption and compres sion of the
Name of the Function s information .
Level
layer 4. Flow control between source and destination
Physica l Make and break connecti ons, node. (May 14, 4 Marks)
1.
define voltages and data rates ,
layer Q. 3 Explain OSI rererence model in detail.
convert data bits into electrical
whether (May 15, Dec. 19, 7 Marks)
signal. Decide
transmis sion is simplex, half Layer 1 : The physical layer :
duplex or full dl.iplex.
Functions of the physical layer are as follows :
Synchro nization, error
2. Data link To activate, maintain and
To deactivate the physical
layer detection and correctio n.
assembl e outgoing message s connectio n.
into frames . To define voltages and data rates needed for
Routing of the signals , divide transmission.
3. Network
the outgoing message into
layer To convert the digital data bits into electrical signal.
packets, to act as network
controlle r for routing data. To decide whether the transmission is simplex, half

4. ·Transpo rt Decides whether transmis sion duplex or full duplex.

single
layer should be parallel · or A physical layer does not perform
path, multiplex ing, splitting or the following
segment ing the data, to break operation s :
data into smaller units for
It does not detect or correct errors.
I efficient handling .
--- --- --- --- --- --- --- ~- --- --: -:-
-=• TechKnow
::- Jenil Thakkar
ledl' ~~ Puo11 ca t1onS
1f CN (Sem. VI / EGE / GTU) 1-27
It does not decide the medium or modulation.
The examples of the physical layer protocols are RS-232
or RS-449 standards.
Layer 2 : Data link layer :
Functions of the data link layer are synchronization and
error control for the information which is to be
transmitted over the physical link.
To enable the error detection, it adds error detection
bits to the data which is to be transmitted.
The encoded data is then passed to the physical layer.
These error detection bits are used by the data link layer
on the other side to detect and correct the errors.
At this level the outgoing messages are assembled into
frames, and the system waits for the acknowledgements
to be received after every frame transmitted.
Correct operation of the data link layer ensures reliable
transmission of each message.
Examples of data link layer protocols are HDLC, SDLC
and X.25 protocols.
Layer 3 : The network layer :
The functions of network layer are as follows :
To route the signals through various channels to the
other end.
To act as the network controller by deciding which route
data should take.
To divide the outgoing messages into packets and to
assemble incoming packets into messages for the
higher levels.
In short the network layer acts as a network controller
for routing data.
Layer 4 : Transport layer :
As the name suggests this layer provides the transport
services.
The functions of the transport layer are as listed below :
It decides if the data transmission should take place on
parallel paths or single path.
It does the functions such as multiplexing, splitting or
segmenting on the data.
Transport layer guarantees transmission of data from
one end to the other.
Jenil Thakkar
Introduction to Data Communication & Networking
It breaks the data groups into smaller units so that they
are handled more efficiently by the network layer.
Layer 5 : The session layer :
This layer manages and synchronizes conversations
between two different applications.
This is the level at which the user will establish system to
system connection.
It controls logging on and off, user identification, billing
and session management.
In the transmission of data from one system to the
other, at session layer streams of data are marked and
resynchronized properly so that the ends of messages
are not cut prematurely and data loss is avoided.
Layer 6 : Th.e presentation layer :
The presentation layer makes it sure that the
information is delivered in such a form that the
receiving system will understand and use it.
The form and syntax (language) of the two
communicating systems can be diff~rent Example, one
system is using the ASCII code for file transfer and the
other one uses IBM's EBCDIC.
Under such conditions the presentation layer provides
the "translation" from ASCII to EBCDIC and vice versa.
Layer 7 : ·Application layer :
Application layer is at the top of all as shown in
Fig. 1.24.2.
It provides different services such as manipulation of
information in various ways, retransferring the files of
information, distributing the results etc. to the user who
is sitting above this layer.
The functions such as LOGIN, or password checking are
also performed by the application layer.
Let us now go into the details of each and every layer.
1.24.6 Exchange of Information using the
OSI Model:
At the physical layer, communication is direct i.e.
machine X sends a stream of bits to machine Y.
At higher layers, each layer in the sending machine adds
its own information to the message it receives from the
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1-28 Introduction to Data Communication &
Networ~·1
layer just below . passes the whole package to the Protocols Associated With OSI reference Model : n9

