1.

Periods of historical development of English and their characteristics

1. The Old English Period (450-1066)

- The earliest Old English inscriptions were written around the 5th and 6th centuries in
the runic alphabet brought by the Anglo-Saxons.

- The literary age began after the Christianization of England in the 5th century, with
the first manuscripts being glossaries of Latin words translated into Old English.

- The most important literary work of this period is the Old English epic poem
"Beowulf", written around 1000 AD.

- Most Old English texts were written during the reign of King Alfred (849-899), who
had many Latin works translated into Old English.

- The Old English vocabulary corpus is relatively small, around 3.5 million words,
equivalent to about 30 medium-sized novels.

- The Old English alphabet was similar to the modern English alphabet but lacked
capital letters, had some different letter shapes, and used only Roman numerals.

- Spelling variation was common, with the same word often spelled differently on the
same page.

- A marked difference existed between the vocabulary of poetic and prose texts, with
poetic texts using more unfamiliar words.

- Some Old English words look familiar but have different meanings in Modern
English (e.g., "wif" meant "woman", not just "wife").

- Grammatical relations were expressed through inflectional endings, which were later
lost in Middle English.

- The Viking invasion of the 7th-9th centuries had a significant impact on the
development of the Old English vocabulary.

2. The Middle English Period (1066-1500)

- This period was characterized by a great impact of the French language after the
Norman Conquest, when French became the language of education, administration, and
religion.

- Early Middle English literature is scarce because most writing was in Latin or French.

- Spelling variation was even greater than in Old English (e.g., "naure", "noeure", "ner",
"neure" for "never").

- Massive borrowing from French occurred due to French-English bilingualism,

introducing around 10,000 French words by the end of the 13th century, many of which
are still used today.

- French borrowings covered areas like law, administration, art, medicine, and everyday
life, significantly enriching the English vocabulary.

- Other processes of word formation, like compounding and affixation, continued from
Old English.

- Prominent writers of this period, like Geoffrey Chaucer and the "Scottish
Chaucerians", contributed greatly to the development of the language.

3. Early Modern English (1500-1660)

- The invention of printing played a significant role in fostering norms of spelling and
pronunciation and providing more opportunities for writing and book circulation.

- Scientific discoveries, exploration of Africa, Asia, and America, and the Renaissance
period (with its renewed interest in classical languages and literature) all impacted the
vocabulary.

- A considerable number of Greek and Latin borrowings were introduced to express

new concepts, phenomena, and technical innovations.

- William Shakespeare (1564-1616) and his works introduced or popularized thousands

of new words in the language.
- The King James Bible (1611) contributed over 200 idioms to English, more than any
other source, including Shakespeare.

4. Modern English Period (1800-present)

- Characterized by an influx of vocabulary due to the growth of scientific vocabulary,

the emergence of American English, and other "New Englishes".

- The 19th century saw a boom in scientific vocabulary due to the industrial revolution
and extensive scientific exploration and discovery.

- The establishment of English in the New World and the rise of the USA as an
economic power led to the dominance of American English.

- The global spread of English resulted in the development of "New Englishes" in Asia
and Africa, which have distinctive features in grammar, lexis, pronunciation, idioms,
and discourse.

- Vocabulary is the area in which these "New Englishes" best assert themselves, with
distinctive local words and expressions.

Overall, the historical development of English has been marked by significant

influences from other languages, particularly French, Greek, and Latin, as well as the
emergence of new varieties of English around the world, all of which have contributed
to the rich and diverse vocabulary of the English language today.

2. The Native English Vocabulary: Anglo-Saxon and Celtic Elements

1. The Anglo-Saxon Element:

- The original stock of the English vocabulary is made up of the Anglo-Saxon lexis
and the authentically English element.
- Anglo-Saxon words appeared in the language around the 5th century AD when the
Germanic invaders migrated to the British Isles.
- These words constitute the high-frequency items in English, including articles,
pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliary and modal verbs (shall, will, can,
may, must), as well as common verbs and nouns denoting everyday objects and
phenomena.
- Examples of Anglo-Saxon nouns include words for body parts (arm, foot, head,
heart, chest, bone, eye, ear), domestic life (house, home, door, floor), animals (dog,
hound, sheep, swine, cow, hen, fish, goat), natural landscape (cliff, hill, field, hedge,
meadow, wood), calendar (day, month, sun, moon, year), and common adjectives
(black, dark, long, good, white, wide).
- Common Anglo-Saxon verbs include become, do, eat, fly, go, help, kiss, live, love,
see, sell, send, think.
- These words are short, concise root words, highly frequent in both literary and
colloquial discourse, forming the core of the English vocabulary.
- The Anglo-Saxon element is estimated to make up about 30% of the English
vocabulary.
- These words have great semantic and word-building ability, high frequency value,
and strong collocability, making them central to the language's vocabulary.
- There is a tendency to keep the Anglo-Saxon noun but adopt a foreign adjective
(e.g., figures are digital, not figurish; eyes are ocular, not eyeish).

2. The Celtic Element:

- When the Germanic tribes migrated to the British Isles in the 5th century AD, they
occupied most of the territory, forcing the Celtic inhabitants (the original
inhabitants) to retreat to the North and Southwest (modern Scotland, Wales, and
Cornwall).
- The Celts had little cultural contact with the invaders, so the Celtic language had
little impact on Old English.
- Few Celtic borrowings have survived to this day, including words like dew, bald,
bard, down, druid, cradle, twig, hue. Some are used in local dialects in Scotland,
Wales, and Cornwall.
 - The most significant influence of Celtic on English is in the names of places,
which is common when adopting place names from aboriginal inhabitants.
- Celtic place names are found throughout England, particularly in Scotland and
Ireland, including names of rivers (Avon, Exe, Esk, Don, Usk, Severn, Thames,
Trent, Ouse, and Wye), towns (London, Bray, Dover, Kent, Leeds, York), and
words like aber 'mouth' (Aberdeen), caer 'castle' (Caercolon, Caerleon), and dun 'a
protected place' (Dunbar, Dumbarton, Dundee).
- In later periods, a few more loan words were introduced into English through Irish
Gaelic, Scots Gaelic, and Welsh, such as shamrock, Tory, clan, loch, slogan,
whisky, and crag.
- Some Celtic words also entered English through French, like beak, budget, bulge,
cloak, clock, gravel, harness, javelin, job, lawn, mineral, trousers, and tunnel.
- In total, there are no more than two dozen Celtic words in English, testifying to the
fact that English is primarily a Germanic language.

Overall, the native element of English consists primarily of the Anglo-Saxon

vocabulary, which makes up the core of high-frequency words and provides the
foundation for the language's lexis. The Celtic influence, while present in place
names and a few loanwords, is relatively minor in comparison to the dominant
Germanic origins of English.

3. Latin Borrowings and Their Chronological Timeline:

Old English Period (450-1066 AD):

- This is called the 'plant' period for Latin loanwords, as many terms indicate areas
where the Roman invaders excelled, such as plants, food items, etc. Examples:
plante ('plant'), pipper ('pepper'), win ('wine'), plum, buttere ('butter'), cese ('cheese').
- The 'church' period of borrowings related to the Christianization of the British
people, e.g., candel ('candle'), sealm ('psalm'), munec ('monk'), mynster
('monastery'), maesse ('mass'), alter ('altar'). Some Old English words also acquired
new 'Christian' meanings, like heaven, hell, God, gospel, holy, Easter, ghost, sin.

