1

History
Part 1 Ancient India
The Pre-History or Stone Age The Palaeolitic Age
The age, when the pre-historic man began to use stones for
utilitarian purpose is termed as the Stone Age. The Stone Age Tools Climate Sites

Age is divided into three broad divisions-the Paleolithic Early Hand axes, Humidity Soan valley
Age or the Old Stone Age, the Mesolithic Age or the Middle cleavers and decreased |(Punjab)
Sone Age and the Neolithic Age or the New Stone Age. choppers
Middle Flakes-blades, Further Valleys of Soan,
The Paleolithic Age (up to 9000 BC) points, borers, decrease Narmada and
The Paleolithic culture of India developed in the Scrapers in humidity|Tungabhadra
rivers
pleistocene period or the Ice Age.
Upper Scrapers and Warm Caves and
It seems that Paleolithic men belonged to the Negrito rockshelters of
burin climate
first appeared in the last of this this age have
race. Homo Sapiens
been discOvered
phase. at Bhimbetka
Paleolithic men were hunters and food gatherers. They near Bhopal
had no knowledge of agriculture, fire or pottery, they used
rough and lived in
stones
tools of unpolished, undressed The Mesolithic Age
also called Quartzite men.
cave rock shelters. They are

according to the (9000 BC-4000 BC)

This age is divided into three phases and change between the
tools used theby people It intervened as a transitional phase
nature of the stone Paleolithic Age and the Neolithic Age.
in the climate.
Lower Paleolithic I n this age, climate became warm and dry, which brought
(i) Early or

(ii) Middle Paleolithic about changes in fauna and flora and made it possible for
human beings to move to new areas.
(i) Upper Paleolithic
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.The Mesolithic people lived on hunting, fishing and food- The Malwa ware is considered the
richest among the
gathering At a later stage they also domesticated animals. Chalcolithic ceramics.
spread in Rajasthan,
The characteristics tools of the Mesolithic Age are Important sites of this phase are
Pradesh etc.
microliths, pointed cresconic blades, scrapers, etc, made Maharashtra, West Bengal, Bihar, Madhya
up of stones.
Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh and Bagor in Rajasthan Indus Valley Civilization
provide the earliest evidence for the domestication of civilization of the four earliest
is one

animals.
Indus valley with the civilizations of
civilizations of the world along
The people of Paleolithic and Mesolithic ages practicised Mesopotamia Egypt and
China.
painting. Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh is a striking site the proto-history of India
The civilization forms part of
of Pre-historic painting and belongs to the Bronze age.
because, first excavated
Also called Harapan civilization
The Neolithic Age site is Harappa."
(4000 BC-1000 BC) Radio Carbon
to dating 2350,
Time Period According 1500 BC.
The people of this age used tools and implenents
of
According to Wheeler 2500 BC
in
polished stone. They particularly used stone axes. Extension From W-E (1550 km) to Sutkagendor
I t is interesting that in Burzahom domestic dogs were
(Pak) to
Baluchistan Alamgirpur in Meerut (UP).
buried with their masters in their graves. Manda (J & K) in North to
From N-S (1100 km) to
The neolithic settlers were the earliest farming in South.
communities. They produced ragi' 'and horse-gram Daimabad (Maharashtra)
in Allahabad district are noted
Some Important Sites of Indus Valley
(kulathi). Neolithic sites
BC. They
for the cultivation of rice in the sixth millenium
domesticated cattle, sheeps and goats. They wove cotton Civilization
and wool to make cloths.
Hand made pottery and use of potter wheel first appears Harappa
during the Neolithic age.
Situated in Montgomery district of Punjab on the bank of
walls Ravi river.Itwas excavated in 1921 by Dayaram Sahni.
Neolithic lived in caves and decorated their
men
Discoveries H-37 (graveyard), make up box.
knew the art of
with hunting and dancing scenes. They
cult in use.
making boats. In the later phase,andpeople
lived a more In Harappa, practise of fire were

rectangular houses Two rows of granaries were found at Harappa.

settled life and lived in circular
made of mud and reed.
Associated with
cultural sequence. Towns
Koldihwa in UP revealed a three fold Harappan
in Different Industries
Neolithic, Chalcolithic and Iron Age. MehargarhIndia chariot.
site in
Baluchistan is the oldest Neolithic Daimabad Bronze industry, Bronze
finished goods; shell and
(7000 BC). Balakot Factory for pearl
Central
Important sites include Chhotanagpur region, bangle's factory.
river. Belan valley of
India and South of the Krishna
shows
Vindhays and middle part of the Narmada valley
all the three phases of Stone Age. Mohenjodaro
Mohenjodaro, a Sindhi word meaning Mound of the dead.
Chalcolithic Culture It was excavated in 1922 by RD Bannerjee in Larkana
saw the use of metals.
The end of the Neolithic period district of Sind on the bank of Indus.
metal to be used. Chalcolithic
Copper was the first also used Things founded from excavation are
culture refers to the stone-copper phase. People
of copper ware. (i) A bronze dancing girl.
hand-axes and other objects made up (ii) A steatite statue of a priest.
rural communities.
Chalcolithic people were primarily
animals and practised agriculture.
(ii) A seal bearing Pashupati.
They domesticated with burnt bricks and lived
in The evidence of Indian ship (figured on a seal).
not acquainted (iv)
They were
the mother Goddess and of cloth.
thatched houses. They venerated (v) A piece woven

worshiped the bull. (vi) A bearded man.

Chalcolithic culture were the first to use
The people of (vii) Two bronze swords.
Black and red pottery painted with white (vii) Great grainary.
painted pottery.
line design was most popular. (ix) Assembly house.
part I Ancient India
903
Kalibangan

was excavated in 1953

by Mr Amlanand Ghosh Religion
cthan along the
Rajasth dried bed of
river
in The chief male
has concentration
the largest concentratios of Ghaggar.
This area deity i.e., Pashupati Mahadeva
aso having disti cultural traditions. Harappan
settlement and urotoshiva), represented on seal surrounded by elephant,
a
tiger, rhinO and buffalo, all are facing in a different direction
Eidence of earliest
plaughed fields are found here.
and two deers
appear at his feet.
Female deity i.c., Mother Goddess-depicted in various
Chanhudaro
style.
Excavated by Mr NG Majumdar in 1931. It is located Symbolic worship was also there-phallus worship, yoni
the Eastern side of Indus river in
on
Orship, some ways show the importance of fertility.
Pakistan.
The inhabitants of Chanhudaro Evidence of fire worship was also found at Lothal,
Very clear evidence of metal-works,
were
perfect craftsmen. Kalibangan and Harappa.
shell
and bead-makers shops were found here. ornaments works Animal (Unicorn Bull) and tree worship (Pipal) also found
A small pot was discovered here, which there.
inkpot.
was
probably an
With supernatural powers, they also believed in
evil-powers and might have used amulets as protection
Lothal against them.
twas excavated in 1957 by Mr SR Rao located in
on coastal flat of Gulf of Cambay. Gujarat Seals
Only site of Indus Valley Civilization having Most of the seals are made of steatite i.e., a soft stone as the
brick dockyard.
an
artificial
majority of the seals have an animal engraved on it with a
Here only, the earliest evidence of rice (1800 BC) found. short inscription. Shape of seals are square, rolled,
Existence of fire altars shows the evidence of fire-cult in triangular.
Lothal. Most frequently founded animal is unicorn bull.
The technique of cutting and polishing these seals with
Banawali white luster was a unique invention of the Indus Valley
Excavated in 1973-74 by Mr RS Bisht. It was found in Civilization.
Hissar (Haryana).
At Banawali, large quantity of barley, sesamum and mustard Trade and Commerce
was found. Internal (in India) well
as external
prevailed during Harappan Civilization.
as (foreign) trade
Things found here
No metallic money but barter system practised.
(i) Human and animal figures.
i) Clay bangles.
(ii) Statue of mother Goddess. The Vedic Age
(iv) Terracotta plough was also found here. The history of theVedic India is knowm largely through its
religious texts, Vedas, which gave the period its name.