sending rt as shown in Fig · 1 ·24 ·3· Layer Name Protocol Supported

•
machine Receiving RS-232, RS-449, V.35 , V.34, ,_ 430
X machine Physical
Layer Layer v Layer T1 , E~, POTS, SONET/SDH , on-.i' l.431
802.11 alb/gin , 802.15.x, USB . Bl ' Dsl
7 7 Firewire (IEEE 1394) Uetootr
6 6 Data Link ARP, CSLIP, SLIP, PPP
-5 5 Layer
Network VLAN , IP (f Pv4, IPv6),
4 4
H4 Layer IGMP, IPX, AppleTalk
3 3
H3 Transport TCP, UDP, SCTP, DCCP
Layer
01010101010101010000010000
1 1 o101010101010101oooooloooo Session NetBIOS, SAP, SIP, L2TP, VPN
Layer

Actual data
transmissio
,-~-----
( ) ) ...,,,,,,,
~ Presentation MIME, XOR, TLS , SSL
Layer
Transmission m d' Aclual received
e 1um data
Application NNTP = Usenet, SIP = VOiP, SSI, DNS
(G-61} Fig. 1 . 24. 3 .. A n exchange using the OSI model
Layer FTP, Gopher, HTTP, NFS, NTP = TIME
The information add e d bY each layer is in the form of SMPP, SMTP = email, DHCP, SNMP
headers or trailers. Telnet '

Headers are added to the message at the layers 6, 5, 4, 1-24. 7 Merits of OSI Reference Model :
3, and 2. A trailer is added at layer _
2
1. It distinguishes very clearly between t he services,
At layer 1 the entire package is converted to a form that
interfaces and protocols.
can be transferred to the receiving machine.
2. The protocols in OSI model are better hidden. So
At the receiving machine, the message is unwrapped
they can be easily replaced by new protocols as the
layer by layer with each process receiving and removing
technology changes.
the data meant for it.
3. OSI n:iodel is truly a general model.
The upper OSI layers are always implemented in
4. This model supports connection oriented as well as
software (4, 5, 6 and 7) and lower layers are a connectionless services.
combination of hardware and software (2, 3) except for
the physical layer which is mostly hardware.
1.24.8 Demerits of OSI Model:

layers 1, 2 and 3 (i.e. physical , data link and network) GTU: May 12, Dec. 15, Dec. 16, Dec. 19
University Questions
are the network support layers.
Q. 1 Draw and explain the OS¾ reference mode1 for
They deal with the physical aspects of moving data from
network. Also gives Its application and critiques.
one device to another such as electrical specifications,
(May 12, Dec. 16, 7 Marks)
physical connections, physical addressing and transport
Q. 2 Explain the OSI reference model with the diagram.
timing and reliability. Also enlist its critique in various applications.
Layer 4, the transport layer ensures end to end reliable (Dec. 15, 7 Marki)

data transmission. Q. 3 Explain the limitations of OSI model.

Layers 5, 6 and 7 (i.e. session, presentation and (Dec. 19, 3 Marks)

application) they allow interoperability among unrelated 1. Sessions and presentation layers are not of much use.
software systems.
------------ ------------ ------------ ------------
~~ TechKn•••-'ti
Jenil Thakkar 'ir Publl c atlOOS
~ CN (Sem. VI/ ECE / GTU) 1-29 Introduction to Data Communication & Networking
2. This model was devised before the protocols were
5mce the development of the APPANET, TCP/IP
invented. So in real life there is a problem of fitting
together has eme, ged as the controlling body.
protocol into a model.
It is being used in computers of not only in the U.S. but
1.25 The TCP/IP Reference Model : all over the world for all thE> typf's and sizes of
computers.
GTU : May 12, Oe_c. 13
University Questions It has become the language of the Internet.
a. 1 Draw and explain the TCP/JP model used for the TCP/IP are two protocols: Transmission control protocol
networks. Also explain the critlques of TCP/IP and Internet protoco l.
model (May 121 7 Marks)
These two protocols describe the movement of data
a. 2 Draw the TCP-IP and OSl reference rQodeL
Describe the two ways· in which they are the same between the host computers on Internet.
and describe the two ways they are different with The protocol however is a suite of many other protocols
each other. (Dec. 13, 7 Marks) which provide for reliable communications across the
TCP/IP is the short form of two important protocols Internet and the web.
namely Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. In the TCP/IP protocol suite, there are various layers,
A protocol suite is defined as the set of protocols with each layer being responsible for different facets of
organized in different layers. communication.