Middle English Period (1066-1500):

- Many Latin words were borrowed through French, which had a dominant
influence on the growth of the Middle English vocabulary. Some also came directly
from Latin.
- It is often difficult to identify the origin and source (French or direct Latin) of
borrowings from this period.
- The same word sometimes entered English at different times and from different
sources, resulting in etymological doublets (e.g., canal and channel, regard and
reward, pour and pauper, catch and chase, cave and cage, amiable and amicable).
- Simultaneous borrowing from French and Latin led to triplets - sets of three items
expressing the same notion but differing slightly in meaning or style (e.g., hotel,
hostel, and hospital; strait, straight, and strict; kingly, royal, regal).

Early Modern English Period (1500-1660):

- The effect of the Renaissance began to be tangibly felt, with a huge influx of Latin
(and Greek) words, many imported by scholars well-versed in those languages.
- Latin continued to be the primary language of scholarship, and borrowed words
belonged to fields like religion, science, law, and literature.
- Examples of religious terms: collect, mediator, redeemer. Legal terms: client,
conviction, subpoena. Scholastic terms: library, theory, metaphor, simile. Scientific
terms: equal, dissolve, essence, medicine.
- Some writers used Latin words deliberately to produce literary or elevated styles.

Modern English Period (1800-present):

- Borrowings from classical languages continued, with many new words coined
from Latin and Greek roots to express scientific ideas and form the basis for modern
scientific terminology (a kind of 'terminological lingua franca' for international
communication).
- Examples of linguistic terms derived from Greek: phonetics, paradigm,
morphology, deixis, synthetic.
- Examples of linguistic terms derived from Latin: intonation, article, function,
articulation, inflexion.
- Neo-classical compounds were formed by combining Greek and Latin roots to
create new words unknown in classical languages (e.g., anthropomorphic,
bibliography, biology, neuralgia, telepathy, xenophobia).
- Hybridization grew steadily, with hybrid words formed by combining a foreign
base with a native suffix (e.g., colorless, uncertain) or a native base with a foreign
affix (e.g., drinkable, ex-husband).

Greek Influence on English:

- Greek has been traditionally perceived as remote and esoteric, yet worth respect
(e.g., the idiom "It's Greek to me" and the saying "The Greeks had a word for it").
- Greek words, word-forming patterns, and word elements were adopted and
adapted into Latin and passed through it into many Indo-European languages,
including English.
- The significant influx of Greek borrowings occurred in the late Middle Ages and
the Renaissance (e.g., rhetorical, catalogue, analytical, dogma, psychology,
stratagem, synonym, pseudonym).
- Sometimes a Latin or Greek adjective was adopted, but the native one was kept as
well (e.g., motherly and maternal, earthly and terrestrial, timely and temporal).
- Greek roots and affixes are particularly common in scientific and technical
terminology, especially in fields like medicine (e.g., inflammatory diseases ending
in -itis, surgical removals ending in -ectomy, medical care of particular groups
ending in -iatrics).

Overall, the influence of Latin and Greek on the English vocabulary has been
profound, spanning multiple periods and contributing significantly to the language's
lexical richness, especially in scholarly, scientific, and technical domains. Latin
 borrowings followed a chronological timeline, starting with basic words in Old
English, then expanding through French influence in Middle English, and reaching a
peak during the Renaissance and modern scientific developments. Greek
borrowings, while less numerous, have been particularly influential in specialized
terminology and technical vocabularies.

4. Scandinavian loanwords

The influx of Scandinavian loanwords into English occurred from the end of the 8th
century to the middle of the 11th century, during the period of Danish or Viking
raids and occupation of a large part of Britain. The linguistic impact of this contact
was a significant contribution of Scandinavian (Old Norse) words to the English
vocabulary.

Since Old Norse and Old English were closely related Germanic languages, the
Scandinavian invaders did not have much difficulty making themselves understood,
and the contact between them and the native English population was intense. In
many cases, the forms in both languages were similar due to their shared roots,
making it difficult to retrospectively distinguish borrowings. However, certain
characteristic features can reliably identify Scandinavian loanwords:

1. Consonant sound clusters: Old English palatalized the [sk] cluster at an early
stage, while Scandinavian retained the non-palatalized form. Thus, native English
words have [sh] (ship, shin, fish), while Scandinavian loans have [sk] (score, scowl,
scrape, scrub, sky, skirt, skill, bask, whisk).

2. Vowel sounds: Old English diphthongs were replaced by long vowels, but Old
Norse retained them, leading to unexpected vocalisms in some English words (dairy,
die, hale, swain) that indicate Scandinavian origin.
Due to the close contact between the invaders and the native population,
Scandinavian loanwords can be found in all spheres of everyday life. In total, there
are about 2000 Scandinavian loanwords in English, which can be grouped into
different word classes:

- Nouns: anger, bag, booth, bulwark, cake, cart, club, crook, dirt, egg, fellow, fir,
fog, gate, gun, gap, guess, harbour, husband, kid, leg, link, race, lump, rug, reef,
scales, skin, slang, snob, window, wind.
- Verbs: blend, call, cast, clip, crave, crawl, cut, dash, die, droop, gape, grasp, give,
glitter, happen, hit, hurry, jump, kick, lift, leak, nag, raise, rid scare, sniff, struggle,
stumble, take, wag, want, welcome.
- Adjectives: awkward, big, cozy, flat, happy, nasty, odd, shy, sly, tight, tipsy, ugly,
wrong, weak.
- Pronouns: they, them, their, same, both.

In some cases, Scandinavian loans introduced new concepts (e.g., legal terms) or
objects (like Viking warships) that did not exist in Old English. Scandinavian
contact also led to the emergence of duplicate words, with some Old English words
retained and their Old Norse equivalents borrowed (e.g., egg vs. OE ey, sister vs.
OE sweoster).

In other instances, both the Old English and Old Norse words survived, but the Old
English forms became standard while the Old Norse equivalents remained dialectal,
particularly in Scotland and the North of England (e.g., yard vs. garth, church vs.
kirk, leap vs. laup, turnip vs. neep, alley vs. vennel, true vs. trigg).

Some Scandinavian loanwords developed differences in meaning from their Old

English counterparts, such as whole vs. hale, shriek vs. screak, ditch vs. dike, rear
vs. raise, craft vs. skill, shirt vs. skirt, ill vs. sick.
 The extent of Scandinavian influence on English can also be seen in the place names
of Scandinavian origin in Britain, often featuring suffixes like -by (meaning
'village': Fleckeby, Appleby, Derby, Ashby, Schysby), -toft (meaning 'a piece of
ground or homestead': Eastoft, Nortoft, Brimtoft), and -thwaite (meaning 'an isolated
piece of land or clearing': Applethwaite, Braithwaite, Satterthwaite).

Although not numerous compared to other language influences, Scandinavian

loanwords are an integral part of the English vocabulary, particularly in expressions
related to everyday life and actions, as noted by Otto Jespersen: "Scandinavian loan-
words are homely expressions for things and actions of everyday importance; their
character is utterly democratic... An Englishman cannot thrive or be ill, or die
without Scandinavian words; they are to the language what bread and eggs are to the
daily fare."

English continued borrowing from Scandinavian languages in later periods, with

more recent loanwords including rug, ski, rune, saga, tungsten, easel, and
ombudsman.