Dholavira
Excavated by JP Joshi situated in Rann of Kutch
The Vedas recorded not only the religion of the vedic
people, but also details of their lives that give us a look at
their Political, Social and Economic pattern.
(Gujarat).
It is the latest and one of the two largest Harappan
settlement in India and the other one in Rakhigarhi The Aryans
(Haryana). The word Aryan is derived from Arya. which mean
the two sites located in favourably disposed towards new corners and later it
Mundigak and Shortughai are
implied high birth, but generaly, it refers to a language and
Afghanistan. not race.
Important Discoveries
There are many theories about the origin of these people.
Year Site Discovered by| Region The most accepted view is that they lived in the great
Stein Baluchistan steppe land which stretches from Poland to Central Asia.
1927 Sutkagendor Mr Aurel They were semi-nomadic people. In 2nd millennium BC,
1953 Rangpur Mr M Vats Gujrata
they started moving from their original home and migrated
|Fazal Ahmad Indus Eastwards and Southwards.
1953 Kot Diji
Mr YD Sharma Sutlej The Boghaz Kai inscriptions dated to 1400 BC gives the
1955-56 Ropar
information about peace treaty between the Hittites and
1963 Rakhigarhi Prof Surajbhan Hissor
the Mittanis rulers of the Hittani, in which the names of the
1964 Surkotada Mr J Joshi Bhuj Vedic Gods Indra, Mitra, Nasatya and Varuna are
 904 NDA/NA Pathfinder

mentioned. This supports the view, of the Central Asian the officer of pasture, led by Kulapa (the
Vajrapati was was another
homeland theory that Central Asia
family head) and Gramini in war. Senani
being Aryan homeland.
Vedic age was divided into two
parts important functionary after Purohita. Military functions
i) Early Vedic Age from 1500 BC- 1000 BC performed by tribal units like rata, gana, grama.
(ii) Later Vedic Age from 1000 BC- 600 BC Sabha and samiti were
.Tax known as Bali was voluntary.
known as the twin daughters of prajapati.
Early Vedic Age (1500 BC-1000 BC) Social Division
The main source of information for the that the
study of early Vedic Varna was the term used for colour and
it seems

Age people is the Rigveda. The founders of the Vedic fair and the indigenous
culture, were the Aryans, probably an Aryan language speakers were,

immigrant people inhabitants were dark in complexion.

whose first arrival in India is dated around 2000-1500 BC.
caste system is found.
.Caste System No evidence of
The Members of, same family may took different occupation.
Rig Vedic Age of 9th mandala.
Rig Vedic Age gives us knowledge about Aryans. This is well, illustrated in a hymn
Shudras.
The general opinion regarding the home of Aryans were Non-Aryans were.called Dasas or

.Formal Social Division i.e., Chaturvarna style (having

Somewhere in Steppes (from South Russia to Central
Russia).
The Rig Veda gives us information that Aryans first
settled at the region called Sapta Sindhu, or the land,of
seven rivers (Presently that region is-East Afghariistan,
Punjab and West UP)-Indus, Jhelum, Ravi, Chenab, Beas,
Sutlej, Saraswati.
Early Aryans were semi-nomadic and later on, they became
cultivator and then left the nomadic life. They gave great
preference to the cattle, so the ruling class was warrior
who were able to fight for cattle.
In cattle 'cow' was very preferable, like the word 'Gauri'
(cow) mentioned 176 times in Rig Veda, many more
terms were somewhere related with the word 'Gau' like
Gavishti means search for cows, Godhuli for daughter.
The term Aghanya or not to be killed has been used for
cows.
Guest of Goghana (one who feeds on beef).
The Rig Vedic Society
The Rig Vedic society was based on kinship. The early
Aryans were essentially tribal and egalitarians.
Tribe was called Jana.
Society was patriarchal and preferred the male child (who
fought for the cattle).
Existence of joint family pattern.
Eldest male member of the family was known as Kulapa.
Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra) not existed
here. But once described in 1Oth mandala of Rig Veda
(known as Purüshasukta).
Position of a Women Women possessed respectable
status in the society, took part in tribal assemblies, in
religious sacrjfices along with their husbands. Child
marriage was not in existence. The marrigeable age was
16 or 17 years for girls.
Widow remarriage and Niyoga prevailed in society.
Niyoga (levirate) In which a childless widow would
co-habit with her brother-in-law until the birth of a son.
.Polygamy and polyandry both existed, but monogamy
was in fashion.
There was no Purdah system.
The Rig Vedic Religion
The early Vedic people were nature worshippers. Neither
they had temples nor idols. They pray by the means of
recitation of Mantra.
The motive of worship was to get Praja (children), Pasu
(cattle) and Dhana (wealth), till that time they don't
require spiritual upliftment.
Boghazkai Inscription of 1400 BC found in Asia Minor
(Turkey) have mention of four Gods-Indra, Mitra, Varun
and Nasatya.

The Rig Vedic Polity

Gods
.The head was the supreme of the tribe or Jana, but he was
not supreme in powers, but works on the collective
response of the tribal assemblies.
Tribal assemblies were Sabha, Samiti, Gana and Vidhata.
Vidhata was the oldest one. These assemblies upholds
every important activity (like social, military, religious
etc).
The samitis were comprising the whole clan. The sabha
was a selected group of elderly people. Vidhata was
engaged in redistributive functions. Chief was called
Gopati. Women were allowed in Sabha and Vidhata.
Goddess Usha-Goddess of dawn, Aditi-Mother of Gods,
Prithvi-Earth Goddess, Aryani-The Forest Goddess.
Indra 250 hymns of Rig Veda dedicated to Indra. He
was also known as Purandhar or the destroyer of
the forts.
Varuna He was the upholder of Rita or cosmic order
and regulated it by dice. It was believed that
whatever is happening in the world is/was related
with the desire of God Varuna.
Agni Second most important God, about 200 hymns of
Veda was attributed to Agni. Agni was called
Rig
the intermediary God between God and men.
part Ancient India.
905
a1a God of plants. Special hymns
(9th mandala of Rig Veda is
was given to Soma Women enjoyed freedom and respect, but their status
dedicated to Soma). deteriorated compared to earlier time.
Dyaus Father of Indra.
(Dyases
hshwin Healers of
means
wounds and surgeon.
heaven) The institution of gotra appeared in this age first time.
Gotra signified descent from common ancestors.
The Sun Gods I n this time also, Chariot racing was the main sport and
(i) Surya gambling was the main pastime.
i) Savitri (The gayatri mantra is addressed to her in
3rd mandala of Rig Veda, which was Purushasukta Theory
Maharishi Vishwamitra). composed by of Rigveda.
Purushasukta is a late hymn of tenth Mandal
(it) Pusan Guardian of roads, herdsmen and cattle. The hymn says that four persons originated from the body
of the Purusha or the primeval creator.
From mouth of Purusha
The Later Vedic Age (1000 BC-600 BC) The Brahmana
From his arms
The Kshatriya
The expression later Vedic Age comprises 'thé far reaching The Vaishya From his thighs
chenges and developments that took place'ih 'the. religion, From his feet
cogial, economic and political conditionsiaf, the people The Shudra
during the period when the later Sanhitas Samaveda, The Four Ashramas
Yarurveda and Atharvaveda and the Brahmanas, Arayank in Aitreya Brahmana. t
and Upanishads were composed. The age is, also known as It is mentioned for the first time
consists of four stages of life
Painted Grey Ware (PGW) iron phase. - Student life
Brahmacharya.
- House-holder
+Grihastha :
Religion Vanaprastha
- Partial retirement
The importance of Rig Vedic Gods reduced. New Gods were
popularised Prajapati, Vishnu, Rudra. Pushan cow protector
became the God of Sudras. Pottery
The later Vedic people used four types of pottery black and
Geographical Extent red ware, black-stripped ware, painted grey ware.
During the later Vedic period, Aryans moved into Eastward Red ware was most popular with them and has been
and Southward areas. A study of the literature reveals that found almost all over Western UP However, the most
moving from Punjab, the Aryans settled in Delhi and upper distinctive pottery of the period is known as Painted Grey

