Crime Scene Investigation and Reconstruction An Illustrated Manual and Field Guide

Crime Scene Investigation
and Reconstruction
Crime Scene Investigation and Reconstruction: An Illustrated Manual and Field Guide provides methodologies to
help investigators to think broadly when seeking out evidence at a scene and, likewise, utilize all the information
from a case—especially the observable physical evidence, besides that are collectable, in reconstructing events.
In the introductory chapters, the author highlights the importance of crime scene reconstruction when answering
the question “How something could have happened?” From there, he goes on to explain the principles of exchange,
identification, individualization, and reconstruction. Here, the “observe-hypothesize” model, proposed in this
book, is presented: outlining how every source of information ranging from laboratory reports, opinions from
medical doctors, statements of witnesses, and confessions of suspects should be reconcilable with the evidence-
based reconstruction made in the crime scene. In this, the author contends that qualified crime scene generalists
are the ideal professionals to frame scientific hypothesis and to make reconstructions. Practical recommendations,
based on best-practice general crime scene procedures, are provided while the second half of the book illustrates
and outlines how to deal with various types of major crime scenes, including fire deaths, exhuming buried human
remains, sexual assaults, death by electrocution, explosion, drowning, poisoning, hanging, and more.
As a picture is worth a thousand words, over 400 collective photographs and sketches are included throughout
the book to illustrate the observational methods that are described. In addition, the book provides several easy-
to-follow flowcharts to serve as checklists to aid scene investigation in major types of crime scenes. In this, Crime
Scene Investigation and Reconstruction: An Illustrated Manual and Field Guide will help investigators readily
recognize similar manifestations in crime scenes and apply and use such techniques appropriately in their own
work.
Crime Scene Investigation
and Reconstruction
An Illustrated Manual and Field Guide
Paul T. Jayaprakash
First edition published 2023
by CRC Press
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487–2742
and by CRC Press
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
© 2023 Paul T. Jayaprakash
Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume
responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace
the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in
this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may
rectify in any future reprint.
Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any
form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and
recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers.
For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, access www.copyright.com or contact the Copyright
Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. For works that are not available on CCC
please contact mpkbookspermissions@tandf.co.uk
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are used only for identification and
explanation without intent to infringe.
Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data
Names: Jayaprakash, Paul T., author.
Title: Crime scene investigation and reconstruction : an illustrated manual and field guide / Paul T. Jayaprakash.
Identifiers: LCCN 2022008737 (print) | LCCN 2022008738 (ebook) | ISBN 9781032211664 (hardback) |
ISBN 9781032211558 (paperback) | ISBN 9781003267096 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Crime scene searches. | Crime scenes. | Forensic sciences. | Criminal investigation.
Classification: LCC HV8073 .J399 2023 (print) | LCC HV8073 (ebook) | DDC 363.25—dc23/eng/20220603
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022008737
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022008738
ISBN: 978-1-032-21166-4 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-21155-8 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-26709-6 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003267096
Typeset in Sabon
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
Dedicated to my parents
To my father, Mr. R. Paul Thomas, a police officer, referred to by his
colleagues as one who did not vacillate to bring out the truth during
investigations, and to my mother, Mrs. Stella Mary Paul, whose enduring
love and devotion ensured success for my father and the children, six of us.
Contents
Preface xiii
Acknowledgments xv
Author Biography xvii
Chapter 1 Introduction1
1.1 On the Objectives of This Manual and Field Guide 1
1.2 The Basic Questions When Investigating a Case 1
1.3 Challenges in Resolving the Question ‘How Could It Have Happened?’ 2
1.4 Preeminence of Observations in Crime Scene Reconstruction 3
1.5 On the Compendium of Information in This Manual and Field Guide 4
Chapter 2 Conceptual Foundations in Forensic Science and the Position

of Crime Scene Investigation 7
2.1 Foundational Concepts Underlying Forensic Science Practice 7
2.2 The Principle of Exchange 7
2.3 The Principle of Identification 8
2.4 The Principle of Individualization 8
2.5 The Principle of Reconstruction 9
2.6 Specific Event Reconstruction Versus Dynamic Event Reconstruction 12
2.7 On the Observe–Hypothesize Model Followed in This Book 13
2.8 The Concept of Crime Scene Generalist 13
Chapter 3 General Crime Scene Procedure 17