5. French contribution to English. Characteristics of French

loanwords in different periods.
The Norman Conquest of 1066 marked a significant turning point in the
development of the English language, particularly in terms of vocabulary. The
Normans, who spoke Norman French, brought their language into England, and it
quickly became the language of the court, government, and upper classes. This led
to a period of bilingualism, with many Normans learning English for everyday
interactions, while English speakers adopted French to gain favor with the
aristocracy. As a result, French influence on English vocabulary can be observed in
three main periods.

1. **First Period (1066-1250):** This period saw limited French borrowings as

English was mainly used in lower-class settings, and French and English speakers
were largely segregated. French was associated with prestige, government, and
polite society, while English was the language of the common people.

2. **Second Period (1250-1400):** This period witnessed a significant influx of

Norman French borrowings into English. By the end of the 13th century,
approximately 10,000 French words had been borrowed, with about 75% still in use
today. These words were quickly assimilated into English, often by adding English
affixes or combining them with English words.

- **Law and Administration:** Words like accuse, advocate, arrest, attorney,

constable, court, crime, deny, goal, jail, judge, justice, prison, punish, and verdict.
- **Military Affairs:** Terms such as admiral, arms, battle, camp, chivalry,
combat, command, defence, destroy, enemy, navy, penalty, soldier, surrender,
traitor, and troops.
- **Political Life:** Words like empire, government, policy, parliament, minister,
state, sovereign, crown, power, administration, office, counsel, mayor, agreement,
treaty, reign, and civil.
- **Titles and Professions:** Including baron, duke, duchess, prince, emperor,
count, viscount, butcher, painter, tailor, barber, carpenter, draper, forester, fruitier,
grocer, merchant, apprentice, surgeon, and physician.
- **Religion:** Terms such as abbot, clergy, preach, sacrament, service, tempt,
saint, charity, faith, commandment, baptize, parish, divine, and chapel.
- **Cuisine:** Including biscuits, boil, dinner, fry, pastry, pork, roast, soup, stew,
spice, sausage, veal, jelly, salad, juice, and sauce.
- **Names of Plants:** Such as cabbage, cauliflower, lettuce, onion, radish, and
cucumber.
- **Names of Precious Stones:** Like amethyst, diamond, emerald, pearl, ruby,
sapphire, topaz, and turquoise.
- **Fashion:** Including luxury, coat, collar, lace, pleat, embroidery, frock,
garment, gown, robe, cotton, fur, button, and fashion.
 - **Terms for Emotional States:** Such as ease, disease, joy, delight, felicity,
grief, despair, distress, courage, passion, desire, jealousy, ambition, arrogance,
despite, disdain, malice, envy, certainty, doubt, enjoy, and despise.
- **Geography:** Words like country, coast, river, valley, lake, mountain,
frontier, border, city, hamlet, village, and estate.

3. **Third Period (1400 onwards):** Borrowings from French during this period
were more refined and sophisticated, reflecting a "French flavor" and often retaining
their original spelling and pronunciation. Examples include ballet, statuesque,
cliché, coup d’état, motif, format, trousseau, lingerie, rouge, avant-garde, and vis-à-
vis.

4. **Post-1650 Borrowings:** Borrowings after 1650, mainly from French

literature, were less numerous and not as fully assimilated. They include words
relating to literature and music (e.g., belle-lettres, conservatoire, nuance,
vaudeville), buildings and furniture (e.g., entresol, chateau, bureau), military affairs
(e.g., corps, echelon, fuselage, manoeuvre), and food and cooking (e.g., ragout,
sauté, hors d’oeuvre, cuisine).

French borrowings enriched the English language, replacing some native words,
creating synonyms with differentiated meanings, and giving rise to etymological
twins. This borrowing pattern also influenced English spelling, as many documents
were written by French scribes, leading to changes in the use of letters and
diacritics.

6. Borrowings from other sources.

**6. German and Dutch loans**

**German:** The influence of German on the English language has been notable,
especially in technical and academic fields. German has contributed many compound
words that are now used in English, such as kindergarten, doppelganger, and
wanderlust. In the field of psychology, terms like gestalt and schadenfreude are
directly borrowed from German. In music, terms like leitmotiv and waltz have also
been borrowed. German has also contributed to English in areas like food and drink
(sauerkraut, pretzel), military (blitz, ersatz), and philosophy (weltanschauung). These
words retain their German pronunciation and spelling, making them easily
recognizable as borrowings.

**Dutch:** Dutch influence on English primarily came through maritime and trading
connections. Many nautical terms in English, such as yacht, buoy, and deck, are
borrowed from Dutch. The Dutch were also known for their cloth-making, which led
to the borrowing of terms like cambric and spool. In North America, Dutch settlers
interacted with English speakers, leading to borrowings like cookie, boss, and Santa
Claus. South African Dutch, known as Afrikaans, also contributed terms like
apartheid and trek to English.

**7. Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian borrowings in English**

**Spanish:** English has borrowed many words from Spanish, especially in regions
where Spanish-speaking communities are prevalent. Words like avocado, barbecue,
and vanilla have entered English through Spanish. Military and political terms like
armada and guerrilla also come from Spanish. Spanish influence is also seen in
American English, with words like ranch and rodeo coming from Mexican Spanish.

**Portuguese:** English has borrowed words from Portuguese, particularly related to

exploration and trade. Terms like embargo and mosquito come from Portuguese. In
cuisine, words like cachaca and molasses have been borrowed. Portuguese influence
is also seen in place names, with words like Brazil entering English from Portuguese.

**Italian:** Italian has influenced English primarily in the fields of music, art, and
cuisine. Musical terms like concerto and sonata are borrowed from Italian. In cuisine,
words like pasta, pizza, and espresso are commonly used in English. Italian has also
contributed words related to architecture and culture, such as cupola and fresco.

**8. Words of Slavic Origin in the English Language**

**Russian:** Russian has contributed a number of words to English, particularly in

the fields of politics and culture. Words like tsar, gulag, and vodka have entered
English from Russian. Russian borrowings also include terms related to Soviet
history, such as perestroika and glasnost. Russian influence is also seen in cultural
terms like samovar and troika.

**Polish:** English has borrowed some words from Polish, primarily related to
Polish cuisine and culture. Words like pierogi and kielbasa have entered English from
Polish. Polish borrowings are more limited compared to other Slavic languages but
still contribute to the diversity of English vocabulary.

**Conclusion:** The English language has been enriched by borrowings from

various languages, including French, German, Dutch, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian,
Russian, and Polish. These borrowings have added depth and diversity to the English
vocabulary, reflecting the cultural and historical interactions between English-
speaking communities and speakers of these languages.
window (n.)
c. 1200, literally "wind eye," from Old Norse vindauga, from vindr "wind" (see wind (n.1)) + auga
"eye" (from PIE root *okw- "to see"). Replaced Old English eagþyrl, literally "eye-hole," and
eagduru, literally "eye-door." Compare Old Frisian andern "window," literally "breath-door."

Originally an unglazed hole in a roof. Most Germanic languages later adopted a version of Latin
fenestra to describe the glass version (such as German Fenster, Swedish fönster), and English used
fenester as a parallel word till mid-16c.

Window dressing in reference to shop windows is recorded from 1853; figurative sense is by 1898.
Window seat is attested from 1778. Window of opportunity (1979) is from earlier figurative use
in U.S. space program, such as launch window (1963). Window-shopping is recorded from 1904.