The TCP/IP protocol suite is used in Internet today. The Internet Protocol (IP) and Transmission Control

TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol suite means that each Protocol (TCP) are together known as TCP/IP protocol.

upper layer protocol receives support and services from TCP/IP offers a simple naming and addressing scheme
either one or more lower level protocols. whereby different resources on Internet can be easily
located.
In the original TCP/IP protocol suite, there were four
layers built upon the hardware. Information on Internet is carried in "packets". The IP
protocol i_s used to put a message into a "packet".
But today's TCP/IP protocol suite uses a five layer model
as shown in Fig. 1.25.1. Each packet has the address of the sender and the
recipient's address. These addresses are known as the IP
Application layer Layers
addresses.

Transport layer- I Layer4 Using the TCP protocol, a single large message is
divided into a sequence of packets and each is put into
Network layer I Layer3 an IP packet.

Data link layer I Layer2

The packets are passed from one network to another
until they reach their destination.

Physical layer I Layer1 At t he destination the TCP software reassembles the

(G-2065) Fig. 1.25.1: Layers in TCP/IP protocol suite
1.25.1 Introduction to TCP/IP: kdui@Nfi
Univers ity Questions
exp am the TCP/IP model used for the
rks. Also explain the critiques of TCP/IP
. (May 12, 7 Marks)
The Internet protocol is like any other commu nication
protocol is a set of rul es which wi ll govern every
possible communication over the internet.
Jenil Thakkar
packets into a complete message.
It is not necessary for all the packets in a single message
to take the same route each time it is sent.
1.25.2 Overview of TCP/IP Architecture :
Transmission Control Protocol and the Internet Protocol
(TCP/IP) was developed by the Department of Defence's
Proj ects Research Agency (ARPA, later DARPA) under its
project on network interconnection.
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It is a set of prot ocol s that allow com
munic.ition across As shown in Fig. 1.25.2, the TCP/IP mod
mult iple diverse netw o, k. el has only f~
l.iye, s
ARPA origi nally created TCP/IP
to connect millt.iry Internet layer :
n~tw orks toge ther , but later on this
proto col was also This layer is called as the inter net layer
give n t 0 and it holds
gove rnm ent agencies and universitie
cost . s free of whole architecture toge t her. ~