Bangetic doab. The story of Agni and Videha Madhav Ware, which comprised bowls and dishes, used either for
rituals or for eating by the upper classes.
moving Eastward, as narrated in Satpatha Brahmana, gives
a proof of the Eastward march. Types of Marriages
There are 8 forms of marriages, they are
Political Organization Brahma Marriage of a duly dowered girl to a man of the
Tiny tribal settlements were replaced by strong kingdoms.
same Varna.
Fowers of the king, who was called Samrat increased. Daiva The father gives his daughter to a sacrificial priest
mportance of assemblies declined. Women were no as a part of his fee.
'rashtra'
onger permitted to attend assemblies. The term Arsha A token bride-price of a cow and a bull is given in
indicating territory first appeared in this period. place of the dowry.
regular army was maintained for the protection of Prajapatya The fathergives the girl without dowry and
without demanding the bride-price
kingdom.
Commander in chief Gandharva Marriage by the consent of the two parties
References of priest (Purohita),
enapati), Charioteer (Suta), Treasurer (Sangrahita), Tax (love-marriage).
Chief (Mahisi) and the game Asura Marriage, in which the bride was bought from her
Collector (Bhagdugha), queen
father. It was looked down upon with disfavour by all
Companion (Aksavapa).
scared texts, though Arthasastra' allows it without
Social Life criticism.
The four-fold division of society became clear-initially Rakshasa Marriage by capture, it was practised especially
which later became hereditary by warriors.
Dased on occupation,
Brahmins (Priests), Kshatriyas (Warriors), Vaishyas Paishacha Marriage by seduction.
cattle-rearers, traders) and Sudras (servers
griculturists,
of the upper three).
 906 NDA/NA Pathfinder

The Atharva Veda

Vedic Literature is entircly different
from the other
The word"Veda" is derived from Sanskrit word vid., meaning .The Atharva Veda the last of the four
three Vedas and is chronologically
to know signifring knowledge per cwellence. The Vedic text are Vedas.
shruti ie., directly revealed to authors by God.
.The Satapatha Brahmana used the
term
trayi ie, the
Smritis are remembered and collected parts of literature of Veda.
Veda, Yajur Veda and Sama
later period. They are also called samhitas in the sense that Rig beliets and practices of
Veda mentions
they represent oral tradition of the time. Four Vedas and .Atharva
their samhitas, the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the non-Aryans.
Upanishads form a class of literature known as shruti. It contains magical mantra etc.
the samiti are described as sisters and
I n it, the sabha and
The Rig Veda the two daughters of prajapati.
It is divided into 10 books or mandalas. Mandala II to VII known as Brahma Veda.
This Veda is also
t
are considered the oldest and known as family mandalas.
Book I, VII and X seem to be later added. The Brahamanas
It dated 1500 BC-1000 BC. It has 1028 hymns written by commentaries on various Vedic
These aré the prose
in an orthodox way. They
number of priestly families. The Rig Veda was written
when
hymns. They explain the Vedas the hymns of
still in Punjab. Book II to VII are earliest and hidden meanings behind
Aryans were explain the of the cause (hetu).
expressions
Gritsamada, Vishvamitra, Vasudeva, Atri, They
Brahamans. are
attributed to
is the largest Brahamana
Bhardwaj, Vashishtha, Kanva and Angiras. .Shatapatha Brahamana It also the first water
book. It has the story of Vidiha and
contains the hymns of soma.
.The 9th manda
Purushasukta disaster
The 10th mandala contains the famous c e n s u r e (ninda), doubt
the origin of four varnas Etymology (nirvachana),
hymns that explains (sanshaya) and injuction (vidhi).
(Chatur-varna theory).
Gayatri Mantra is the most sacred hymn of the Rig
Veda. Mentioned in 3rd mandala,
written by The Aranyakas
sages dwelling in
Vishvamitra. (This mantra is addressed to the Sun). The authors of the Aranyakas were some
for their in the
Veda is called Hotri. the forest and explained Vedic texts pupils
Singer of Rig mean belonging to the
form of Aranyakas. Aranyakas
as forest books.
The Yajur Veda forest. So, these Aranyakas are known

.It is ritualistic Veda. They form the concluding part of Brahamanas.

Veda (Poetry) (included
I t is divided into Shukla Yajur
Vajasneyi samhita) and Krishna Yajur Veda (Prose and Upavedas
Poetry)(Kathak, Matriyani and Taittiriya, Vapisthal
not
These are subsidiary Vedas dealing with secular subjects.
are
samhita in which mantra and Brahamanas part Important Upavedas are
medicine.
separated). (i) Ayur Veda Pertains to
Written in prose, it deals with procedure for performance (ii) Dhanur Veda Pertains to art
of warfare.
well as hymns.
of sacrifices and contain rituals as (ii) Gandharva Veda Pertains to music.
Adhvaryus. literature.
Singer of Yajur Veda is called
(iv) Shilpa Veda Pertains to art and
The Sama Veda The Upanishads
the root word saman means
.Word sama derived from
The term Upanishads indicates knowledge acquired
melody/music. close to the teacher. Under it, many
all the rest of the by sitting
I t has 1603 verses, but except 99, discussed. Such as the origin ot
the Rig Veda. metaphysical topics were
and death or
hymns have been borrowed from universe, the nature of God, the origin
I t contains Dhrupada Raga. mankind etc.
loved music and
The Samaveda shows that the Aryans They do not believe in orthodox rituals and sacrifices. On
were not merely puritans. are the followers of
Karma (Action),
the contrary, they
Singer of Sama Veda is called udgatri. Atma (Soul) and God (Brahma).
 Part Ancient India
907
They aIC spiritual and
philosophical in nature.
Als knoWn as Vedanta
the Jnana marga
or the cend of
Vedas. Always Jainism
preaches
anishads are 108 in
(knowledge path). The founder and the
father of
number (800 -

500 BC). Born 54O BC as Jainism was Mahavira.

Jayate is Vardhamana (childhood name) at
Satyamev
extracted from Kundagrama near Vaishali.
Upanishad. Mundako
His father Siddhartha was the
head of a famous Kshatriya
clan, and his mother was named Trishala sister of the
Vedangas (Limbs of Vedas) Lichchhavi Princess Chief Chetaka, whose daughter was
.These are treaties on Science and Arts. wedded to Bimbisara.
hiksha (phonetics), Kalpa (rituals), Vyakarna Mahavira attained Kaivalya (perfect knowledge) under sal
Chanda (metrics), Nirukta (etymology), (grammar).
Jyoisha
tree, near village Jimbhikagrama. On the bank of the river
(astronomy). Rijupalika and died at the age of 72 at Pavapuri near
modern Rajgir in 468 BC.
.Yaska's Nirukta (5th century BC) is the oldest
text.
linguistic After the death of Mahavira, during the. reign of king
Chadragupta Maurya (the founder Mauryan empire), a
severe famine led to the migration of some Jains under
Shad Darshan (Six Systems of Philosophy) Bhadrabahu to the Deccan. Sthulbhadra remained in
Nyaya (Analysis): Gautam North and allowed wearing white garments Bhadrabahu
Vaisesika (Atomic characteristic): Kanada maintained nudity leading to division as Digambards (sky
Sankhya (Enumeration): Kapil clad or naked) and Svetambaras (white clad).
Yoga (Application) Patanjali There are 24 Tirthankaras in the history of Jainism.
Purva Mimansa (Enquiry): Jaimini
Uttar Mimansa (Vedanta): Vyasa
Mahavir Swamiwas the last and the 24th Tirthankara of
Jainism.
are called the
In Jainism, three Ratnas are given and they
Epics way of Nirvana.
Right faith-Samyak Vishwas
Mahabharata +Right knowledge-Samyak Gyan
It Ved Vyas is older than
is written by 'Ramayana'. Right conduct-Samyak Karma
Originally Mahabharata consisted of 880 verses then it
was raised to 24000 verses. The final compilation brought
the number of verses to 100000. Sacred Literature
Razmnama Translation of Mahabharat in Persian Svetambaras believed in these sacred literature written in
language. a form of prakrit called Ardhamagadhi.
(i) The twelve Angas
Ramayana (i) The twelve Upangas
It is known as Aadikavya, written by Valmiki in
(ii) The ten Parikarnas
Sanskrit. (iv) The six Chhedasutras
In it, capital of Kaushal (Saket)
Mahajanpad, Ayodhya
has been mentioned. 500 BC-AD 4th century gave
(v) The four Mulasutras.
There are five main teachings of Jainism
knowledge about this period.
Badayuni. (i) Non-injury (Ahimsa)
Persian translation of Ramayana is written byKamban. It (ii) Non-lying (Truth)
translation of Ramayana is written by
Tamil (ii) Non-possession (Aparigralha)
is also known as Bible of South India. (iv) Non-stealing (Asateya)
Presently, Ramayana have 24000 shlokas. (v) Observe continence (Brahmacharya)
Awadhi language.
Ramcharitmanas written by Tulsidas in The first four principles were given by Parsavanath and
fifth one i.e., Brahmacharya was added by Mahavira.
Puranas
Its Meaning is old.
Writer of Puranas is Lomharsh son Ugrvarsh. Preachings of Mahavira or the
in Gupta age.
Principles of Jainism
is written in AD 4th century
t the Vedic rituals.
18. Rejected the authority of the Vedas and
Number of Puranas are It tells about Did not believe in the existence of God.
Oldest Purana is Matasya Purana.
Attainment of salvation (Moksha) by believing penance
Satvahana dynasty. and dying of starv:tion.
has been mentioned.
nPurana, 10 avtar of Vishnu Laid great emphasis on equality or universal brotherhood.
about Gupta dynasty.
Vayu Puran gives details
 NDA/NA Pathfinder
908
5. Four Mulasutras
Tirthankaras and their Symbols Granthas
6. Two Sutra
I t is written
in Pali Language.
Name Symbol the most important were

Among the Jaina writers, Divakara, Manib.