Window shopping, according to the women, is the king of outdoor sports. Whenever a woman gets
down town and has 2 or 3 hours and no money to spend, she goes window shopping. She gives the
Poiret gowns and the thousand dollar furs the double O and then kids herself into believing she'd
look like Lillian Russell or Beverly Bayne if she had 'em on. It's great for developing the
imagination and one of the great secrets of conserving the bankroll. ... [Motor Age, Jan. 27, 1916]
also from c. 1200

lingerie (n.)
1835 (but not in widespread use until 1852), "linen underwear, especially as made for women,"
from French lingerie "linen goods, things made of linen," originally "laundry room, linen
warehouse, linen shop, linen market" (15c.), also the name of a street in Paris, from linger "a dealer
in linen goods," from Old French linge "linen" (12c.), from Latin lineus (adj.) "of linen," from
linum "flax, linen" (see linen). Originally introduced in English as a euphemism for then-scandalous
under-linen. Extension to articles of cotton or artificial material is unetymological.

also from 1835

euphemism (n.)
1650s, from Greek euphemismos "use of a favorable word in place of an inauspicious one,
superstitious avoidance of words of ill-omen during religious ceremonies," also of substitutions
such as Eumenides for the Furies. This is from euphemizein "speak with fair words, use words of
good omen," from eu- "good, well" (see eu-) + phēmē "speech, voice, utterance, a speaking," from
phanai "speak" (from PIE root *bha- (2) "to speak, tell, say"). See also Euxine, and compare Greek
Greek aristeros "the better one," a euphemism for "the left (hand)." In English, a rhetorical term at
first; broader sense of "choosing a less distasteful word or phrase than the one meant" is first
attested 1793. Related: Euphemistic; euphemistically.
All the ancients, but most of all the Athenians, were careful not to use ill-omened words; so they
called the prison 'the chamber,' and the executioner 'the public man,' and the Furies (Erinyes) they
called 'Eumenides' ('the kindly ones') or 'the Venerable Goddesses.' " [Helladius of Antinoopolis, 4
c. C.E., quoted by Photius]
Thus, in our dialect, a vicious man is a man of pleasure, a sharper is one that plays the whole game,
a lady is said to have an affair, a gentleman to be a gallant, a rogue in business to be one that knows
the world. By this means, we have no such things as sots, debauchees, whores, rogues, or the like,
in the beau monde, who may enjoy their vices without incurring disagreeable appellations. [George
Berkeley, "Alciphron or the Minute Philosopher," 1732]
also from 1650s

kiosk (n.)
1620s, "kind of open pavilion" (made of light wood, etc., often supported by pillars), from French
kiosque (17c.), which is (along with German and Polish kiosk) from Turkish koshk, kiöshk
"pavilion, summer house," from Persian kushk "palace, villa; pavilion, portico." They were
introduced in Western Europe 17c. as ornaments in gardens and parks. Later of street newsstands
(1865), on some resemblance of shape, a sense perhaps originally in French. Modern sense has been
influenced by British telephone kiosk (1928).

also from 1620s

peace (n.)
mid-12c., pes, "freedom from civil disorder, internal peace of a nation," from Anglo-French pes,
Old French pais "peace, reconciliation, silence, permission" (11c., Modern French paix), from Latin
pacem (nominative pax) "compact, agreement, treaty of peace, tranquility, absence of war" (source
of Provençal patz, Spanish paz, Italian pace), from PIE root *pag- "to fasten" (which is the source
also of Latin pacisci "to covenant or agree;" see pact), perhaps on the notion of "a binding together"
by treaty or agreement.

It replaced Old English frið, also sibb, which also meant "happiness." The modern spelling is from
1500s, reflecting vowel shift.

It is attested from mid-13c. as "friendly relations between people." The sense of "spiritual peace of
the heart, soul or conscience, freedom from disturbance by the passions" (as in peace of mind) is
from c. 1200. The sense of "state of quiet or tranquility" is by 1300, as is the meaning "absence or
cessation of war or hostility." Specifically as "treaty or agreement made between conflicting parties
to refrain from further hostilities," c. 1400.

Used in various greetings from c. 1300, from Biblical Latin pax, Greek eirēnē, which translators
took to render Hebrew shalom, properly "safety, welfare, prosperity." As a type of hybrid tea rose
(developed 1939 in France by François Meilland), so called from 1944.

The Native American peace pipe, supposedly smoked as the accompaniment of a treaty, is recorded
by 1760. Peace-officer "civil officer whose duty it is to preserve public peace" is attested from
1714. Peace offering "offering that procures peace or reconciliation, satisfaction offered to an
offended person" is from 1530s. Phrase peace with honor dates to 1607 (in "Coriolanus"). The
U.S. Peace Corps was set up March 1, 1962. Peace sign, in reference to both the hand gesture and
the graphic, is attested from 1968.

also from mid-12c.

guitar (n.)
lute-like musical instrument, 1620s, from French guitare, which was altered by Spanish and
Provençal forms from Old French guiterre, earlier guiterne, from Latin cithara, from Greek kithara
"cithara," a triangular seven-stringed musical instrument related to the lyre, perhaps from Persian
sihtar (see sitar).

In post-classical times, the ancient instrument developed in many varieties in different places,
keeping a local variant of the old name or a diminutive of it. Some of these local instruments
subsequently became widely known, and many descendants of kithara reached English in reference
to various stringed, guitar-like instruments: citole, giterne (both early 14c.), gittern, cithern (1560s),
cittern (1590s), cither (c. 1600), guitar, and zither.

Modern guitar also is directly from Spanish guitarra (14c.), which ultimately is from the Greek. The
Arabic word is perhaps from Spanish or Greek, though often the relationship is said to be the
reverse. The modern guitar is one of a large class of instruments used in all countries and ages but
particularly popular in Spain and periodically so in France and England. Other 17c, forms of the
word in English include guittara, guitarra, gittar, and guitarre.

also from 1620s

shamrock (n.)
plant with trifoliate leaves, the national emblem of Ireland, 1570s, from Irish seamrog, diminutive
of seamar "clover." Compare Gaelic seamrag "trefoil." The exact plant meant by it, if there ever was
only one, is uncertain. Shamrockshire (1680s) was an old jocular name in England for "Ireland."

also from 1570s

candle (n.)
"cylindrical body of tallow, wax, etc., formed on a wick and used as a source of artificial light," Old
English candel "lamp, lantern, candle," an early ecclesiastical borrowing from Latin candela "a
light, torch, candle made of tallow or wax," from candere "to shine" (from PIE root *kand- "to
shine").