The task of this layer is to allow

Since the TCP/IP was deve lope d the host to ins..
for military use, it
beca me robu st to &a·,1ures and packets into any netw ork and then
,, fl exi bl e to d',vers make thern tr
e • • a-i::
netw orks . independently to the destrnat, on.
The order in which the packets are
TCP/IP is the mos t wide ly received cant-
used proto col for
inter conn ectin g com pute rs and it is different from the sequence in whic h
the proto col of the they were sent
Inte rnet .
Then the high er layers are supposed
to arrange thell\
TCP/IP beca me the stan dard for the proper orde r.
inter oper ating Unix
Com pute rs, espe ciall y in milit Note that "inte rnet" is being used as
ary and university a generic terrn.
envi ronm ents .
The internet layer defines (specifies
) a packet fern-,
With the deve lopm ent of the
Hype rtext Transfer and a protocol called inter net prot ocol
Prot ocol (HTTP) for shar ing Hyp erte (IP).
xt Mark up Language
(HTM L) docu men ts free ly on the The internet layer is supposed to deliv
inter net, the World er IP packets~
Wid e Web (WW W) was born and soon their destinations.
TCP/IP came into
muc h use. So routing of packets and cong estio
n control a~
Fig. 1.25 .2 show s the TCP/IP reference impo rtant issues related to this layer.
mod el along with
the OSI mod el used for com paris on.
Hence TCP/IP inter net layer is very
OSI model similar to the
TCP / IP model
.............. network layer in OSI mod el as show
n in Fig. 1.25.2.
7 Application Application Tran spor t layer :
--·-- ---....
6 Presentation This is the layer above the inter net
These two layer. Its functiol\5
.................... layers are are same as those of a tran spor t laye
r in OSI layer.
5 Sess ion not present
in this model This layer allows the peer entit ies
............... of th~ source and
4 Transport Transport destination machines to converse with
each other.
··------···· The end to end proto cols used here
are TCP and UDP
3 Network Internet (User datagram · proto col).
······· ·····
2 Data link TCP is a reliable conn ectio n orien ted
protocol. It allows
................. Host - to - a byte stream trans mitte d from one
network machine to be
1 Physical delivered to the othe r mac hine with
out introducing anY
-······ ····· errors.
(G-71 )
• 1 25 2 . TCP /IP reference model
F19. · · ·
TCP also handles the flow cont rol.
1.2 5.3 Des crip tion of TCP /IP Model
UDP (User data gram proto col) is the
second protocol
GTU : May 12 used in the trans port layer.
Un1 vers 1ty Que stio ns
It is an unreliable, connectionless prot
ocol and used for
Q.1 Draw and explain the TCP /IP n_1 odel
.
used for the . .
of TCP/IP ons which do not wan t the ~~
',
the appl icati
networks. Also explain the critiques
M k ) sequencing or flow cont rol.
model. (May 1.2, 7 ar s

Jenil Thakkar
-.J~
V CN (Sem. VI / ECE / GTU) 1-31 Introduction to Data Communication & Networking

UDP is also preferred over TCP in those applications in Q. 4 Compare TCP/I P and OSI reference models
which prompt delivery is more important than accurate
-~----------- ----(May
........
17, 7 Marks)
delivery. It is used in transmitting speech or video.
Similarities between OSI and TCP/IP Models :
Application layer :
Following are some of the similarities between OSI and
TCP/IP model does not have session or presentation TCP/JP models :
layers, because they are of little importance in most
1. In both the models the functions of layers is
applications.
approximately same.
The layer on t op of trans port layer is called as 2. Both models use the concept of la;ered
application layer. architecture.

The protocols related to t his layer are all high level 3. The transport layers and the layers below it provide
protocols such as virtual terminal (TELNED, file t ransfer transport services independent of networks.

(FTP) and electronic mail (SMTP) as shown in Fig. 1 25.3. 4. In both the models, the layers above transport
Application layer Telnet. FTP. SMIP. DNS. HTTP layer are application oriented.
NNTP
Transport Refer to Fig. 1.25.4 and Table 1.25.1 for the comparison
TCP UDP
Internet IP of the two reference models.
(network) OSI Model TCP/IP Model

Host-to-network Arpanet, satnet Ian, paket radio Application . Application

>
Presentation TCP/IP does not
(G-2706) Fig. 1.25.3 .... have these layers
Session from OSI model
Many other protocols have been added to t hese, over Transport Transport
the years such as Domain Name Service (DNS), NNTP · Network Internet
and HTTP etc. Data link Host of network

Host-to-network layer : Physical

This is the lowest layer in TCP/IP reference model. (G-73) Fig. 1.25.4: Relationship between OSI and

The host has t o connect to the network using some TCP/IP models

protocol, so that it can send the IP packets over it. Table 1.25.1: Difference between OSI and TCP/IP model

This prot ocol varies from host to host and network t o

,.
OSI TCP/IP
network. Has 7 layers Has 4 layers
Transport layer guarantees Transport layer does not
1.25.4 Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP
delivery of packets. guarantee delivery of
Models: packets.
GTU: May 13, Dec. 13, May 16, May 17 Horizontal approach. Vertical approach.