Rishabha Bull sutra),
Siddhasena,
Bhadrabahu (Kalpa- Hemachandra
Siddha, (Parisistha Parvan),
Ajitnath Elephant hadra, wrote narrative
The Jainas
Sambharanath Horse and Mallinath.
Nayachandra and hymns.
literature, kavyas,
novels, dramas
Abhiaandam Swamy Monkey
Sumathinath Curlew
Buddhism
Red Lotus (Sakyamuni or Tathagat)
Padamprabhu Founded by Gautam Buddha

Suparsvanathe Swastik Siddhartha.

known originally as
Chandraji Prabhu Moon Buddhism stands on three pillars
Buddha The enlightened
Suvidhinath Crocodile ()
Dhamma The doctrine
Shitalnath Srivatsa (ii) monks and nuns.
Order of Buddhist
(ii) Sangha
Shregansnath Rhinoceros
Vasupujya Buffalo Buddha's Life
in a sal groove
BC (widely accepted)
Vimalnath Boar H e was born in 563 Mother Mahamaya
in Kapilavastu.
Falcon of Lumbini garden
Ananthnath
(a Kosalan princess).
Dharamnath Vajra Father Sudhodhana (of Sakya tribe).
Deer Siddhartha and gotra was Gautama.
Shantinath Buddha's name was
of his birth and he was
Kuntunath He-Goat His mother died after 7 days Gautami.
his Stepmother Mahaprajapati
by
Arnath Fish brought up envious with him.
Devadutta was his cousin and always
| Water Pot birth to a son Rahul.
Mallinath Buddha's wife was Yashodhra and gave
Channa and favourite horse was
Muniswasth Tortoise Buddha chariot was
Naminath Blue Lotus Kanthak.
which people suffered in the
Conch Shell H e was moved by the misery,
Neminath
world and looked for its solution.
| Serpent (Snake) that incident became
Parsvanatha Then he left home at the age of 29
Lion famous by the name of Mahabhinishkramana- 'great
Mahavira
going forth'.

Jain Councils H e first became disciple of Alara Kalam

a
After
Sthulbhadra, in
Kalam was the spécialist of Samakhya philosophy.
First was held at Pataliputra (Bihar) by sometimes, he left Alara and joined Rudraka. From there,
BC and resulted in the that
the beginning of the 3rd century he went to Ufuvela and practised such great penance
14 Purvas.
compilation of 12 Angas to replace he was reduced to a mere skeleton.
in the AD 512
Second was held at Vallabhi (Gujarat) His conception of religion was purely ethical.
and resulted in final
under the leadership of Devardhi
Buddha got enlightenment under the pipal tree known
as

compilation of 12 Angas and 12 Upangas. Buddha, soul is

Bodhi tree at Gaya in Bihar. According to

a myth.
Jain Literature He gave his first sermon at Sarnath (ancient name was
name of
The sacred books of the joins are known as siddhartha or
Rishipattan) first sermon became famous by the of law).
Dharma Chakrapravartan (or the turning of wheel
Agama. He spent his last days near Vaishali. At Pava, a man
The sacred books of Jainas include died
named Chunda fed him pork, after eating it Buddha
1. Twelve Angas 483 BC His death was
of dysentry at the age of 80 in
2. Twelve Upangas In the
known Mahaparinirvana i.e., final blowing out.
3. Ten Prikarnas outskirts of Kushinagar, the capital of Mallas.
His
4. Six Chhedasutras favourite disciple was Ananda.
eatt I Ancient India
909
Teachings of Buddha
His four noble truths council was held under the
Arya Satyas)
Tissa, to revise the Buddhist texts.
presidentship of Mogaliputta
) The world is full of sorrows The Fourth Council
(ii) The cause of Sabbam Dukkam of Kanishka
(AD 72) was held during the reign
sorrow is desire (the Kushana ruler) in Kashmir under the
Nidan/Pratitya Samutpada. Dwadash presidentship of Vasumitra and Ashwaghosha and at that
1 f desires are time, Buddhism
removed Ninana. conquered, all sorrows was divided into Hinayana and
can be Mahayana.
(iv) This can be achieved The Fifth Council (1871) held
by following the 8-fold during the regin of
Ashtangika Marga. path agarabhivamsa Sumangalasami in Mandalay Burna under
truth, is based the President ship of
second
utpada or Pra
on
Buddha's doctrine of King Mindon.
Pratitya samutpada
gination or causation. i.t., lavy of
Paticheha The Sixth Council (1954) held
during the reign of
dependent Burmese Government in Kaba
Aye, Burma under the
Eight-fold Path Presidentship Mahasi Sayadaw.
(Ashtangika marga) Types of Buddhism
) Right understanding
qi) Right thought 1. Hinayana or Lesser Wheel
(ii) Right speech The followers of
of Buddha.
Hinayana believed in the original teachings
(iv) Right action . They believed
in individual salvation.
They do
not believe in idol-worship. Hinayana is
(w)Rightlivelihood Jainism a religion without God, Karma
very similar with
(vi) Right effort
God. The oldest
taking the place of
(vii) Right mindfulness sect of Hinayana is the Sthaviravada or
Theravada in Pali
language.
(vii) Right concentration
2. Mahayana or Greater wheel
Three Jewels (Triratnas)
(i) Buddha (the enlightened) The follower of
of Buddha and
Mahayana sect believed in the heavenliness
(ii) Dhamma (doctrine) sought the salvation through the grace and
help of Buddha and Bodhisattvas. It came into existence
(ii) Sangha (order)
during the reign of Kanishka.
Code of Conduct
(G) Do not convert the property of others .They believed that Nirvana is not a negative cessation of
(ii) Do not commit violence misery, but a positive state of bliss. Two chief philosophical
schools are there in Mahayana school
(ii) Do not use intoxicants
(iv) Do not speak a lie
(i) Madhyamika (i) Yogachara.
It was spread out of India.
(v) Do not indulge in corrupt practices
Belief in Nirvana
Buddhist Texts
Also known as moksha or saBvation. It refers to belief in the
Vinaya Pitaka It contains the rules and regulations of
concept of ultimate bliss, where by the person gets monastic discipline for monks. An account of the life and
freedom from the cycle of birth and death. teaching of the Buddha is also given.
Belief in Ahimsa Sutta Pitaka Few discourses delivered by many Buddhist
La of Karma and Madhya Marga/Madhyama Pratipada scholars like Sariputta, Ananda and others are given in it.
(the middle path). It lays down the principles of Buddhism. It is a collection
of Buddha's sermon and is divided into five groups.

Buddhist Councils Abhidhamma Pitaka

teachings. It
Having the philosophy of Buddha's
investigates mind and matter to help the
The First Council (483 BC) was held at Sattapanni they truly
aptaparni) cave near Rajagriha under the chairmanship
understanding of things as are.

Jatak Stories It tells about 550 pre births of Buddha.