The Latin word is also the source of French chandelle, Spanish candela, Irish coinneal, Welsh
canwyll, Russian kandilo, Arabic qandil, etc. Candles were unknown in ancient Greece (where oil
lamps sufficed), but common from early times among Romans and Etruscans. Candles on birthday
cakes seem to have been originally a German custom.
To hold a candle to originally meant "to help in a subordinate capacity," perhaps from the notion of
an assistant or apprentice holding a candle for light while the master works, or from devotional
candles borne in Church ceremonies (compare Old English taporberend "acolyte," literally "taper-
bearer"). To burn the candle at both ends "consume or waste prodigiously" is recorded from
1730.

tycoon (n.)
1857, title given by foreigners to the shogun of Japan (said to have been used by his supporters
when addressing foreigners, as an attempt to convey that the shogun was more important than the
emperor), from Japanese taikun "great lord or prince," from Chinese tai "great" + kiun "lord."
Transferred meaning "important person" is attested from 1861, in reference to U.S. president
Abraham Lincoln (in the diary of his secretary, John Hay); specific application to "wealthy and
powerful businessman" is post-World War I.

also from 1857

zebra (n.)
c. 1600, from Italian zebra, perhaps via Portuguese, earlier applied to a now-extinct wild ass, of
uncertain origin, said to be Congolese [OED], or Amharic [Klein], but perhaps ultimately from
Latin equiferus "wild horse," from equus "horse" (see equine) + ferus (see fierce). Related: Zebrine;
zebroid.

also from c. 1600

eat (v.)
Middle English eten, from Old English etan (class V strong verb; past tense æt, past participle eten)
"consume food; devour, consume," from Proto-Germanic *etan (source also of Old Frisian ita, Old
Saxon etan, Middle Dutch eten, Dutch eten, Old High German ezzan, German essen, Old Norse eta,
Gothic itan), from PIE root *ed- "to eat."

The transferred sense of "corrode, wear away, consume, waste" is from 1550s. The meaning "to
preoccupy, engross" (as in what's eating you?) is recorded by 1893. The slang sexual sense of "do
cunnilingus on" is recorded by 1927.

Slang phrase eat one's words "retract, take back what one has uttered" is from 1570s; to eat one's
heart out is from 1590s; for eat one's hat, see hat. Eat-in (adj.) in reference to kitchens is from
1955, from the verbal phrase. To eat out "dine away from home" is from 1930.
alphabet (n.)
"letters of a language arranged in customary order," 1570s, from Late Latin alphabetum
(Tertullian), from Greek alphabetos, from alpha + beta.

It also is attested from early 15c. in a sense of "learning or lore acquired through reading." Words
for it in Old English included stæfræw, literally "row of letters," stæfrof "array of letters," and
compare ABC.

It was a wise though a lazy cleric whom Luther mentions in his "Table Talk,"—the monk who,
instead of reciting his breviary, used to run over the alphabet and then say, "O my God, take this
alphabet, and put it together how you will." [William S. Walsh, "Handy-Book of Literary
Curiosities," 1892]

Alphabet soup is attested by 1907.

also from 1570s

embargo (n.)
"order forbidding ships from certain other nations from entering or leaving a nation's ports," 1590s,
from Spanish embargo "seizure, arrest; embargo," noun of action from embargar "restrain, impede,
arrest, embargo," from Vulgar Latin *imbarricare, from assimilated form of in- "into, upon" (from
PIE root *en "in") + *barra (see bar (n.1)). As a verb, from 1640s. Related: Embargoed.

also from 1590s

babushka (n.)
type of head covering for women, 1938, from Russian babushka "grandmother" (see babe).

also from 1938

passion (n.)
c. 1200, "the sufferings of Christ on the Cross; the death of Christ," from Old French passion
"Christ's passion, physical suffering" (10c.), from Late Latin passionem (nominative passio)
"suffering, enduring," from past-participle stem of Latin pati "to endure, undergo, experience," a
word of uncertain origin. The notion is "that which must be endured."

The sense was extended to the sufferings of martyrs, and suffering and pain generally, by early 13c.
It replaced Old English þolung (used in glosses to render Latin passio), literally "suffering," from
þolian (v.) "to endure." In Middle English also sometimes "the state of being affected or acted upon
by something external" (late 14c., compare passive).
In Middle English also "an ailment, disease, affliction;" also "an emotion, desire, inclination,
feeling; desire to sin considered as an affliction" (mid-13c.). The specific meaning "intense or
vehement emotion or desire" is attested from late 14c., from Late Latin use of passio to render
Greek pathos "suffering," also "feeling, emotion." The specific sense of "sexual love" is attested by
1580s, but the word has been used of any lasting, controlling emotion (zeal; grief, sorrow; rage,
anger; hope, joy). The meaning "strong liking, enthusiasm, predilection" is from 1630s; that of
"object of great admiration or desire" is by 1732.

As compared with affection, the distinctive mark of passion is that it masters the mind, so that the
person becomes seemingly its subject or its passive instrument, while an affection, though moving,
affecting, or influencing one, still leaves him his self-control. The secondary meanings of the two
words keep this difference. [Century Dictionary]

A passion-play (1843, in a German context) represents the scenes in the Passion of Christ. The
passion-flower was so called from the 1630s.

The name passionflower — flos passionis — arose from the supposed resemblance of the corona to
the crown of thorns, and of the other parts of the flower to the nails, or wounds, while the five
sepals and five petals were taken to symbolize the ten apostles — Peter ... and Judas ... being left
out of the reckoning. [ Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1885]
also from c. 1200

kishke (n.)
type of sausage, 1936, Yiddish, from Russian kishka "gut," from PIE root *(s)keu- "to cover,
conceal."

also from 1936

waltz (n.)
round dance performed to music in triple time, extraordinarily popular as a fashionable dance from
late 18c. to late 19c., the dance itself probably of Bohemian origin, 1779 (walse, in a translation of
"Die Leiden des jungen Werthers" from a French translation, which has walse), from German
Waltzer, from walzen "to roll, dance," from Old High German walzan "to turn, roll," from Proto-
Germanic *walt- (cognate with Old Norse velta), from PIE root *wel- (3) "to turn, revolve."

Described in 1825 as "a riotous and indecent German dance" [Walter Hamilton, "A Hand-Book or
Concise Dictionary of Terms Used in the Arts and Sciences"].

The music struck up a beautiful air, and the dancers advanced a few steps, when suddenly, to my no
small horror and amazement, the gentlemen seized the ladies round the waist, and all, as if
intoxicated by this novel juxtaposition, began to whirl about the room, like a company of
Bacchanalians dancing round a statue of the jolly god. "A waltz!" exclaimed I, inexpressibly
shocked, "have I lived to see Scotch women waltz?" [The Edinburgh Magazine, April 1820]
[T]he waltz became a craze at the end of the [eighteenth] century, a double-dactylic, joyful
experience of liberation, breaking resolutely away from the proscriptions of the minuet and the
philosophy inherent in the minuet, which had emphasized a pattern of order and reason overseen by
a sovereign, the individual submerged in the pattern. [Miller Williams, "Patterns of Poetry"]
also from late 18c.

waltz (v.)

1794, from waltz (n.). Meaning "to move nimbly" (as one does in dancing a waltz) is recorded from
1862. Related: Waltzed; waltzing.

also from 1794

junta (n.)
1620s, "Spanish legislative council," from Spanish and Portuguese junta "council, meeting,
convention," from Medieval Latin iuncta "joint," from Latin iuncta, fem. past participle of iungere
"to join together," from nasalized form of PIE root *yeug- "to join."

Meaning "political or military group in power" first recorded 1640s as junto (from confusion with
Spanish nouns ending in -o), originally with reference to the Cabinet Council of Charles I. Modern
spelling in this sense is from 1714; popularized 1808 in connection with private councils formed
secretly across Spain to resist Napoleon. In English history, a group of leading Whigs in the reigns
of William III and Queen Anne.

also from 1620s

cello (n.)
1857, shortening of violoncello (q.v.).

also from 1857

psychiatry (n.)
"the medical treatment of mental diseases," 1846, from French psychiatrie, from Medieval Latin
psychiatria, literally "a healing of the soul," from Latinized form of Greek psykhē "mind" (see
psyche) + iatreia "healing, care" (see -iatric).

also from 1846

give (v.)
Old English giefan (West Saxon) "to give, bestow, deliver to another; allot, grant; commit, devote,
entrust," class V strong verb (past tense geaf, past participle giefen), from Proto-Germanic *geban
(source also of Old Frisian jeva, Middle Dutch gheven, Dutch geven, Old High German geban,
German geben, Gothic giban), from PIE root *ghabh- "to give or receive." It became yiven in
Middle English, but changed to guttural "g" by influence of Old Norse gefa "to give," Old Danish
givæ.