3.1 Roles and Responsibilities of Scene of Crime Officers 17
3.2 On the Best Practices During Crime Scene Examination 17
3.3 Crime Scene Search 20
3.4 Documentation of the Crime Scene 20
3.5 Documentation by Preparing Written Notes 21
3.6 Documentation Using Crime Scene Sketches 21
3.7 Documentation Using Crime Scene Photography 22
3.8 Preparing the Final Report 23
3.9 Equipment in a Mobile Forensic Science Laboratory (MFSL) 24
3.10 Desirable Pre-Deployment Training for SOCOs 25
vii
viii Contents
Chapter 4 Scheme for Investigating Cases of Death by Hanging 29

4.1 Introduction 29
4.2 Flowchart for Investigating Death by Hanging 30
4.3 Case Studies—Cases 4–1 to 4–16 31
4.4 Discussion 74
4.4.1 Myths and Facts Relating to Observations in Hanging Scenes 74
4.4.2 Variations in Knots, Ligature Materials, and Ligature Marks 74
4.4.3 Cadaveric Spasm—Its Relevance in Crime Scene Reconstruction 75
4.4.4 Lesions in Limbs in Hanging Cases 76
4.4.5 Significance of Ant Erosions in Skin During Investigation 76
4.4.6 On the Utility of Fingermarks as Evidence 77
Chapter 5 Scheme for Investigating Cases of Death due to Traumatic Injuries 81

5.1 Introduction 81
5.2 Flowchart for Investigating Traumatic Homicides 82
5.4 Discussion 103
5.4.1 Myths and Facts Relating to Observations in Traumatic Homicides 103
5.4.2 Bloodstain Patterns and Their Significance in Crime Reconstruction 103
5.4.3 Relevance of Hairs and Hair Damages During Crime Investigation 107
5.4.4 Evidentiary Value of Cloth and Damages on Clothes 112
5.4.5 Evidentiary Value of Soil 117
5.4.6 Entomological Evidence in Assessing Time Since Death in Decomposed
Dead Bodies 117
5.4.7 Identification of Skeletal Remains 119
Chapter 6 Scheme for Exhuming Buried Human Remains 133

6.1 Introduction 133
6.2 Flowchart for Exhumation 134
6.3 Basic Stages in the Process of Exhumation 134
6.3.1 Making the Sketches During Exhumations 134
6.3.2 Describing the Surface Soil Characteristics 134
6.3.3 Choosing the Method for Digging 135
6.3.4 Recording the Entomological Findings 136
6.3.5 Exposing the Remains 136
6.3.6 Sequence Recommended for Collection of Bones 138
6.3.7 Anatomical Display of the Bones Collected 140
6.3.8 Final Preparation of the Skull 140
Chapter 7 Scheme for Investigating Cases of Death due to Burns 143

7.2 Flowchart for Investigating Death due to Burns 144
Contents ix
7.3 Case Studies—Cases 7–1 and 7–2 145

7.4 Discussion 162
7.4.1 Myths and Facts Relating to Observations in Deaths due to Burns 162
7.4.2 Death due to Burns: Contextual Facts Relating to India 162
7.4.3 Observations Indicating the Mobility of Victim While Aflame 163
7.4.4 Relevance of Crime Scene Findings When Deciding the Manner
of Death in Burns Cases 164
7.4.5 Burn Patterns as Universal Indicators of Localized Burning 164
7.4.6 Lack of Commensurability in Burn Patterns as Indicator of Dynamism 165
7.4.7 Predicaments Attributable to Lapses in Observing and Reconstructing
Scenes of Death due to Burns and Possible Remedial Measures 165
Chapter 8 Scheme for Investigating Cases of Death due to Fall From Height 169
8.2 Flowchart for Investigating Death due to Fall from Height 170
8.4 Discussion 190
8.4.1 Myths and Facts Relating to Observations in Death due to Fall 190
8.4.2 Workplace-Related Falls 191
8.4.3 Falling Under Intoxication 191
8.4.4 Fall of Children 191
8.4.5 Useful Circumstantial Clues at Scenes of Fall From Heights 191
8.4.6 Handwriting Evidence in the Form of Suicide Note 191
Chapter 9 Scheme for Investigating Cases of Death due to Electrocution 195