Or Mahakassapa. Here Vinaya Pitaka and Sutta Pitaka
Milindapanho A conversation among Greeco-Bactria king,
Compiled and Ananda
by Upali Ajat Shatru
respectively. Menander and a Buddhist monk, Nagasena. It is written
was the king at that time. in the form of question and answer type.

he Second Council (383 BC) was held at Vaishali. Kathavastu Hinayana granth, language Sanskrit. It is the
of Shishunaga first book written in Sanskrit language in Buddhist
uring the reign of Kalashoka, the king of Vaishali
ynasty and Chairman-Sabakami. The monk religion.
Divided into Mahavibhashashastra Written by Vasumitra, encyclopedia
nted some changes in the rites.
Sthavirvadins and Mahasamghikas. of Buddhist religion.
at Pataliputra Mahavamsha In Pali language, it tells
he Third Council (250 BC) was held ruler). Dipavamsha and
This about the history of Sri Lanka.
luri the reign of Ashoka (the Mauryan
 910 NDA/NA Pathfinder
in war.
3. Vajrayana or Vehicle of Thunderbolt Use of elephants on large scale
The alluvial soil of the Gangetic valley and sufficient
The followers of
Vajrayana believed that salvation could be
attained by acquiring rainfall were very conducive for agriculture.
themagical powers i.c., Vajra. The chief
divinities of their sect were Taras.
Vajrayana became popular
in Eastern part of India.
particularly in Bengal and Bihar Haryanka Dynasty (542-414 BC)
the grandfather
Originally founded in 566 BC byBimbisara. of
Bimbisara, but actual foundation by
Mahajanapadas Bimbisara (544 BC-492 BC)
During the age of Buddha, we find 16 large states called
Contemporary of Buddha.
Mahajanapadas mentioned in Buddhist text Angkuttar
Nikaya. These Mahajanpadas were either monarchical or H e conquered Anga (East Bihar) to gain control over

republican in character. trade route with the Southern states.

The sixteen Mahajanapadas are His capital was Rajgriha (Girivraja). He strengthened his
with the ruling families
position by matrimonial alliance
Mahajanapadas Capital of Kosala, Vaishali, and Madra (3 wives).
Kashi Varanasi His capital was surrounded by 5 hills, the openings in
Kosala which were closed by stone walls on all sides. This made
Shravasti
Anga Champa Rajgir impregnable.
Magadh Girivraj or Rajgriha
Ajatshatru (492 BC-460 BC)
Vaji Vaishali
Son of Bimbisara, killed his father and seized the throne.
Malla Kushinagar and Pavapuri Annexed Vaishali and Kosala (annexed Vaishali with the
Chedi Shuktamati help of a war engine, which was used to throw stones.
Vatsa Kausambi Kosala was ruled by Prasenajit at that time.
Kuru Hastinapur, Indraprastha Buddha died during his reign; arranged the first Buddhist
and Isukara Council.
Panchala Ahichhatra and Kampilya
Matsya Udayin (460-444 BC)
Viratnagar
Surasena Mathura Last ruler-Nagdasak.
Ashmaka He founded the new capital at Pataliputra, situated at the
Pratisthana confluence of the Ganga and Son.
Avanti Mahismati
Gandhara Taxila
Kamboja Rajpur Shishunaga Dynasty (414-344 BC)
Founded by a minister Shishunaga. He was succeeded by
Kalasoka (I Buddhist Council held during his period).
Magadha Empire Dynasty lasted for two generations only.
The period from 6th to 4th century BC saw the struggle for Greatest achievement was the destruction of power of
supremacy among four Mahajanpadas magadha, Kosala, Avanti.
Vatsa and Avanti. The founder of Magadha was Jarasandha Last Ruler was Nandivardhan.
and Brihadratha. But the growth started under the
Haryankas. Nanda Dynasty (344-323 BC)
Magadha embraced the former districts of Patna, Gaya and I t is considered
parts of Shahabad and grew to be the leading state of the
first
as
of the
non-Kshatriya dynasties.
time.
Founder was Mahapadma Nanda. He added Kalinga to
his empire. He claimed to be the ekarat, the sole
sovereign who destroyed all the other ruling princes.
Causes for the Rise of Magadha
Alexander attacked India in the reign of Dhana
Following are the causes for rise of Magadha Nanda-the last ruler.
Advantageous geographical location with both Rajgriha Nandas were fabulously rich and enormously powertul.
and Pataliputra situated at strategic locations. Maintained 200000 infantry, 60000 cavalry and 6U00
Abundance of natural resources, such as iron enabled war elephants. This is supposed to have checked
Magadha rulers to equip with effective weapons. Alexander's army from advancing towards Magadha.
part Ancient India

911
Alexandder's Invasion Under Ashoka the empire reached its zenith. And in the
ander (356 BC-323 BC) was the son of history first time the entire Indian sub-continent came
MaCedonia (Greece) who invaded India in 326PhilipBC.
of
under a single umbrella
(except extreme Southern India).
At that time North-West India was split He fought a battle known as
up into a
number of smalil independent States like Taxila, the 8th year of his
Kalinga
War in 261 BC in
(kingdom of Porus), Gandharas etc. Punjab. coronation, in which one lakh people
died.
Porus fought the tamous battle of Hydaspes (on bank
of Jhelum) with Alexander. Ashoka sent peace missionaries inside India as well as
abroad.
When Alexander reached Beas, his soldiers refused to
go further, so he was forced to retreat.
Ashoka's Edicts
He erected 12 huge stone altars on the Northern bank
Ashokan edicts are inscribed either on
of Beas to mark the tarthest point of his.advance.
rocks. They consists of pillars of stone or on
Remained in India for 19 months and died in 323 BC at Major and Minor group. They give
information on the life and reign of the
Babylon. king.
Major Rock Edicts
They are a set of 14 inscriptions jfound at 8 places
Dhauli, Girnar, Jauguda, Kalsi, Mansehra,
The Mauryan Empire Shahbazgarhi,
Sopara and Yerragudi. The major rock edicts also include two
325 BC to 183 BC) separate edicts found at Kalinga. They deal with administration
The most immediate and and ethics.
unexpected by, product of
Alexander'sinvasion of North-West was that ie hastended Minor Rock Edicts
the Mauryan conquest of the whole country These are spread on 13
places Bairat, Brahmagiri, Gavimath,
Gujarra, Jatinga-Rameshwar, Maski, Palkigunda, Maadagiri,
Chandragupta Maurya (321-298 BC) Rupanath, Sasaram, Siddhapur, Suvarnagiri and Yerragudi.
The founder father of the Mauryan empire was
The Minor Rock Edict includes
Chandragupta Maurya. Kandhar Inscriptions It is located at Kandhar.
He overthrew the last Nanda ruler, Dhanananda with the Bhabru Inscriptions It is located at Bairat in
help of Kautilya also known as Chanakya. and deals with Ashoka's conversion Rajasthan
to Buddhism.
In 305 BC' Chandragupta defeated Seleucus Nicator (the
Greek ambassador) who surrendered a big territorial part Major Pillar Edicts
to him including Kabul. Afghanistan, Baluchistan and These are a set of seven edicts found at Allahabad, Meerut,
Sopara, Lauriya Averaj, Lauriya Nandangarh and Ramp-
Herat also received a Greek ambassador i.e., urva. These edicts are
engraved onMonolithic Pillars.
Megasthenese sent by Seleucus (wrote Indica having the Kausambi edicts are known as Queen's edict. They indicate
description of Mauryan administration, society etc.) about donations given by queen Karukaki.
Chandragupta adopted Jainism and went to Sravanabelagola
Minor Pillar Edicts
with Bhadrabahu where he died by Starvation
Rummindei Pillar Inscription It mentions the
Sallekhana) at Chandragiri hill. exemption of Lumbini (birth place of Buddha) from tax.
Nigalisagar Pillar Inscription It is located in Kapilvastu.
Bindusara (298-273 BC) It informs about Ashoka
increasing the size of stupa of
Buddha Konakamana to double of its former size.
Theson and successor of Chandragupta Maurya.
of foes) by Greek writers. Scheism Edict It is located at Kausambi, Sanchi and
Called Amitraghata (slayer Sarnath. It appeals for maintaining
He asked Antiochus-I of Syria to send some sweet wine, order
unity in Buddhist
he sent all.
aried fig and Sophist. Except Sophist,
a
Barabara Cave Inscriptions It is located in Bihar.
le is said to have conquered "the land between the two They
At the time speak about Ashoka's donation of cave to the
Ajivikas.
Seas" i.e., the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal. came
OT his death, almost the entire subcontinent under
rule. Greek Ambassador, Deimachus
visited Later Mauryas
the Mauryan
the court sent
by Antiochus. According toBuddhist tradition, Ashoka ruled for twenty
seven years. The disintegration of the Mauryan Empire
seemed to have set in immediately after Ashoka's
Ashoka (273-232 BC) The tenth and the last of the
death.
and of Bindusara. It is said
that he Mauryas was Brihadratha,
ne son successor
who was murdered by his General
Pushyamitra Shunga.
Ecame king by killing his 99 brothers. This was the end of Mauryan
a Minister of Dynasty.
hen he became the king, Radhagupta,
Eindusara, also helped him.
912
NDA/NA Pathfinder
Mauryan Administration called the Indo-Greeks or Bactrian Greeks
The
Mauryan state was they ruled Bactria).
(because
centralised government.
a welfare state with highly The most famous Indo-Greek ruler was
King was the Menander
includcd
Nucleus, assisted by Mantri Parishad, which (165-145 BC), also known as Milinda. He had his capjital
at Sankala (modern Sialkot) in
(i)
Punjab.
Yuvaraj the crown prince. .He was converted to Buddhism by Nagasena
or Nagariuna
ii) Gopa the Purohit chief priest. (described in Milindapanho or The Question of
(ii) Senapati Commander-in-Chief of .Greeks were the first to issue gold coins in India.
Milinda).
ministers. army and other
The Sanskrit term for astrology Horshastra,
is derived
Facts About Mauryans from the Greek term
Horoscope.
According The Shakas or Scythians (90 BC)
to
Megasthenese, the administration
was carried by a board of 30 officers divided of. army
into six The Greeks were followed by the Sakas, who
controlled a
committees, each consisting of 5 members. larger part of India than the Greek did.
They are
)Army (iü) Cavalry (ii) Elephants (iv) Chariot (v) Navy
There were, 5 branches of the Shakas with their
seats of
(vi) Transport. power in different parts of India and Afghanistan.
Though Megasthenese said that there was no A king of Uijain, who called himself
slavery in Shakas in 58 BC and started VikramVikramaditya
India, yet defeated
according to Indian sources slavery was a era (58 BC).
recognised institution during Mauryans reign. .The most famous Shaka ruler in
India was
.Tamralipti in the Gangetic delta was the most prosperous (AD 130-150). He is famous for theRudradaman repairs of
part on the East coast of India. Sudrashanalake in Kathiawar. His
Megasthenese in his Indica Republic had mentioned Junagarh inscription. inscription
was