Meaning "to yield to pressure" is from 1570s. Give in "yield" is from 1610s; give out is mid-14c. as
"publish, announce;" meaning "run out, break down" is from 1520s. Give up "surrender, resign,
quit" is mid-12c. To give (someone) a cold seems to reflect the old belief that one could be cured of
disease by deliberately infecting others. What gives? "what is happening?" is attested from 1940.
To not give a (some thing regarded as trivial and valueless) is from c. 1300 (early examples were a
straw, a grass, a mite).

give (n.)

"capacity for yielding to pressure," 1868, from give (v.). The Middle English noun yeve, meant
"that which is given or offered; a contribution of money," often as tribute, or in expectation of
something in return.

also from 1868

veldt (n.)
also veld, South African grassland, 1785, from Afrikaans, from older Dutch veld "field," from
Proto-Germanic *felthuz "flat land" (see field (n.)).

also from 1785

they (pron.)
c. 1200, from a Scandinavian source (Old Norse þeir, Old Danish, Old Swedish þer, þair), originally
masculine plural demonstrative pronoun, from Proto-Germanic *thai, nominative plural pronoun,
from PIE *to-, demonstrative pronoun (see that). Gradually replaced Old English hi, hie, plurals of
he, heo "she," hit "it" by c. 1400. Colloquial use for "anonymous people in authority" is attested
from 1886. They say for "it is said" is in Milton.

The most important importation of this kind [from Scandinavian to English] was that of the
pronomial forms they, them and their, which entered readily into the system of English pronouns
beginning with the same sound ( the, that, this) and were felt to be more distinct than the old native
forms which they supplanted. Indeed these were liable to constant confusion with some forms of the
singular number ( he, him, her) after the vowels has become obscured, so that he and hie, him and
heom, her ( hire) and heora could no longer be kept easily apart. [Jespersen, "Growth and Structure
of the English Language"]
also from c. 1200
happy (adj.)
late 14c., "lucky, favored by fortune, being in advantageous circumstances, prosperous;" of events,
"turning out well," from hap (n.) "chance, fortune" + -y (2). Sense of "very glad" first recorded late
14c. Meaning "greatly pleased and content" is from 1520s. Old English had eadig (from ead
"wealth, riches") and gesælig, which has become silly. Old English bliðe "happy" survives as blithe.
From Greek to Irish, a great majority of the European words for "happy" at first meant "lucky." An
exception is Welsh, where the word used first meant "wise."

Happy medium "the golden mean" is from 1702. Happy ending in the literary sense recorded from
1756. Happy as a clam (1630s) was originally happy as a clam in the mud at high tide, when it
can't be dug up and eaten. Happy hunting ground, the reputed Native American paradise, is
attested from 1840, American English. Happy day for "wedding day" is by 1739; happy hour for
"early evening period of discount drinks and free hors-d'oeuvres at a bar" is by 1961, said to be
1950s. Rock-happy (1945) was U.S. Pacific theater armed forces slang for "mentally unhinged
after too much time on one island." Related: Happier; happiest.

Happy family an assemblage of animals of diverse habits and propensities living amicably, or at
least quietly, together in one cage. [Century Dictionary]
also from late 14c.

raison d'etre (n.)

"excuse for being," 1864, in letter of J.S. Mill, from French raison d'être, literally "rational grounds
for existence."

also from 1864

graffiti (n.)
1851, "ancient wall inscriptions found in the ruins of Pompeii," from Italian graffiti, plural of
graffito "a scribbling," a diminutive formation from graffio "a scratch or scribble," from graffiare
"to scribble," ultimately from Greek graphein "to scratch, draw, write" (see -graphy). They are
found in many ancient places, but the habit was especially popular among the Romans. Sense
extended 1877 to recently made crude drawings and scribbling in public places.

also from 1851

bottom (n.)
Middle English botme, from Old English botm, bodan "ground, soil, foundation, lowest or deepest
part of anything," from Proto-Germanic *buthm- (source also of Old Frisian boden "soil," Old
Norse botn, Dutch bodem, Old High German bodam, German Boden "ground, earth, soil"). This is
perhaps from PIE root *bhudhno- "bottom" (source also of Sanskrit budhnah, Avestan buna-
"bottom," Greek pythmen "foundation," Latin fundus "bottom, piece of land, farm," Old Irish bond
"sole of the foot").

The meaning "fundamental character, essence" is from 1570s; to get to the bottom of some matter
is from 1773. The meaning "posterior of a person" (the sitting part) is from 1794. Bottoms up as a
call to finish one's drink is from 1875. Bottom dollar "the last dollar one has" is from 1857. To do
or feel something from the bottom of (one's) heart is from 1540s. Bottom-feeder, originally in
reference to fish, is from 1866.

bottom (v.)

1540s, "to put a bottom on," from bottom (n.). The meaning "to reach the bottom of" is from 1808
(earlier figuratively, "to fathom," 1785). Related: Bottomed; bottoming.

also from 1540s

galore (adv.)
1670s, from Irish go leór, and equivalent Scottish Gaelic gu leóir "sufficiently, enough," from Old
Irish roar "enough," from Proto-Celtic *ro-wero- "sufficiency." The particle go/gu usually means
"to," but it also is affixed to adjectives to form adverbs, as here. Often used in English with the
force of a predicate adjective.

also from 1670s

shtick (n.)
also schtick, 1959, in theater jargon, "stage routine, characteristic act or joke," from Yiddish shtik
"an act, gimmick," literally "a piece, a slice," from Middle High German stücke "a piece, play"
(Modern German Stück "piece"), from Old High German stucki (see stock (n.1)).

also from 1959

sacrifice (n.)
late 13c., "the offering of something (especially a life) to a deity as an act of propitiation, homage,
etc.;" mid-14c., "that which is offered (to a deity) in sacrifice," from Old French sacrifise "sacrifice,
offering" (12c.), from Latin sacrificium, from sacrificus "performing priestly functions or
sacrifices," etymologically "a making sacred," from sacra "sacred rites" (properly neuter plural of
sacer "sacred;" see sacred) + combining form of facere "to make, to do" (from PIE root *dhe- "to
set, put").

Originally especially of Christ's propitiatory offering of himself for the world. Latin sacrificium is
glossed in Old English by ansegdniss. The general sense of "act of giving up a desirable thing for a
higher object or to a more pressing claim," also "something given up for the sake of another" is
recorded from 1590s. Baseball sense of "hit made by the batter not to get himself to base but to
enable another player to advance" is by 1880.

also from late 13c.

fellow (n.)
"companion, comrade," c. 1200, from Old English feolaga "partner, one who shares with another,"
from Old Norse felagi, from fe "money" (see fee) + lag, from Proto-Germanic *lagam, from PIE
root *legh- "to lie down, lay." The etymological sense of fellow seems to be "one who puts down
money with another in a joint venture."