9.2 Flowchart for Investigating Death due to Electrocution 196
9.4 Discussion 207
9.4.1 Myths and Facts Relating to Observations in Deaths due to Electrocution 207
9.4.2 Lightning as a Natural Cause Leading to Death by Electrocution 207
9.4.3 Cadaveric Spasm in Deaths due to Electrocution 208
9.4.4 Useful Circumstantial Clues at Scenes of Electrocution 208
Chapter 10 Scheme for Investigating Cases of Death by Drowning 209

10.2 Flowchart for Investigating Death by Drowning 210
10.4 Discussion 217
10.4.1 Myths and Facts Relating to Observations in Deaths by Drowning 217
10.4.2 Relevance of Immediate Observations in Scenes of Drowning 217
10.4.3 Role of Alcohol and Other Substances in Drowning Cases 217
10.4.4 Circumstances Indicating the Possibility of Suicide 218
10.4.5 Diatoms as Indicators of Death by Drowning 218
x Contents
Chapter 11 Scheme for Investigating Cases of Death due to Poisoning 225

11.2 Flowchart for Investigating Death due to Poisoning 226
11.4 Discussion 230
11.4.1 Myths and Facts Relating to Observations in Death due to Poisoning 230
11.4.2 Relevance of the Laboratory Ability to Detect Poisons 230
11.4.3 Trends in Death due to Poisoning 230
11.4.4 Circumstances Commonplace in Suicidal Poisoning 231
11.4.5 Circumstances Commonplace in Accidental Poisoning 231
11.4.6 Characteristics of Homicidal Poisoning 233
Chapter 12 Scheme for Investigating Sexual Assault Cases 235

12.2 Flowchart for Investigating Sexual Assault Cases 236
12.4 Discussion 242
12.4.1 Myths and Facts Relating to Observations in Sexual Offences 242
12.4.2 Relevance of Location of Physical Evidence in Rape Cases 242
12.4.3 Circumstantial Evidence Indicating Struggle in Cases of Rape 242
12.4.4 Relevance of Microbial Evidence 243
12.4.5 Palynological Evidence in Sexual Assault Cases 243
12.4.6 DNA Sources in Sexual Assault Cases 244
Chapter 13 Scheme for Investigating Cases Involving Firearms 247

13.2 Flowchart for Investigating Scenes Involving Firearms 248
13.4 Discussion 266
13.4.1 Myths and Facts Relating to Observations in Firearm-Related Cases 266
13.4.2 Terminology Useful During Discussion on Firearms 267
13.4.3 Care in Handling the Weapons 267
13.4.4 Evidence Indicating Recent Use of a Firearm 268
13.4.5 Range of Fire and Gunshot Wound Patterns 268
13.4.6 Characteristics of Entry and Exit Gunshot Wounds 270
13.4.7 Relevance of Ricochet in Shooting Incident Investigations 271
13.4.8 Class and Individual Characteristics of Bullets and Cartridge Cases 272
13.4.9 Evidentiary Value of Glass Fractures 272
Chapter 14 Scheme for Investigating Cases of Explosions 275