7 castes in
Mauryan society. The Parthians/Pahalvas (AD 1st-3rd Century)
Art and Architecture
Originally, they lived in
Iran, invaded at the
beginning of
Mauryan art is classified into two groups by Ananda Christian era, from where they moved to
India. In
Coomaraswamy comparison to Greeks and Shakas, they occupied only a
1. small portion in North-West India in
Popular/Folk Art Sculpture of Yaksha and Yakshini the first century.
e.g., Yaksha of Parkham (Mathura), Yakshini from The most famous Parthian
Vidisha (MP) and Didarganj King was
(AD 19-45), in whose reign St Thomas Gondophernes
(Patna). is said to have
2. Royal/Court Art come to India for the
Royal Palace of Chandragupta propagation of Christianity
Maurya at Kumharar, Patna (Fa hien referred it as the
creation of God), City of
stupas and caves.
Patliputra, Ashokan Pillars, ERAS
Kali Era 3102 BC
Mauryans introduced stone masonary on large scale.
Vikram Era 58 BC by Vikramaditya
Pillars represent the masterpiece of Mauryan sculpture, Saka Era AD 78 by Kanishka
Kalchuri Era AD 248
(i) Single lion capital Rampurva and Lauriya
(ii) Four lion capital at Sarnath and Sanchi.
Nandangarh. Gupta AD 319-20 by Chandragupta
Harsh AD 606 Harshavardhan
(ii) Carved elephant at Dhauli and engraved elephant at
Kalsi.
The Kushans (AD 45))
Stupas were built throughout the empire to enshrine the
relics top Buddha «.g., Sanchi and Bharhut. Came from North Central Asia near
China.
included a good part of Central Asia, a Their empire
I n this reigon, Varanasi was the best
producer or silk. portion of Afghanistan, Pakistan and
portion of Iran,
almost the whole oa
Post Mauryan Period North India.
Mauryans were succeeded by many ruling dynasties from Kanishka was the most famous king.
Central Asia in North-West India and persons
He patronized the following
by native rulers
(Shungas, Kanvas, Satvahanas) in the Eastern, Central and ) Ashwaghosha (wrote "Buddhacharita', which is the
Deccan region of India. biography of Buddha and 'Sutralankar) Nagarjuna
The Indo-Greeks (wrote "Madhyamik Sutra").
(ii) Charakh (a physician,
A number of invasions took place around 200 BC. The
wrote
Charakhsamhita).
ii) Kanishka was the most famous Kushan ruler. He 3
first to invade India were the Greeks, who were also known in history because two reasons
of
part I Ancient India
913
/a) He started an era in AD 78,
which is now
as Saka era and is used
by the Government of
known was called Vihara. The most famous Chaitya is that o
India. Karle in West Deccan.
b) He extended his whole-hearted heir provinces were called Ahara, as it was in Ashoka's
Buddhism (held a Buddhist Council inpatronage to time. Their officials were known as amatyas and
Kashmir). mahamatyas, as they were known in Mauryan times.
,Some of the successors of Kanishka bore typical Indian
names as Vasudeva.
Sangam Age (300 BC AD 600)
Kingdoms After the Mauryas
The known
age of 3 Southern kingdoms Cheras, Pandyas, Cholas
as Sangam Age.
The Shunga Dynasty (185 BC BC) -

73
was

Period 300 BC-AD 600.

. Pushyamitra founded this dynasty.. His. dominions The word Sangam means Assembly. It was an assembly of
extended to South as far the Narmada river and
as
Tamil poets and scholars.
included cities of Pataliputra, Ayodhya and Vidisha.
. The fifth king was Bhagabhadra,, to The Three Sangam Kingdom
whose court
Heliodorus, the GTeek ambassador visitèd Kingdom Capital Royal Emblem
.Last ruler was Devabhuti.
Cholas Uraiyur later Puhar Tiger
AShunga king, Agnimitra was the hero of Kalidasa's
Malavikagnimitram. Cheras Vaniji or Karur Bow

.This period saw the revival of Pandyas Madurai Carp (fish)