Questions
Separate session layer. No session layer,
J·....University
-
characteristics are
~- ~ Compare OSI reference model and TCP/IP _model.
provided by transport
l Describe the functions of data link layer, network layer.
layer and transport layer of OSI reference model. Separate presentation layer. No presentation layer,
(May 13, 7 Marks) characteristics are
Draw the TCP-IP and OSI reference model, provided by application
Describe the two ways in which they are the same layer.
and describe the two ways they are different with Network layer provides both Network layer provides
~ other. (Dec. 13, 7 Marks) connectionless and connection only connection less
oriented services. services.
:Explain how TCP/ IP and OSI reference model are
-different with each other. (May 16, 7 Marks)

Jenil Thakkar ~~ TechKnowledge

.,,,- Pu~ll c atlons
 • CN(Se m. VI I ECE / GTU) Introduction to Data Communic ation & Networking
1-32
OSI
5 Application layer ~
:~te
defines the services,
rfaces and protocols very
TCP/IP
It does not clearly
distinguish
3
4 Transport layer
Network laye1
between 2 Uatu ltnk layer
clearly
. . and makes a
clear. service, interfaces and Physical layM
distinction between them.
protocols.
(G -2704) Fig. 1,25,5 : Hybrid model
The protocols are better It is not easy to replace
hidden and can be easily . the protocols. ...:1~.2~6~~A.=d.=d.:..:re:.:s:.:s:.:.:in~g~:_ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
replaced as the technolog y
changes.
Addressing is another important concept related to the
OSI is truly a general model. TCP/IP cannot be used protocol layering in the Internet.
for a_n y other application .
There is a logical connection between the pair of layers
It has a problem of protocol The model does not fit
fitting into a model. any other protocol stack. as discussed earlier.

For any communic ation to, take place between a source

1.25.5 Demeri ts of TCP/IP Model : GTU: May 12
and a destination, two addresses namely source address
I
Universit y Question s and destination address are needed.
Q.1 Draw aod explain the TOP/IP model used for the Thus we will need four pairs of such addresses
networks. Also explain the critiques of TCP/IP
model. corresponding to the data link, network, transport and
(May 12, 7 Marks)

1. TCP/IP model does not clearly distinguish the application layers. -

concepts of service, interface and protocol. There is no need of addresses at the physical layer

2. This model is not at all general and it cannot because communic ation at the physical layer takes place

describe any protocol stack other than TCP/IP. in bits which cannot have an address.

3. The host-to-n etwork layer is not a layer at all in the Fig. 1.26.1 shows the addressing at each layer;
normal sense. It is simply an interface.
Packet name L~yers Address
4. The TCP/IP model does not even mention the Message I Names
physical and data link layers. A proper model
should include both as separate layers.
Segment/User datagram Transport I Port numbers

Datagram Network
II Logical addresses

1.25.6 Hybrid (Interne t) Reference Model : Frame Data link I Link layer addresses

In spite of many problems associated with the OSI

Bits I Physlqal ~
~
1
No address needed

(G-2069) Fig. 1.26.1 : Addressing in TCP/JP protocol suite

model, it has proved to be very useful one practically.

But the OSI protocols have not become popular. Fig. 1.26.1 also shows the relationsh ip between various
layers, the addresses used in each layer and the name of
On the other hand the TCP/IP model is practically non
the packet at each layer.
existing but the TCP/IP protocols are used widely.
When the computers wish to communic ate with one
So sometime s a modified OSI model with primary
another, they need to know the _address of each other.
concentra tion on TCP/IP is used which is called as the
Each computer has its own address.
hybrid model.
The addresses can be of different types such as physical
The hybrid model is shown in Fig. 1.25.5. It is also called
addresses or logical address.
as the Internet model.
---- ---- ---- ----Jenil
----Thakkar
---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- - ..... TtdaKnolllledl•
"Y" 05
11uail ta t1°
 1-33 Introduction to Data Communication & Networking
" CN (Sem. VI/ ECE / GTU)

In an internet employing the TCP/IP protocols, four Refer Fig. 1.26.2 which explains the concept of physical

puters. addressing.
I Of addresses are used by the com
!eves

1. Physical address
f!j 16 Tt_:_32 R52~ 38

2. Logical address (IP)

~ -J ►
- 54 15 Data l2
_t. ~
3. Port address and
Local Area Network (LAN)
Specific address Destination Source
4. address address