14.2 Flowchart for Investigating Scenes of Explosions 276
Contents xi
14.4. Discussion 303

14.4.1 Myths and Facts Relating to Observations in Explosions 303
14.4.2 Safety Measures in Scenes of Explosions 303
14.4.3 Role of SOCOs When Coordinating With the Bomb Disposal Squad 303
14.4.4 Epicenter of Explosion 304
14.4.5 Relevance of Recognizing Pitted Damages 305
14.4.6 Uniqueness-Based Individualization as a Tenet of Forensic Science 305
Chapter 15 Scheme for Investigating Structure Fires 309

15.2 Flowchart for Investigating Structure Fire Scenes 310
15.4 Discussion 320
15.4.1 Myths and Facts Relating to Observations in Structure Fire Scenes 320
15.4.2 Possible Sources of Ignition in Fire Scenes 320
15.4.3 Fire Scene Patterns 321
Chapter 16 Scheme for Investigating Vehicle-Related Incident Scenes 323

16.2 Flowchart for Investigating Vehicle-Related Incident Scenes 324
16.4 Discussion 335
16.4.1 Myths and Facts Relating to Observations in Vehicle-Related Incidents 335
16.4.2 Tire and Skid Marks and Their Significance in Reconstruction 335
16.4.3 Importance of Mud/Paint Flakes in Locating the Point of Impact (POI) 336
16.4.4 Significance of Paint as Forensic Evidence 337
16.4.5 Relevance of Damages in Vehicles 337
Chapter 17 Epilogue339
Appendix 345
Index 387
Preface
My tryst with crime scene management started in other hand, reconstructing a sequence of happen-
the year 1974 when I entered the Forensic Sciences stances based on the distribution of burn patterns
Department of Tamil Nadu state, India, as a crime that are merely observable in the crime scene (but
scene investigator; it continued until 2004 (with not collectable), here termed dynamic event recon-
specialization in Forensic Anthropology in the later struction, may prove to be useful in deducing,
decades), and it further sustained up to 2017 dur- immediately in the crime scene itself, if the victim
ing my stint as a full-time faculty member teach- moved or not while getting burnt. The plausible
ing crime scene management among other subjects manner of death would be suicide when movement
in Forensic Science in Universiti Sains Malaysia, of the victim is supported; and it would be homi-
Malaysia. Since the beginning, the prime question cide followed by burning when the movement is not
raised by every investigation officer entering a crime supported, i.e. when the burn patterns are merely
scene had been ‘how it could have happened?’ This localized. As a teacher and trainer imparting
question pervades until the formal disposal of the knowledge on forensic science to officers and men
case although the individuals posing the question of the police force and university students, I have
keep on altering—from investigating officers to frequently found the audience both inquisitive and
supervising police officers, medical doctors, pros- dubious about observing crime scenes—everybody
ecutors, defense counsels, and judges. In solving convincingly assertive about the importance of
this question, the traditional physical clues collect- observing the scene but getting confused in distin-
able from crime scenes are found to be of limited guishing what to observe or in recognizing how
use as such clues enable recounting isolated bits of such observations present themselves. Here, there
events relating to a crime viz. specific events such is a need to train the investigators’ eyes to distin-
as this bloodstain originated from that individual guish and perceive those presentations in the crime
or this smear of paint originated from that source scenes that are scientifically relevant. A paradigm
object. Furthermore, these reconstructions, being shift to focus on observable presentations in crime
corollary to the analytical results from forensic sci- scenes in addition to gathering collectable physi-
ence laboratories, will have to be awaited until the cal evidence is considered desirable to resolve the
receipt of reports from the laboratories. Also, many question ‘how it could have happened?’ immedi-
of these specific event reconstructions do not shed ately during crime scene investigation. This book
light on the manner of death—for example, in a is designed as a manual and field guide with easy-
case of death due to burns, analytical findings from to-follow flowcharts and illustrative photographs
a forensic science laboratory establishing similarity for the major types of cases offering a stepwise
in the accelerant, say kerosene, on the burnt cloth- direction to crime scene investigators to observe
ing of the victim and in the container in the crime the crime scene presentations appropriately and