Bhagvati_m.
Patanjali's classic Mahabhashya was written. during this
The Pandyas
time.
Pushyamitradefeated the Bactrian, Dematrius. .Theircapital was Madurai.
First mentioned by Megasthenese, who says that their
The famous book on Hindu Law, Manusmriti was
compiled during this period. kingdom was famous for pearls and was ruled by a woman.
Important King was Nendunjeliyan.
The Kanva Dynasty (73 BC-72 BC)
.The founder of this short-lived dynasty was Vasudeva, who The Cholas
killed the last Shunga king Devabhuti. The kingdom was called Cholamaxdalam or Coromandal.
The chief centre was Uraiyur, a place famous for cotton
by Satavahanas of the Deccan.
They were swept away
trade. Capital was Kaveripattanam/puhar.
The Satavahanas A Chola king named Elara conquered Srilanka and ruled
Founder of Satavahanas was Simuka. it over for 50 years.
in the Deccan .Karikala was their famous king.
They were the successors of the Mauryans
and the central India.
Satakarni (AD 106-130)
Important king was Gautamiputra Satavahanas The Cheras
of to greater
who raised the power and prestige Paithan on the bank of
.Their capital was Vanji (also called Kerala country).
heights. He set up his capital district.
at
I t owed its importance to trade with the Romans. The
river Godavari in Aurangabad Romans set up two regiments there to protect their interests.
to Brahmins was found
First evidence of land grants Fought against the Cholas about AD 150.
started by Satavahanas). .Greatest king was Senguttuvan, the Red Chera.
and Amravati
Satavahanas built Nagarjuna Konda Stupa
Stupa. of the Three Kingdoms
Other Aspects
information is based Sangam literature.
on
Important Aspect. All the gathered or assembly of amil poets
held
from copper and bronze). Sangam was a college
Mostly issued lead coins (apart probably Royal
under Patronage (especially Pandyas).
North and South India. (story of a married couple)
Acted as a bridge between brahmins. Performed
Silappadikaram by llango Adigal
are the tamous epics of this
rulers called themselves
sattanar
Satavahana and Manimekalai by
Gods like Krishna, Vasudeva
vedic rituals and worshipped time.
who used to work in
others. However, they
also promoted Buddhism by Pariyars'-agricultural
labourers
and animal skin.
granting land to the monks.
the Buddhist military offices held by vellalas (rich peasants).
constructions were Civil and
The 2 c o m m o n religious
and the monastries, which The ruling class was called Arahar.
temple that was called Chaitya
914
The Gupta Period
(AD 275-AD 550)
After the decline of Mauryas, Guptas came into
existence.
Actually, we found two names related with Gupta
dynasty, before Chandragupta I. These are Srigupta
and Ghatotkacha.
Chandragupta I(AD 319-335)
He was the first prominent ruler of Gupta dynasty and
assumed the title of Maharajadhiraja.
H e made his empire strong by his own efforts and also
by making marriage with Lichchavis princess.
Lichchavis were a very powerful family or ruling class of
Mithila at that time.
He started the Gupta Era in AD 320.
Samudragupta (AD 335-375)
He was perhaps the greatest king of Gupta dynasty.
The most detailed and authentic record of his reign is
preserved in the Allahabad pillar inscription known as
Prayag Prasasti written by his court poet Harisena.
He always believed in policy of war and conquest and
has been termed as Napolean of India by VA Smith.
Coins Archer type, Tiger type and the Battle type
some coins, he is represented by playing the veena.
on
Chandragupta II (AD 380-413)
He was the first Gupta ruler to issue silver coin.
. He also strengthened his empire by making marriages
with powerful dynastic princess. He himself married
with Kuber Naga, the Naga princess, And his daughter
Prabhavati was married with Vakataka prince
Rudrasena II.
Mehrauli Iron pillar inscription claims his authority
over North-Western India and a good portion of
Bengal.
Fahien, a Chinese traveller also came during the reign
of Chandragupta II. (AD 399.414).
He was also a man of art and culture, his court at
Ujain was adorned by Navaratna (Nine gems)
including Kalidasa, Amarsimha, Acharya Dinanga etc.
Kumaragupta | (AD 413-455)
Kumaragupta adopted the title of Mahendraditya.
.Founded Nalanda University (a renowned university of
Ancient India).
.Kalidas (The Shakespeare of India) flourished in the
reign of both Chandraguptà II and Kumargupta I.
Kumaragupta was the worshipper of Lord Kartikeya
(son of Lord Shiva, his vehicle is peacock).
NDA/NA Pathfinder
Skandagupta (AD 455-467)
(a fierce nomad horde of Central Asia)
He faced Hunas
effectively
Fall of Gupta Empire
.The weak successors of Skandagupta could not check the
growing Huna power.
Feudatories rose in Bihar, Bengal, MP, Vallabhi etc.
Administration
Kings were called Parameshwara/Maharajadhiraja/
Parambhattaraka.
issued the largest number of gold coins in Ancient
They
India, which were called Dinars.
Social Development
The castes were further divided into sub-castes.
The practice of untouchability intensed (especially hatred
for Chandalas).. Fa-hien mentions that the Chandalas lived
outside the village and were distanced by the upper class.
Religion
The Bhagwad Gita was written, Buddhism declined.
The Bhagwatism centered around worshipping Vishnu or
Bhagwad.
.Vishnu temple at Deogarh (near Jhansi), a small temple near
Sanchi and a brick temple at Bhitargaon (near Kanpur)
belong to the Gupta architecture.
Art
Samudragupta is represented on his coins playing the flute.
2 metre high bronze image of Buddha belonging to the
Mathura school (The Gandhara Buddha represents mask
like coldness, while the Buddha from the Mathura school
imparts a feeling of warmth and vitality).
Images of Vishnu, Shiva and some other Hindu Gods
feature first time in this period.
Literature
Kalidas, the great Sanskrit dramatist, belonged to this
period. His books are The Abhigyanashakuntalam.
as one of the best
(considered literary works in the world
and one of the earliest Indian work to be translated into
European language, the other work being the Bhagwad Gita)
Ritusamhar, Meghadutam, Kumarsambhavam, Malvikagnimitram,
Raghuvamsa, Vikramovarshiyam etc.
Ramayana and the Mahabharata were almost completed by
the AD 4th century.
Science and Technology
Aryabhatt the great Mathematician wrote the Aryabhatipa
and the Suryasiddhanta. In the Aryabhattiya, he described the
place value of the first nine numbers and the use of zero. He
also calculated the value of n and invented Algebra. In the
Suryasiddhanta, he proved that the Earth revolves around the
 Ancient India 915
Part I
a
Sun and rotates on its axis. In this way, he discovered after the fall of Satavahanas, the Pallavas established
the cause of the solar and lunar eclipses and the methods powerful kingdom.
of their occurrence. He also
forcalculating the timings The kingdom was founded by Vindhyasakti, basically
said that the heavenly bodies, like the Moon, were
Brahmins.
Spherical and they are shone by reflecting the light.
Most important king was Pravarsena-I who performed
Varahamihira wrote the Panchasidhantika and the
Ashwamedha Yajnas.
Brihatsamhita. He said that the Moon moves around the
Prabhawati to a
Earth and the Earth, together with the Moon, move Chandragupta II married his daughter
and with his support succeeded
round the Sun. Vakataka king Rudrasenar-11
Brahmagupta was a great Mathematician. He wrote the in conquering Gujarat.
Brahma-sphutic Siddhanta in which he hinted at the Law I t is said that the magnificent caves of Ajanta, Vihara caves

of Gravitation. and Chaitya caves belong to the Vakataka age.

wrote the Hastyagarveda, treatise the

Palakapya a on
The Chalukyas of Badami
disease of elephants.
Court language was Sanskrit. powerful in Deccan in the middle of
The Chalukyas grew
. Dhanvantri was a physician famous for Ayurveda the AD 6th century.
and
knowledge. The dynasty had two branches viz. Vatapi (Badami)
Kalyani.
Post Guptas (AD 467-540) Pulakesin-I the founder of the Chalukya dynasty, but the
was
Pulakesin-I who
of most important ruler of the dynasty was
With the decline of the imperial Guptas at the close ruled from AD 610-642. He sent a n ambassador to the
5th or the beginning of 6th Century, Magadha and its
fall of Persian king Khusro II.
capital Pataliputra, lost their importance. After the centres achievement of Pulakesin II was that, he
the Guptas, five major centres of power and their The greatest
in North India. inflicted a defeat on Harshavardhana.
emerged

The Age of Smaller Kingdoms The Pallavas (Kanchi)

.The disintegration of the Gupta empire gradually paved Simha Vishnu was founder of Pallavas dynasty. They set up
the way for the growth of many smaller kingdoms. their capital at Kanchi. (identical with modern
The Maukharis started gaining political power towards Kanchipuram).
the end of 5th century and hold over modern UP and Pallava temples were usually free-standing. But oneexample
parts of Magadha. of temple cut out of large rocks are the seven ratha temple
AD 675 the (seven pagoras) at Mahabalipuram.
From the middle of 6th century till about
known as later Guptas.
kings who ruled Magadha w e r e

The Gangas
.First and famous king of Gangas of Odissa was Ananta
Vardhan Dynasty Varman (1076-1147) who established his power over the
Vardhan.
Founder of Vardhan Dynasty was Pushyabhuti whole territory between the Ganga and the Godavari.
Harshavardhana (AD 606 - AD 647) .He built the famous temple of Lord Jagannath at Puri.
of .Kesari who used to rule Odissa before Gangas, built the
Pushyabhuti family and
son
Harsha belonged to the tamous Lingaraja temple at Bhubhaneshwar.
North of
Vardhana who ruled Thaneswar
Prabhakar
Delhi. from The Cholas
is taken from
The history of the early years of his reign Banablhatt, Founder of Cholas was Vijayalya.
a
study of his biography
Harshacharita by
Capital-Tanjore Cholas were feudal of pallavas.
one of the court poets.
was Nalanda, Important ing was Rajaraj I. He built Vrihideshwar temple
The most famous centre (monastry)
meant at Tanjore devoted to Shiv. This temple is also known as
which maintained a great Buddhist University
the time of Harsh. Rujrajeslvwar temple.
for establishment during
lis son Rajendra I annexed the whole of Sri Lanka. In the Pala
king Mahipala, he took title of Gangaikonda after that.
The Vakatakas The empire was divided into 6 mandalas or province
Beginning of the 7th Century, the Chalukyas of acdministered by governors. Mandalams were further divided
Ikshavakus emerged as
Badami, the Vakatakas and the into Valamadus, Valanadus into Nadus and Nadus into
While in South India
states in Deccan.
the three major Taniyars.
916 NDA/NA Pathfinder

letters. He wrote the first

Kannada poetry Kaviraj marg
The Gopuram style of art developed under Cholas. and Prashnottar Mallika.
Local self-government was there (concept of Panchayati and
Raj has been borrowed from it). .The King Krishna-III set up a pillar of victory a

temple at Rameshwaram.