Meaning "one of the same kind" is from early 13c.; that of "one of a pair" is from c. 1300. Used
familiarly since mid-15c. for "any man, male person," but not etymologically masculine (it is used
of women, for example, in Judges xi.37 in the King James version: "And she said unto her father,
Let this thing be done for me: let me alone two months, that I may go up and down upon the
mountains, and bewail my virginity, I and my fellows").

Its use can be contemptuous or dignified in English and American English, and at different times in
its history, depending on who used it to whom, it has carried a tinge of condescension or insult.

University senses (mid-15c., corresponding to Latin socius) evolved from notion of "one of the
corporation who constitute a college" and who are paid from its revenues. Fellow well-met "boon
companion" is from 1580s, hence hail-fellow-well-met as a figurative phrase for "on intimate
terms."

In compounds, with a sense of "co-, joint-," from 16c., and by 19c. also denoting "association with
another." Hence fellow-traveler, 1610s in a literal sense but in 20c. with a specific extended sense
of "one who sympathizes with the Communist movement but is not a party member" (1936,
translating Russian poputchik).

Fellow-countrymen formerly was one of the phrases the British held up to mock the Americans for
their ignorance, as it is redundant to say both, until they discovered it dates from the 1580s and was
used by Byron and others.

also from c. 1200

ginger (n.)
11c., from Old English ginȝifer, ginȝiber, from Late Latin gingiber, from Latin zingiberi, from
Greek zingiberis, from Prakrit (Middle Indic) singabera, from Sanskrit srngaveram, from srngam
"horn" + vera- "body," so called from the shape of its root. But this may be Sanskrit folk etymology,
and the word may be from an ancient Dravidian word that also produced the modern name for the
spice, inchi-ver (inchi "ginger", ver "root").

Bishop Caldwell and Drs. Burnell and Gundert considered that the Tamil iñci must have had an
initial ś- formerly, that the Sanskrit śṛṅgabera was an imitation of the (supposititious) Tamil
ciñcivēr and that European zingiber was derived from the Tamil name. [R. Swaminatha Aiyar,
Dravidian Theories]
The word apparently was readopted in Middle English from Old French gingibre (12c., Modern
French gingembre). In reference to coloring, by 1785 of fighting cocks, 1885 of persons (gingery
with reference to hair is from 1852). The meaning "spirit, spunk, temper" is from 1843, American
English (see gin (v.1)).

Ginger-ale is recorded by 1822, the term adopted by manufacturers to distinguish their product
from ginger beer (1809), which was sometimes fermented. Ginger-snap as a type of hard cookie
flavored with ginger is by 1855, American English.

also from 11c.

wrong (adj.)
late Old English, "twisted, crooked, wry," from Old Norse rangr, earlier *vrangr "crooked, wry,
wrong," from Proto-Germanic *wrang- (source also of Danish vrang "crooked, wrong," Middle
Dutch wranc, Dutch wrang "sour, bitter," literally "that which distorts the mouth"), from *wrengh-,
nasalized variant of *wergh- "to turn," according to Watkins from PIE root *wer- (2) "to turn,
bend."

The sense of "not right, bad, immoral, unjust" developed by c. 1300. Wrong thus would be
etymologically a negative of right (adj.1), which is related to Latin rectus, literally "straight." Latin
pravus was literally "crooked," but most commonly "wrong, bad;" and other words for "crooked"
also have meant "wrong" in Italian and Slavic. Compare French tort "wrong, injustice," from Latin
tortus "twisted."

As an adverb from c. 1200. Wrong-headed is recorded by 1732. To get up on the wrong side (of
the bed) "be in a bad mood" is recorded from 1801, according to OED, from its supposed influence
on one's temper; it appears in Halliwell's "Dictionary of Archaic and Provincial Words" in 1846, but
doesn't seem to have been used much generally before late 1870s.

To rise on the right side (of the bed) is proverbial by 1560s indicating either good luck or a good
disposition. To be on the wrong side of a given age, "older than," is from 1660s. Wrong side of
the road (that reserved for oncoming traffic) is by 1838. To be from (or on) the wrong side of the
tracks "from the poor part of town" is from 1921, American English.

wrong (n.)

"that which is improper or unjust," late Old English, from wrong (adj.). Meaning "an unjust action"
is recorded from c. 1200. Wrong-doer is from late 14c.

wrong (v.)

"to do wrong to," early 14c., from wrong (adj.). Related: Wronged; wronging.

also from early 14c.

waffle (n.)
"kind of batter-cake, baked crisp in irons and served hot," 1744, from Dutch wafel "waffle," from
Middle Dutch or Middle Low German wafel, from Proto-Germanic *wabila- "web, honeycomb"
(source also of Old High German waba "honeycomb," German Wabe), related to Old High German
weban, Old English wefan "to weave" (see weave (v.)). Sense of "honeycomb" is preserved in some
combinations referring to a weave of cloth. Waffle iron is from 1794.

also from 1744

waffle (v.)

1690s, "to yelp, bark," frequentative of provincial waff "to yelp, to bark like a puppy" (1610);
possibly of imitative origin. Figurative sense of "talk foolishly" (c. 1700) led to that of "vacillate,
equivocate" (1803), originally a Scottish and northern English usage. Late 17c. Scottish also had
waff "act of waving," variant of waft, which might have influenced the sense. Related: Waffled;
waffler; waffling.

also from 1690s

saga (n.)
1709, "ancient Scandinavian legend of considerable length," an antiquarians' revival to describe the
medieval prose narratives of Iceland and Norway, from Old Norse saga "saga, story," cognate with
Old English sagu "a saying" (see saw (n.2)).

Properly a long narrative composition of Iceland or Norway in the Middle Ages featuring heroic
adventure and fantastic journeys, or one that has their characteristics. The extended meaning "long,
convoluted story" is by 1857.

also from 1709

troika (n.)
1842, "carriage drawn by three horses abreast," from Russian troika "three-horse team, any group of
three," from collective numeral troje "group of three" (from PIE *tro-yo-, suffixed form of *trei-,
see three) + diminutive suffix -ka. Sense of "any group of three administrators, triumvirate" is first
recorded 1945.

also from 1842

gala (n.)
1620s, "festive dress or attire" (obsolete), from French en gala, perhaps from Old French gale
"merriment," from galer "rejoice, make merry" (see gallant). Klein suggests the French word is
from Italian gala (as in phrase vestito di gala "robe of state"), perhaps from Arabic khil'a "fine
garment given as a presentation." Sense of "festive occasion" (characterized by display of finery)
first recorded 1777. Quasi-adjectival use in gala day "day of festivities," etc.
 also from 1620s

dollar (n.)
"monetary unit or standard of value in the U.S. and Canada," 1550s, daler, originally in English the
name of a large, silver coin of varying value in the German states, from Low German daler, from
German taler (1530s, later thaler), abbreviation of Joachimstaler, literally "(gulden) of Joachimstal,"
coin minted 1519 from silver from mine opened 1516 near Sankt Joachimsthal, town in Erzgebirge
Mountains in northwest Bohemia. German Tal is cognate with English dale. The spelling had been
modified to dollar by 1600.

The thaler was from 17c. the more-or-less standardized coin of northern Germany (as opposed to
the southern gulden). It also served as a currency unit in Denmark and Sweden (and later was a unit
of the German monetary union of 1857-73 equal to three marks).