scene—a specific event reconstruction—do not to frame relevant hypotheses for reconstructing
clarify if burning is suicidal or homicidal. On the crimes.
xiii
Acknowledgments
Foremost, I wish to thank the numerous investigat- the students, some of which are described in this
ing police officials and members of the constabulary book. While I acknowledge the enthusiastic student
whose deep sense of duty and ardor in the appli- participants, I am especially thankful to Dr. Helmi
cation of forensic science made me enjoy interact- Mohd Hadi Pritam, Senior Lecturer, Forensic
ing with them during my endeavor in crime scene Science Program, Universiti Sains Malaysia, for his
investigation. appreciable contributions.
I thankfully express my gratitude to Mr. F. V. I thank Mr. P. Varadhan, Mr. R. Kaliyaperumal,
Arul, former Inspector General of Police, Tamil Mr. C. Shanmugasundaram, and Mr. Kuttalam
Nadu, and Prof. Dr. P. Chandra Sekharan, former Pillai for their valuable assistance in preparing
Director, Forensic Sciences Department, Tamil many of the photographs illustrated in this book.
Nadu, for empowering the growth of crime scene I thankfully acknowledge the constant and willing
investigation in Tamil Nadu state, India, in 1974 library assistance rendered by Mr. J. John Jeyasekar,
that much profited my own CSI experience part of Librarian, Forensic Sciences Department, Chennai,
which is shared in this book. While Dr. N. Selvaraj Tamil Nadu.
and Mr. M. G. Amravaneswaran, former Directors It is with immense pleasure that I thank my
of Forensic Sciences Department, Chennai, Tamil good friend, Dr. T. P. Kannan, Associate Professor,
Nadu, are thanked for their support, Prof. Dr. C. Universiti Sains Malaysia, for his consistent and
Damodaran, Director (Retired), Forensic Sciences painstaking efforts to both proofread this manu-
Department, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, is especially script and add fruitful suggestions which con-
acknowledged for his constant encouragement that siderably enhanced the readability of this book.
impelled me in bringing out my scientific acquain- The anonymous reviewers are thanked for their
tance with crime scene investigation in the form of encouraging responses that also helped in polish-
a book. I thank the friendly cooperation and inter- ing the manuscript. I am thankful to Mr. Sekar
action of every member of the Forensic Sciences Uthayasuriyan, my former student, for his enthusi-
Department, Tamil Nadu, which immensely con- astic and timely efforts in checking the manuscript
tributed during much of the case work described in its final form.
in this field guide. Mr. P. Muthukumar, my friend, It is with a deep sense of appreciation that
is thanked for his assistance in shaping the manual I am pleased to thank my wife, Shanthini, and
that I brought out during the crime scene training sons, Jeeva Rathan and Jeeva Suthan, for the lib-
in the year 2003, the prototype for this manual and eral sacrifices they made when bearing the brunt
field guide. My colleagues who managed the dif- of my frequent absence from home on account
ferent divisions during that period are thankfully of scene visits—always impromptu and often-
remembered for contributing the packing and for- times upsetting lots of family engagements—for
warding procedures for the aforementioned crime more than four decades, which, for sure, much
scene training the compilation of which is adapted disappointed them and yet they remained always
in the Appendix to this book. cheerful encouraging me. Thanks are due to my
Teaching sharpens experiential knowledge, and daughters-in-law Cynthia and Nithya for ensur-
I acknowledge Universiti Sains Malaysia for the ing the homely ambience, and especially to my
opportunity to transform many of my experience- grandchildren Juanita, Johan, Judita, and Jaden
based impulses into academic activities that formed for gracefully granting me screen time during the
research projects, Work- Based Learning etc. for stages of preparation of this book.
xv
Author Biography
Paul T. Jayaprakash’s experience in forensic science superimposition on 658 skulls and testifying in
spans over 43 years; as a professional in Crime Scene courts in 110 murder cases (1992-2004) and as a
Investigation and Crime Scene Management exam- professor at major universities until 2017. He has
ining more than 3000 crime scenes and offering written several articles for peer-reviewed journals,
reconstructions—including exculpatory types—in frequently been an invited speaker and has won
cases of homicides, suicides, explosions, fire-related the Government of India Home Minister’s Award