The Pratiharas (or Gurjara Pratihara) Northern Indian Kingdoms (AD 750-1200))
The foundation of one branch of Pratiharas was laid down AD 750-1000. The
The powerful kingdom arose between
Northern Deccan, the Pratiharas
by Harichandra, a Brahaman near modern Jodhpur in the Rashtrakutas were ruling
and the Palas in
middle of the AD 6th century in Avanti and parts of Southern Rajasthan
were engaged
in a continual tripartite
Bhoj was the greatest ruler of this. vast empire from Bengal. All three
Kannauj. He was also known as Adivaraha and Mihira. invader was Mahmud of Ghazni.
struggle. The first
Mahendrapala is believed to have started his reign about
893. His teacher was Rajashekhara a celebrated poet,
The Rajputs
in 9th and 10th centuries.
dramatist and critic author. Rajputs came into prominence
Bal is claiming that some of
also a,body of opinionassimilated
Rajashekhara has 'the literary work like. Bal-Bharata, .There into Hindu
Ramapan Bhuvanosh, Harvilas, Karpuramanjari, Karya them were foreign immigrants
fold the centuries. Lastly there were the Agnikulas,
Mimansa, Prapanch Panday, Vidhsaal etc. over

the fire family

The Palas of Bengal They were
the same as the main
I n the middle of the AD 8th century the Pala. dynasty (i) The Pratiharas or Parihars, not
had connections.
Pratiharas: but with whom they
came into power. Its founder was Gopal (AD-750)-who
was elected to the throne as he had proved his yalour
and i) The Chahamanas or (Chauhans)
capability as a leader (ii) The Chalukayas (or Solankis)
He was a Buddhist. He was succeeded by Dharamapala (iv) The Paramaras (or Pawars)
(AD 770-810) who won Kannauj. The Chandellas
Orissa and
succeeded by Devapala who won Bundelkhand
He was
I. Mahipala who was The Chandellas became rulers in Southern
Assam and was followed by Mahipala under Nannuka early in the 9th century.
Rajendra Chola.
attacked and defeated by Kharjuravahaka (modern
They had their capital
at
Arab merchant) visited them and was
Suleiman (an
Khajuraho).
impressed and fine arts and built
The Palas were patrons of Buddhism. They was a patron of learning in AD 1000.
Kandariya Mahadeva temple at Khajuraho
Vikramashila .and
Dharampala founded the university of
revived Nalanda University. Chauhan
Ruled over Shakambri (modern Sambhar-Rajasthan).
The Senas Founder of Chauhan was Semharaja.
established an empire in Bengal. Important king Prithviraj Chauhan.
After the Palas, the Senas
was

Sena dynasty was Samanta First Battle of Tarain, 1191 Prithviraj Chauhan
.The earliest member of the
defeated Mohammad Ghori.
Sena.
The greatest ruler of this dynasty was his grandson IInd Battle Tarain, 1192 Mohammad Ghori defeated
of
Prithviraj Chauhan.
Vijayasena. His court Poet was Chandbardai who composed
Vijayasena was a devotee of Shiva. Prithviraj Raso.
its
.The muslim ruler Muhammad Bakhtyar 1hilji attacked
capital Nadia and captured it Gahadavals
.They ruled over Kannauj.
The Rashtrakutas defeated by
he
Important king Jai Chand,
was

.The Rashtrakutas rose up against the Chalukyas under Mohammad Ghori in 1194 in Battle of
Chandawar

Dantidurga.
this dynasty in AD 753 and made The Chalukayas (Anhilwara)
Dantidurga founded and
Manyakheta his capital. .The Chalukayas or Solankis were rulers of Gujarat
Krishna-I further expanded
the kingdom but is best Kathiawar for about three and a half centuries.
.King of the rock-cut Aihole inscription 15
remembered in history
as the builder
.Important ruler-Pulakesin II,
Ellora. associated with him, composed by his court poe
Kailash temple at
.Rashtrakuta king Amoghavarsha
(814-880 AD) is
I Ravikirti
to men of
to
in
Vikramaditya giving patronage
compared
Part 1 Ancient India 917
The Paramaras

1 i n branch of the Paramaras

Cave Paintings
o the Rashirakutas who ruled Malwa. comprised descendants These are the earliest evidences of Indian paintings made
on cave walls and palaces, whereas miniature paintings
,The dvnasty' Was fournded by Upendra or Krishnaraja. are small-sized vibrant, sophisticated handmade
Choia (1910-1055) is the best king of the Paramara rulers, artworks. Paintings on caves and temples walls mostly
also calledas Kaviraj. He wTOte the
Samaraganasutradhar describe numerous characteristics of Hinduism
la rare work on architecture) and The
Ayurvedasaravasva and Buddhism. Various forms of Indian painting
(work on medicine). developed in various time periods.
The immense variety begins from prehistoric cave
Ancient Indian Architecture paintings of Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh) and flourishes
through paintings of Ajanta caves, Ellora Caves
Harappan Period (Maharashtra) and Bagh caves (Madhya Pradesh). Ajuita
The excavations at Harappa and Mohenjodaro and several cave paintings depict the life and teachings of Lord
other sites of the Indus Valley Civilisation revealed the Buddha and Buddha Jataka on their walls while in Ellora
existence of a very modern urban civiliaation with expert caves mostly Hindu deities are painted.
town planning and engineering skills.
The sites of the Indus Valley Civilisation were excavated Ajanta Paintings
under the Archaeological Survey of India established by the These are located in Maharashtra, around 106 knm irom
British. Aurangabad. There are a total of 29 caves in Ajanta. The
paintings here were done between 200 BC and 7th
Main Features of Harappan Architecture century BC during the period of Sunga, Kushan and Gupta
The Harappan people had constructed mairily three types of The main characteristics of
rulers. these paintings
are
these are fresco wall paintings, use of limited colours
buildings-dnelling houses, pillared halls and public baths.
decorative designs which includes a variety of animals,
tree flowers.
Pallava Style
The earliest examples of temples in the Dravidan style belong Variety of life has been expressed, emotions are expressed

to the Pallava period. The architecture of the Pallavas

temple
(AD 610-690) and
is divided into two groups: rock-cut
690-900). The greatest accomplishments of
structural (AD
the Pallava architecture are the rock-cut
Mahabalipuram.
Chola Style
Pallava times. The
The Chola art is a continuation of that of
of temples, the earlier
Cholas had built several, hundreds
in size, while the later ones
examples of which were modest
with the Vimanas or gopuras dominating
were huge and large
of Koranganatha at Srinivasanalur
the landscape. The temple built during the reign of
in the Trichinopoly district, of the earliest examples of
Parantaka I (AD 907-949) is
one
using hand postures, stories of Jatakas are depicted. The
painting of the Dying Princess has received the most
praise.
at
temples
Ellora Paintings
The composition of the paintings at Ellora is measured
out in rectangular panels with thick borders. They have
thus been conceived within the given limits of frames that
hold the paintings. The space, in the sense of Ajanta.
therefore, does not exist at Ellora.
Bagh Paintings
These are located on the banks of river Bagh in Madhya
Pradesh. The paintings here are quite similar to those of

the Chola architecture. Ajanta in terms of subject matter and characteristics.

The period of these paintings is still not accurately
The Vijayanagara Architecture known. The best paintings were in the Cave number 4
many have now removed and kept in a
rulers built strong fortresses, gorgeous though been
Ihe Vijayanagara The Vijayanagara temple
museum for preservation. There are a painteags at Bagh.
palaces and beautiful temples.
features. The characteristic
architecture has some special of the temple Sittanavasal Paintings
feature of this period is the development enclosure walls
series of rectangular These caves are located in the Sittanavasal village in
complex with concentric in the middle of each Tamil Nadu. The paintings here resemble closcly the
the gopuras (towered gateways)
Wth Bagh and Ajanta paintings. They were built by Mahendra
side Verman and his son Narsimha Verman.
The paintings of Sittannavasal are intimately connected
Painting Indian paintings is just
about as old as the
with Jain themes and symbology, but enjoy the same norm
The history of of India. The most primitive
instances and technique as that of Ajanta. The contours of these
history of the people be traced back to cave paintings.
paintings are firmly drawn dark on a light red ground.
of paintings in India can