Human Physiology and Pathophysiology

ANATOMY
- investigates the structure of the body Organ Level
- Means to dissect or cut apart and separate - different tissues combine to form organs
PHYSIOLOGY Organ System Level
- deals with the processes or functions of living - organs such as urinary bladder and kidneys
things make up organ system
- Mechanical, physical, and biochemical
functions Organism Level
- organ system make up an organism
PATHOLOGY
- study and diagnosis of disease through CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
examination of organs, tissues, cells and
bodily fluids
Organization
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY - specific relationship of many organism,
- study of abnormalities in physiologic interacting to work together
functioning of living things
Metabolism
- ability to use energy and perform vital
Two basic approaches to the study of anatomy functions such as growth, movement and
reproduction
Systematic - study of body by system
Regional - organizational of body areas Responsiveness
- ability of an organism to sense changes in the
environment and make adjustments that help
maintain its life
Two general ways to examine the internal
structure Growth
- increase on size of all part of the organism
Surface Anatomy - external features(bony
projections) Development
Anatomical Imaging- use of X-ray, ultrasound, - changes an organism undergoes through time
magnetic resonance imaging
Reproduction

STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL ORGAN SYSTEMS

ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY
- formation of new cells/organism
Chemical Level INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
- how atoms, such as hydrogen and carbon - provides protection, regulates temperature,
interact and combine molecules prevents water loss, and helps produce Vit. D
- Skin,hair,sebaceous glands, sweat glands
Cell Level
- molecules from organelles SKELETAL SYSTEM
( nucleus&mitochondria) - provides support and protection, allow body
movements, produces blood cells, stores
Tissue level minerals and adipose tissue
- similar cells and surrounding materials make - Bones ligaments, cartilages, and joints
up tissues
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
 Human Physiology and Pathophysiology
- produce body movements, maintain posture
and produce body heat
- Muscles attached to skeletons by tendons
NERVOUS SYSTEM
- detects sensations and control movements,
physiological processes and intellectual
functions
- Brain, spinal cord, nerves and sensory
receptors
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
- system that influences metabolism, growth and
reproduction
- Glands such as pituitary, that secrets
hormones
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
- transports nutrients, waste products, gases,
and hormones through out the body
- Plays a role in immune response and
regulation of body temperature.
- Heart, blood vessels and blood
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
- removes foreign substances from the blood and
lymph, combats disease, maintains tissue fluid
balance and absorbs dietary fats
- Lymphatic vessels, Lymph nodes, and other
lymphatic organs
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
- exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide
between the blood and air and regulates blood
pH
- Lungs and respiratory passages
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
- performs the mechanical and chemical
processes of digestion, absorption of nutrients
and elimination of wastes
- Mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines and
accessory organs
URINARY SYSTEM
- removes wastes products from blood and
regulates blood pH, ion balance and water
balance
- Kidneys, urinary bladder, and ducts that carry
urine
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Female
- produce oocytes and is the site of fertilization
and fetal development
- Produce milk and produce hormones that
influence sexual function
- Ovaries,uterine tubes, uterus, vagina,
mammary glands
Male
- produce and transfer sperm cells to female
and produces hormones that influence sexual
functions
- Testes,ducts and penis
HOMEOSTASIS
- existence and maintenance of a relatively
constant environment within the body
- Variables are maintained around a set point,
resulting in a normal range of values
- “State of equilibrium”
Maintenance of Homeostasis
- always exposed to internal and external stimuli
- requires constant monitoring by the nervous
system
- Main form of regulation is through feedback
loops
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
- most body systems are regulated by negative
feed back
- Any deviation from the set point is made
smaller or is resisted
- Does not prevent variation but maintains
variation within normal range
Receptor -monitors the value of a variable such
as body temperature
Control Center -part of the brain that establishes
the set point around which variable is maintained
Effector -such as sweat glands, can change the
value of variable
* a changed variable is a stimuli because it
initiates a homeostatic mechanism
 Human Physiology and Pathophysiology

POSITIVE FEEDBACK Examination Positions:

- initial stimulus further stimulates response Plane:
- Deviation from set point becomes even - imaginary line that divides the body
greater.
- Life threatening Sagittal Plane - divided either left or right
- Ex: birth & blood clotting vertically

Midsagittal - equal
Parasagittal - unequal
Terminology and the Body Plan Frontal/Coronal Plane - divided by back/front
Transverse/Horizontal/Axial Plane - cross
sectional horizontally either upper/lower
Body Positions:

Anatomical Position
- refers to. A person standing upright with the
face directed forward, the upper limbs hanging
to the sides and the palms of the hands facing
forward
Supine - lying face upward
Prone - lying face downward

Directional Terms:

Superior - used for above/up

Inferior - used for below/down
Anterior/Ventral - used for front
Posterior/Dorsal - used for back
Medial - toward the midline/center
Lateral - away from midline/center
Proximal - towards the point of origin/nearest
Distal - means distant
Human Physiology and Pathophysiology