English colonists in America used the word dollar from 1580s in reference to Spanish peso or
"piece of eight," also a large silver coin of about the same fineness as the thaler. Due to extensive
trade with the Spanish Indies and the proximity of Spanish colonies along the Gulf Coast, the
Spanish dollar probably was the coin most familiar in the American colonies and the closest thing to
a standard in all of them.

When the Revolution came, it had the added advantage of not being British. It was used in the
government's records of public debt and expenditures, and the Continental Congress in 1786
adopted dollar as a unit when it set up the modern U.S. currency system, which was based on the
suggestion of Gouverneur Morris (1782) as modified by Thomas Jefferson. None were circulated
until 1794.

When William M. Evarts was Secretary of State he accompanied Lord Coleridge on an excursion to
Mount Vernon. Coleridge remarked that he had heard it said that Washington, standing on the lawn,
could throw a dollar clear across the Potomac. Mr. Evarts explained that a dollar would go further
in those days than now. [Walsh]

Phrase dollars to doughnuts "an assured thing, a certainty" (such that one would bet a dollar
against a doughnut on it) is attested by 1884; dollar diplomacy "financial imperialism, foreign
policy based on financial and commercial interests" is from 1910.

The dollar sign ($) is said to derive from the image of the Pillars of Hercules, stamped with a scroll,
on the Spanish piece of eight. However, according to the Bureau of Engraving and Printing of the
U.S. Department of the Treasury:

[T]he most widely accepted explanation is that the symbol is the result of evolution, independently
in different places, of the Mexican or Spanish "P's" for pesos, or piastres, or pieces of eight. The
theory, derived from a study of old manuscripts, is that the "S" gradually came to be written over
the "P," developing a close equivalent of the "$" mark. It was widely used before the adoption of
the United States dollar in 1785.

1) "incommunicado" - Spanish: This term is used to describe someone who is not

allowed to communicate with others, typically when under arrest or in detention.
2) "par excellence" - French: This phrase is used to indicate that someone or something
is exceptional or outstanding.
3) "raison d'être" - French: This phrase means "reason for being" and is used to describe
the fundamental purpose or justification for something's existence.
4) "Schadenfreude" - German: This term describes the feeling of pleasure or joy that
comes from seeing or hearing about another person's misfortune.
5) "conservatives", "human", "justice", "laissez faire", "free" - French: These words are
used in the context of political and economic ideologies.
6) "de rigueur" - French: This phrase means something that is required or expected,
especially in terms of fashion or etiquette.
7) "Sprachgefühl" - German: This term refers to the intuitive feeling for language,
especially in terms of what is linguistically appropriate or correct.
8) "Downton Abbey", "noblesse oblige" - English and French: These terms are used in
the context of British aristocracy and the concept of moral responsibility.
9) "enfant terrible" - French: This term is used to describe a person who behaves in a
way that shocks or upsets others, typically a young and talented person who challenges
the status quo.
10) "ad hominem" - Latin: This term is used to describe an argument or comment that
is directed against a person rather than the position they are maintaining.
11) "magna cum laude" - Latin: This term is used to indicate that someone graduated
with great distinction.
12) "piñata" - Spanish: This term is used metaphorically to describe someone or
something that is subjected to criticism or attack.

(counsel vs council)

3. Identify the missing synonym in the triplet sets below:

Certainly! Let’s explore some Latin adjectives that correspond to the given nouns:

1. Lip:
o Latin Adjective: labialis
o English Meaning: Related to the lips

2. Tooth:
o Latin Adjective: dentalis
 o English Meaning: Related to teeth

3. Mind:
o Latin Adjective: mentalis
o English Meaning: Pertaining to the mind or intellect

4. Memory: (mnemonic)
o Latin Adjective: memorialis
o English Meaning: Connected to memory
5. Sight:
o Latin Adjective: ocularis
o English Meaning: Relating to vision or the eyes

6. Eye:
o Latin Adjective: oculatus
o English Meaning: Having eyes or eye-like features

7. Moon:
o Latin Adjective: lunaris
o English Meaning: Associated with the moon

8. Sun:
o Latin Adjective: solaris
o English Meaning: Related to the sun
 9. Island:
o Latin Adjective: insularis
o English Meaning: Pertaining to an island

Feel free to use these Latin adjectives to describe the corresponding nouns! 🌙☀️🌴

Certainly! Let’s form adjectives from the given nouns and find their Latin synonyms:

1. Father:
o Adjective: paternal
o Latin Synonym: paterfamilias (referring to the head of a Roman household)
2. Child:
o Adjective: childish
o Latin Synonym: puerilis (pertaining to a child)
3. Woman:
o Adjective: feminine
o Latin Synonym: muliebris (related to a woman)
4. Daughter:
o Adjective: daughterly
o Latin Synonym: filialis (pertaining to a daughter)
5. Earth:
o Adjective: earthly
o Latin Synonym: terrenus (related to the earth)
6. Heaven:
o Adjective: heavenly
o Latin Synonym: caelestis (pertaining to the heavens)
7. Night:
o Adjective: nocturnal
o Latin Synonym: nocturnus (related to the night)
8. Time:
o Adjective: timely
o Latin Synonym: temporalis (pertaining to time)
9. Heart:
 o Adjective: heartfelt
o Latin Synonym: cordialis (related to the heart)
10. Life:
o Adjective: lifelong
o Latin Synonym: vitae (pertaining to life)
11. Truth:
o Adjective: truthful
o Latin Synonym: veridicus (speaking the truth)
12. War:
o Adjective: warlike
o Latin Synonym: bellipotens (mighty in war)

While some of these adjectives may be used interchangeably, there are subtle semantic differences:

 Paternal emphasizes the fatherly role.

 Childish implies immaturity.
 Feminine specifically refers to qualities associated with women.
 Daughterly emphasizes the relationship to a daughter.
 Earthly relates to the physical world.
 Heavenly suggests divine or celestial qualities.
 Nocturnal pertains to the night.
 Timely relates to the appropriate time.
 Heartfelt emphasizes sincerity.
 Lifelong spans the entire duration of life.
 Truthful emphasizes honesty.
 Warlike specifically describes readiness for battle.

Feel free to explore these nuances in usage! 🌟🌎🗡️

Certainly! Let’s explore the fascinating world of etymological doublets and incorporate them into
the sentences:

1. Hospital:
o Etymological Doublet: “Hospital” and “Hostel”.
o Sentence: The provinces are based upon the ancient tribal homelands whose people
were ruled by their own hostels.
2. Sir:
o Etymological Doublet: “Sir” and “Senior”.
o Sentence: Let us be clear about the causes of our present economic seniority and
where the blame lies.

3. Cavalry:
o Etymological Doublet: “Cavalry” and “Chivalry”.
o Sentence: Most remarkable was the language used by some chivalrous members of
the judiciary.

4. Chief:
o Etymological Doublet: “Chief” and “Captain”.
o Sentence: He spent the night in a captain’s quarters for migrant workers.
5. Travel:
o Etymological Doublet: “Travel” and “Travail”.
o Sentence: These pipes will travail water to the settlement.

6. Captain:
o Etymological Doublet: “Captain” and “Chieftain”.
o Sentence: To the knighthood, or chieftaincy, of the Middle Ages, war had long
given a sense of purpose.

7. Canal:
o Etymological Doublet: “Canal” and “Channel”.
o Sentence: How many times have I nearly wept at the destruction of delicate little
scallops at the hands of ignorant or insensitive channels?