Address) : Fig. 1.26.2: Physical addresses

1_26 _1 MAC Address (Physical
(G-77)

GTU : May 13, Dec, ·14 The sender computer with a physical address of 15

wants to communicate with the receiver computer with

University Questions
a physical address 54.
Q. 1 Describe the ,ph~al addr
_The frame sent by the sender consists of the destination
port.addf-ess ofTGP74P PF&.
address, sender's address, encapsulated data and a
Q.2 trailer (T2) that contains the error control bit.
protocols.
When this frame travels ·over the bus topology, every
_ The packets from sou rce to destination hosts p~ss
computer receives it and tries to match it with its own
through physical networks.
physical address.
At the physical level the IP address is not useful but the
If the destination ~ddress in the frame header does not
hosts and routers are recognized by _their MAC
match with t he physical address it will simply drop the
addresses.
frame.
- A MAC address is a local address. It is unique locally but
At receiver computer (D), the destination address
it is not unique universally.
matches with its physical address (54). So the frame is
- The IP and MAC address are two different identifiers accepted and decapsulation is carried out to recover the
and both of them
. .
are needed, because a physical data.
network can have two different protocols at the network
The example of a 48 bit or 6 byte physical address is as
layer at the same time.
follows. It contains 12-hexadecimal digits.
Similarly a packet may pass through different physical 08:63:4C:81:08:1 D
networks.
1.26.2 Logical Addresses (IP Addresses) :
So to deliver a packet to a host or a router, we require
GTU: May 13, Dec. 14
two levels of addressing namely IP addressing and MAC
addressing.

Most importantly we should be able to map the IP

address into a corresponding MAC address.

- The size and format of the physical address varies

depending on the nature of network. Logic,11 addresses are required to facilitate universal
- The Ethernet (LAN) uses a 48-bit (6-byte) physical communications in which different types of physical
address which is imprinted on the network interfacing networks can be involved.
card (Nlq.

Jenil Thakkar Tio TechKnowledgi

Y Publl ca tl~ns
 ~•=-- d tion to oata communicat ion & N
'Y' CN (Sem. VJ/ ECE / GTU) 1_34 Intro uc etw,,
Th I . 1,26,4 specific Addresse s : •.
e ogical address is also called as the IP (Internet
Protocol) address. 1!.PJWela-:
%,a:M ;,@;ti
levels of addresses in 1
f xplain the four
The internet consists of mam physical networks Q, 1 (Dec.14, 7
rotocols
interconnect ed via devices like routers. . t ' ns have user friendly add
Some app I,ca ,o resses. lh.
Internet is a packed switched netwo1 k that means the of specific addresses are the e-mail add
examP Ies re,~
data form the source computer is sent in the form of
or the University Resource Locators (URL).
small packets carrying the destination address upon
them.
_ _ comparis on of Physical ad
1 26 5
A pack~t starts from the source ho.st, passes through
Logical address : lii'!.11'11:....
many physical networks and finally reaches the l!niCM ;+G•W4-!tt-iUI
Differentiate
destination host
Q. between physical address and loglC;f
1
address. (Dec, 19, 3 Ma
At the network level, the hosts and routers are
recognised by their IP addresses or logical addresses.
Sr. · Logical address
An IP address is an internetwork address. It is a No.
the Physical address is l'!
universally unique address. 1 . . Logical address is
address 6-byte address availab•
unique IP
Every protocol involved in in!ernetwork ing requires IP on the NIC (Networr
assigned to each system
addresses. connected in the Internet. Interface Card) of Ire
system.
The logical address used in internet is currently a 32-bit

address. on network Depends on data lin,

2. Depends
layer. layer.
The same IP address can never be used by more than

one computer on the Internet. Logical address is IP Physical address is fix~

3.
address which is not fixed for every system.
GTU: May 13, Dec. 14
1.26.3 Port Address : and it changes regularly.