death, structure fires, use of firearms, fall from for Outstanding Contribution in Forensic Biology
height, and more (1974-2004), with specialization (2000)—the highest award in Forensic Science in
in Forensic Anthropology carrying out skull-face India.
xvii
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 ON THE OBJECTIVES OF THIS along with one exhumation (academic request) are
MANUAL AND FIELD GUIDE described with the aid of illustrative photographs
and sketches that highlight a variety of observable
‘As the science of Criminal Investigation proceeds, evidence. Easy-to-follow flowcharts are designed for
oral testimony falls behind and the importance of the major types of cases to aid scene investigators to
realistic proof advances; “circumstances cannot get on with similar scene investigations, while the
lie”, witnesses can and do’ wrote Gross (1906) summary of the packing and forwarding procedures
in his classic book on criminal investigation. in the Appendix will aid them in effectually utilizing
Traditionally, the value of physical evidence, the the multifarious physical evidence encountered dur-
collectable clues in crime scenes, which serve to ing crime investigation.
connect the perpetrator with the crime has been
well reiterated (Kirk, 1974; Svensson et al., 1981;
De Forest et al., 1983; Horswell, 2000; Inman and 1.2 THE BASIC QUESTIONS WHEN
Rudin, 2001; Houck et al., 2012; Sutton et al., INVESTIGATING A CASE
2017; Zannin and Huber, 2018; Saferstein, 2019).
Similar value-oriented boost does not appear in Once a crime is reported, the first question that
the utilization of those evidence merely presenting arises in the mind of every individual involved
as observable features in the crime scene circum- in the investigation is ‘How could it have hap-
stances, which are equally important as observed pened?’ When the evidence and the happenstances
premises when framing hypothesis and testing in the scene of crime support the commission of
them for acceptance—barring pattern analyses a criminal offence as being realistic, the investiga-
relating to bloodstains and glass fractures. This tor proceeds with the next question, ‘who could be
is seen as a major impediment influencing the responsible for the act?’ When the happenstances
progression and popularity of crime scene recon- in the crime scene fail to support the commission
struction, a technique capable of resolving the of a criminal offence, as it happens in a suspicious
question ‘how the crime could have occurred?’ death subsequently decided as suicide, the necessity
Fundamental skills essentially required for uti- to search for the ‘suspect’ responsible for the act
lizing the observable evidence presenting in the would not arise.
crime scenes are the abilities to observe, recog- An example of crime scene circumstance sup-
nize, and record them. Then follows the scientific porting the commission of an offence is a case of
expertise to frame hypothesis using the observa- traumatic homicide where the manner of death,
tions as observed premises and test them against viz., ‘homicide’, is not under doubt. But still the
corresponding major premises that have gained suspect needs to be connected to the crime scene.
acceptance among the scholarly community prac- On the other hand, in the case of a hanging dead
ticing forensic science. body, the manner of death may remain equivocal
This book is designed as a practical working man- when there is an allegation of ‘homicide’—a situ-
ual and field guide for those involved in crime scene ation prompting the search for suspects. However,
investigation to recognize and utilize crime scene once the manner is concluded as due to hanging,
evidence for framing hypothesis during crime recon- there would be no more need for the search for sus-
struction. Scientific aspects relating to crime scene pects. Technically, on both the occasions, traumatic
reconstruction pertaining to 49 real-life crime scenes homicide and hanging, the circumstances relating
investigated by this author or referred for further to the crime have to be explained on the basis of a
opinion (except two cases—Cases 4–6 and 9–3) scientific crime reconstruction.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003267096-1 1
2 Crime Scene Investigation and Reconstruction
Evidently, crime scene reconstruction acquires and yet the manner of death as due to stab wounds
greater importance when investigating death wherein would not be in doubt. But when a woman is found
the ground reality pertaining to the manner of death dead with burn injuries inside her own house, the
remains equivocal, i.e. arguable in support of more case would turn out to be of a ‘tricky type’ as the