BODY CAVITIES:

Serous Membranes
- doubled-layered, fluid-filled sacs that surround
the organs like the heart and lungs

Visceral Layer - in contact with organ

Parietal Layer - in line with body cavity
 Human Physiology and Pathophysiology
ANDREAS VESALIUS
- one of the most influential books on human
anatomy
- Founder of modern human anatomy
WILLIAM HARVEY
- English physician who was first to recognize
the full circulation of blood in human body
KARL LANDSTEINER
- Austrian-American immunologist and
Pathologist
- Discovered the ABO system of blood typing
that has made blood transfusion a routine
medical practice
ALEXANDER S. WIENER
- American biologist and physician
- discovery of the Rh factor and its significance
as a cause of maternal, prenatal and neonatal
morbidity and mortality.
Anesthesia:
WILLIAM THOMAS GREEN MORTON
- American dentist and physician
- First demonstrated the use of inhaled ether as
surgical anesthetic in 1846
- Founder of modern anesthesia
HORACE WELLS
- American dentist pioneered the use of
anesthesia in dentistry
- Use of nitrous oxide
CRAWFORD WILLIAMSON LONG
- American surgeon and pharmacist
- Known for his first used of inhaled sulfuric
ether as an anesthetic, discovered by
performing surgeries on disabled African
American slaves that include amputation
WILHELM CONRAD ROENTGEN
- German mechanical engineer and physicist,
who, on 8 November 1895, produced and
detected electromagnetic radiation in a
wavelength range known as X-rays or Röntgen
rays
JOSEPH LISTER
- found a way to prevent infection in wounds
during and after surgery. He was the first to
apply the science of Germ Theory to surgery.
Lister's Antisepsis System is the basis of
modern infection control.
LOUIS PASTEUR
- French chemist and microbiologist renowned
for his discoveries of the principles of
vaccination, microbial fermentation, and
pasteurization
EDWARD JENNER
- English physician and scientist who was the
pioneer of smallpox vaccine, the world's first
vaccine.
JONAS SALK
- American virologist and medical researcher
who developed one of the first successful polio
vaccines.
ALBERT SABIN
- best known for developing the oral polio
vaccine, which has played a key role in nearly
eradicating the disease
DR. CHRISTIAAN ELJKMAN
- Dutch physician and professor of physiology
whose demonstration that beriberi is caused
by poor diet led to the discovery of antineuritic
vitamins.
SIR FREDERICK HOPKINS
- He was awarded the Nobel Prize for his
discovery of the growth-stimulating vitamins,
sharing it with Christiaan Eijkman who
discovered the antineuritic vitamin.
 Human Physiology and Pathophysiology

ALEXANDER FLEMING ROBERT CHARLES GALLO

- Scottish physician and microbiologist, best
known for discovering the world's first broadly
effective antibiotic substance, which he named
penicillin
GERHARD DOMAGK
- German pathologist and bacteriologist. He is
credited with the discovery of
sulfonamidochrysoidine as an antibiotic
- American biomedical researcher. He is best
known for his role in establishing the human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV) as the infectious
agent responsible for acquired immune
deficiency syndrome (AIDS) and in the
development of the HIV blood test, and he has
been a major contributor to subsequent HIV
research.

SIR FREDRICK GRANT BANTING & DR.

CHARLES HERBERT BEST
- discovered insulin under the directorship of
John Macleod at the University of Toronto.
With the help of James Collip insulin was
purified, making it available for the successful
treatment of diabetes.

JOHN JAMES MACLEOD

- discovery and isolation of insulin
- Scottish biochemist and physiologist. He
devoted his career to diverse topics in
physiology and biochemistry, but was chiefly
interested in carbohydrate metabolism

HAROLD E. VARMUS & J. MICHAEL BISHOP

- discovery of “the cellular origin of retroviral
oncogenes”
- discovered virus genes that can cause cancer
LUC ANTOINE MONTAGNIER
- French virologist and joint recipient, with
Françoise Barré-Sinoussi and Harald zur
Hausen, of the 2008 Nobel Prize in Physiology
or Medicine for his discovery of the human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV).

FRANCOISE BARRE-SINOUSSI
- She and Montagnier shared half the prize for
their work in identifying the human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV), the cause of
acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).