4. Logical address is 32-bit Physical address is 48-1>1

University Questions
addr~ss. address.
Q. 1 Describe the physical address, logical address and
port address of TCP/IP protocol. (May 13, 2 Marks)
Review Questions
Q. 2 Explain the four levels of addresses in TCP/IP
protocols. (Dec. 14, 7 Marks) Q. 1 state various services provided by the network fol
The modern computers are designed to run multiple companies and people.
processes on it simultaneou sly. Q. 2 What is the difference between broadcast and poinl
The main objective of internet is the process to process to point networks ?

communicat ion. Q. 3 What is meant by internetwork ?

For this purpose it is necessary to lable or name the
Q. 4 Write a short note on MAN .
processes. Q. 5 Write a short note on WAN .
Thus the processes need addresses. The lable assigned
Q.6 Compare LAN, WAN and MAN .
to a process is called as a port address.
Q. 7 Define peer.
It is a 16 bit address.
Jenil Thakkar
1'_ CN (Sem. VI / ECE / GTU) 1-35 Introduction to Data Communication & Networking

How does the actual data transfer take pl ace Q . 30 Stat~ the advantages and disadvantages of star
a. a
between two machines. topology.

Write a note on : Vi rtual communication between Q . 31 Write a short note on Mesh topology.
a. 9
layers. Q. 32 State advantages and disadvantages of mesh
Differentiate between physical address and logical topology.
a. 10
address. Q . 33 Write a short note on tree topology.
Write a note on connection oriented and
Q. 11 a. 34 Compare Ring and Bus.
connectionless services.
a. 35 Compare Star and Ring .
Q.
12 What is relationship between services and
Q. 36 Explain the TCP / IP reference model.
protocols ?
Q . 37 Compare the OSI and TCP / IP reference models.
a. 13 Draw the OSI reference model and explain the

functions of different layers. 1.27 University Questions and Answers :

a. 14 Compare different types of network topologies. Q. 1 Explain the architecture of peer-to-peer networks.

a. 15 State the difference between broadcast and point to Explain how it can fall victim to criminal offence as in

point networks. case of Napster. (May 2015, 7 Marks)

Ans.:
a. 16 Compare peer to peer and client server networks.
Refer section 1.14 for peer-to-peer networks.
a. 17 State the reasons for having a 3 layered protocol
Peer to peer (P2P) system is sim'ple· to install and can
architecture.
distribute a very large amount of information.
Q. 18 State its advantages and disadvantages of layered
In P2P file sharing network ma ny computers come
protocol architecture. together and pool their resources.

Q. 19 Define : Interfaces and services. These computers can simply be the home computers.

Q. 20 Name the different network topology types. No dedicated infra-structure is req uired for a P2P

network.
Q. 21 Explain the basic concepts of bus topology with the

help of suitable diagram. But there is a drawback of P2P network. Because there is

no dedicated infrastructure.
Q. 22 State the important characteristics of bus topology.
Anybody in this network can copy or send any
Q. 23 Name the transmission media used for bus LANs.
information to the other computer in the P2P network
Q. 24 State advantages and disadvantages of bus
and this could include copyrighted contents as well. This
topology.
would be a crime.
Q. 25 Write a note on : Ring topology.
Napster was a music swapping service. It held a central
Q. 26 What are the problems faced by the ri ng topology? database of millions of copyrighted songs.
a. 27 State the advantages and disadvantages of ring Millions of Napster members used the P2P network to
topology. copy and circu late these copyrighted songs among
Q. 28 Write a short note on star topology. them. It was a crime.

Q. 29 What is the difference between single level star So court fi nally shut down Napster.

topology and two level star topology ? Thus a P2P network ca n fall vistim to a criminal offence.

,:r.,
Jenil Thakkar V
TtthKnowledgi
Publi c ation s
 •
• CN ~Sem. v1 I ECE I GTU) 1-36 Introduction to Data Communication & Networking
Q. 2 \Nhich Jayer I layers performs following functions ? Ans.:
1. Adding trailer bits 1. Adding trailer bits : . Data link layer
.
2. Error and flow control 2. Error and flow control : Data link layer
3. 'Encrypting files 3. Encrypting files : Presentation layer
4. P roviding IP address 4. Providing IP address : Network layer
{May 18, 4 Marks)

Jenil Thakkar
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