than one proposition, usually homicide and suicide. manner of death whether suicidal or homicidal or
The ‘truth’ as brought out during an investigation or accidental would remain equivocal although the
in a courtroom does not exist so much as an objective cause of death may be confirmable as due to burns.
absolute but as the most plausible or likely account, Equivocal death investigations are not uncommon
established after the elimination of doubt, and, as in other manners of death such as due to hanging,
quoted by Fulero and Wrightsman (2009), such truth fall from height, electrocution, drowning, poison-
does not necessarily coincide with reality. While it ing, and firearm injuries. The real challenge for
can usually be brought nearer to the ground reality, it the investigator in the field during equivocal death
is essentially important for the investigator to ensure investigations pertains to gathering as much evi-
that the truth brought out during investigation does dence as possible from the crime scene to recon-
not impugn the ground reality, i.e., it does not project struct a manner of death that is sustainable as being
a suicide as a homicide or otherwise. nearer to the ground reality. It must be remembered
Agreeably, whatever scientific investigation that the legal fallout in any death investigation
there may be and however competent it is, it would hinges largely on the manner of death. Slip-ups in
not enable an all- encompassing reconstruction the investigation at the crime scene level may lead
of the entire sequences of a crime. At best, each to protracted investigation and may, on occasions,
physical evidence or observation in a crime scene generate confusions pervading even during the trial.
would form the foundation for a ‘premise’ to frame Customarily, the cause of death is opined by
a particular hypothesis leading to reconstructing the medical officer who performs the post-mortem
a specific segment of the ground ‘reality’ that can examination on the dead body. However, it has
be accepted as plausible. However, improprieties or been realized that a reliable boundary discriminat-
even minor lapses in utilizing any such observable ing all suicidal cases from homicidal action only
clues in the crime scene may impede the process of on the basis of the post-mortem findings obviously
approaching the ‘legal truth’ in multiple ways; they does not exist. Evidence gathered from the crime
may lead to confusion in the investigation process, scene and the external examination of the dead
or to a wild goose chase for an accused person when body have been indicated as being compulsory to
there is none, or to wrongfully accusing individuals resolve the cause and manner of death in medicole-
or to even convictions that are arguable as wrongful. gal death investigations (Cordner, 2003; Maxeiner
and Bockholdt, 2003; Shkrum and Ramsay, 2007;
Saukko and Knight, 2016). Not examining a body
1.3 CHALLENGES IN RESOLVING at the scene has been considered a potential pitfall
THE QUESTION ‘HOW COULD for the pathologist in a medicolegal death investiga-
IT HAVE HAPPENED?’ tion (Shkrum and Ramsay, 2007). In India and else-
where as well, as a matter of routine, the autopsy
The question ‘How it could have happened?’ con- is performed at the mortuary, and thus there is no
stantly crops up during any crime investigation— opportunity for the forensic medicine specialists
it may relate to the manner of death in equivocal to visit the scene of crime before the dead body is
death investigations or to specific events such as the removed to the autopsy room. In the absence of a
nature of the knot on the neck or the accessibility of scientific reconstruction to suggest the plausible
the deceased individual to reach the point of suspen- ground reality on the manner of death, the investi-
sion to tie the ligature in cases of death by hanging, gators as well as the others involved in the criminal
the manner smoke stains are distributed in a scene justice administration process are likely to guess-
of death due to burns, the manner bullets have rico- timate the manner of death. Lapses in integrating
cheted in a case of shoot-out, the manner of colli- crime reconstruction with autopsy findings and/or
sion in a vehicular accident, or the type of fracture witness statements may prompt mistaking a suicide
in glass. Evidently, the question ‘how it could have as murder, thereby defeating the sterling require-
happened?’ may appear to be solved in a ‘straight ment in crime investigation that there should be a
forward’ case in which an assailant states that he crime for prosecuting a suspect. Indeed, concerns