HARALD ZUR HAUSEN

- German virologist and professor emeritus. He
has done research on cervical cancer and
discovered the role of papilloma viruses in
cervical cancer, for which he received the
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2008.
 Human Physiology and Pathophysiology

CHEMICAL BASIS OF LIFE CHEMICAL BONDS

CHEMISTRY IONIC BONDS
- science that deals with the structure of matter - Ion is an atom with electric charge
- Structure of atom - Cation = electron donor loses one or more
- basic chemical building block blocks electrons
- How atoms combine to form complex - Anion = electron acceptor gains those same
structures electrons

MATTER COVALENT BONDS

- anything that takes up space and has mass
- made up of atoms
- atoms join together to form chemicals
with different characteristics
- chemical characteristics determine
physiology at molecular and cellular
levels
- strong bonds involving shared electrons
- One electron is donated by each atom to make
pair of electrons
Nonpolar Covalent bonds
- equal sharing of electrons between atoms that
have equal pull on the electrons

SUBATOMIC PARTICLES Polar Covalent bonds

> PROTONS - positive charge
> NEGATIVE - neutral
> ELECTRONS - negative charge
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Atomic Number - # of protons
Nucleus - contains protons and neutron
Electron cloud - spherical area contains electron
Electron shell - 2D representation of electron
cloud
- unequal sharing of electrons because one
atom is disproportionately strong pull of
electrons
- Form polar molecule
HYDROGEN BONDS
- weak polar bonds between adjacent molecules
based on electrical attractions
- Involve attractions between a slight positive
charge and slight negative charge
- Hydrogen bonds between H2O molecules can
cause surface tension

ELEMENT
- pure substance composed of atoms
- Atomic number determines its chemical CHEMICAL REACTIONS
properties
- Atoms of each elements are distinguished by - either new bonds are formed or existing bonds
specific number of protons are broken

Electrons and energy levels > Reactants

- electrons in the electron cloud determine the > Products
reactivity of an atom > Metabolism
- Electron cloud contain shells, energy levels > Energy
that can hold limited number of electrons > Work
- Outermost shell is the valence and determines > Kinetic energy
the bonding > Potential energy
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TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS: PROPERTIES OF WATER

Decomposition
Synthesis WATER (H2O)
- accounts for up to 2/3 of total body weight
ENZYMES
PROPERTIES OF WATER
BIOCHEMICAL REACTIONS Hydrophilic
- in cells, do not occur spontaneously Hydrophobic
- Activation energy is the amount of energy
needed to start a reaction pH is a measure of the concentration of hydrogen
- Enzymes are protein catalyst that lowers atoms
activation energy
- Neutral
- Acidic
- Basic
pH and Homeostasis

> pH scale - has an inverse relationship with H+

concentration

INORGANIC AND ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

Nutrients
- essential molecule obtained from the food
Metabolites ACIDS, BASES & SALTS
- molecules made or broken down in the body
Organic Compounds ACID
- molecules containing carbon and hydrogen - proton donor
- Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic - Solute that adds hydrogen ions to a solution
acids - Strong acids dissociates completely in a
solution

BASE
- proton acceptor
- Strong bases dissociates completely in
solution

WEAK ACIDS AND BASE

- fail to dissociate completely
- Help to balance the pH
 Human Physiology and Pathophysiology

Cells are kept close to pH 7 by buffers PROTEINS

Buffers are substances that resist pH change
- they accept H+ ions when they are in
excess and donate H+ ions when they
are depleted
ORGANIC MOLECULES
- contain H, C and usually O
- Covalently bonded
- Includes Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and
nucleic acids
- are the most abundant and important organic
molecules
- Contain basic elements
- 20 amino acids are monomers that combined
to form proteins (polymers)
- Protein structure: long chain of amino acids
PROTEIN SHAPE:

Primary Structure
CARBOHYDRATES - sequence of amino acids along polypeptide
- contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen Secondary Structure
- hydrogen bonds form spirals or pleats
Monosaccharides
- simple sugars Tertiary Structure
Ex: glucose( dextrose) , fructose, galactose, - coiling and folding produce 3D shape
ribose
Quaternary Structure
Disaccharides - final protein complex produced by interacting
- two monosaccharides condensed by polypeptide chains
dehydration synthesis
Ex: Sucrose ( refined sugar ), Maltose, Lactose

Polysaccharides
- polymers of many sugars condensed by
dehydration synthesis
Ex: starch, cellulose, glycogen

LIPIDS

- mainly hydrophobic molecules such as fats, oil

and waxes
- Made mostly of carbon and hydrogen atoms
- Include:
- Fatty acids
- Eicosanoids
- Glycerides
- Steroids
- Phospholipids ang glycolipids
Ex. butter, ghee, vegetable oil, cheese,
cholesterol and other steroids, waxes,
Temperature and pH affect enzyme function:
phospholipids, and fat-soluble vitamins
DENATURATION - change in shape and
loss of function due to heat or pH
 Human Physiology and Pathophysiology

NUCLEIC ACID

- large organic molecules

- Store and process information
DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID
- determines inherited characteristics
- Direct protein synthesis
- Controls enzyme production
- Controls metabolism
RIBONUCLEIC ACID
- Controls intermediate steps in protein
synthesis

Structure of nucleic acid:

- DNA and RNA consists of long chains of
nucleotides(monomers) which contains sugar,
phosphate group, Nitrogenous base

High Energy Compounds:

Adenosine Monophosphate (AMP)

- nucleotide that contains one phosphate group
Adenosine Diphosphate (ADP)
- contains two phosphate group

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

- high energy compound containing three
phosphate group