only stabbed the victim to death. The same crime on the possibility of wrongful award of death sen-
would remain ‘open’ when the assailant absconds, tences have been expressed by some of the judges of
Introduction 3
the Supreme Court of India (Manoj, 2012) although venture that recognizes and distinguishes those
the likelihood for wrongful convictions in awarding observations that constitute evidence from those
lesser punishments like life imprisonment does not that are mundane. Observation in a crime scene
seem to have been explored. involves inspection with intent to recognize those
A large category of evidence which is merely presentations qualifying as effects that may prove
observable in crime scenes (and hence are not col- useful to deduce inferences which are known as
lectable), hereafter mentioned as ‘observable evi- causes thereby enabling reconstruction of events
dence’, has the potential to suggest dynamic events in a crime. Here, the contextual and educational
in crime scenes such as directionality and/or move- knowledge relating to the causative phenomenon
ment of the suspect, victim, body fluids, and projec- that generates the specific observable feature, the
tiles, thereby enabling a reconstruction of the crime effect, enables the scientific investigator in deciding
scene sequences by framing a series of sequential the observation as useful evidence. Such observa-
hypotheses. Examples of such observable evidence tions qualify to be used as observed premises when
described in this field guide include the patterns of framing and testing a hypothesis.
discharged body fluids such as saliva (Cases 4–1, In the current practice of forensic science, the
4–7), urine (Cases 4–1, 4–4), and blood (Cases routine importance given to the traditional por-
4–8, 4–9, 4–12) for reconstructing the posture or table physical clues that are collectable from crime
movement of the body, smoke and burn patterns scenes appears to have eclipsed the significance that
for reconstructing the movement of the victim the observable evidence in crime scenes deserves.
and/or body posture (Cases 7–1, 7–2), patterns of Evidently, laboratory analyses of collectable physi-
gunshot injuries for reconstructing the posture of cal clues enable reconstruction of events; however,
the victim (Case 13–1), bullet ricochet evidence the investigator has to wait for the completion of
for reconstructing bullet trajectories (Case 13–2), analysis and the issue of analytical report from the
damages in clothes for reconstructing contact with laboratory which may take a few weeks or months.
impacting objects (Case 8–2) and other causations In contrast, observable features that are recognized
(Section 5.4.IV), cues in body posture for diagnos- in crime scenes enable reconstructing events in the
ing cadaveric spasm (Cases 4–5, 4–6, 9–1, 9–3), crime scene itself. The knowledge base on the caus-
pitted marks indicating directionality in explosion ative factors that generate observable features that
(Cases 14–1, 14–3), smoke stain pattern in a fire have gained acceptance by the scientific community
scene (Case 15–1), skid marks in vehicular accidents would form the accepted (major) premise when the
(Case 16–1), and various bloodstain patterns that reconstructionist tests the hypothesis against an
enable reaching definitive inferences (Cases 4–10, observed premise.
4–12, 5–1, 5–2, 5–4, 7–1). The reconstructions Crime reconstruction forms a formal require-
reached through sequential hypotheses can be put ment during crime scene investigation in countries
together to suggest conjoined reconstruction for like New Zealand (Sharman and Elliot, 2000), and
each case which projects much greater details on the in the United Kingdom, the role of Crime Scene
ground reality relating to that crime. But still, one Manager (CSM) is integral in death investigations
must note that the scientific capabilities available do (The Forensic Science Regulator, Department of
not enable recounting the entire sequences relating Justice and The Royal College of Pathologists,
to any crime. On the other hand, failure to consider 2012). On the other hand, such practices are not
the observable evidence in crime scenes or in a dead much in vogue in Asian countries—in India, the
body in situ in crime scenes while arriving at the deficiencies indicated in the forensic science labo-
manner of death has been found to confuse investi- ratories included lack of facilities and manpower
gations paving the way for leveling thought-up aver- as well as training in crime scene investigation
ments (Cases 7–1), wrongful accusations (Case 4–9) (Misra and Damodaran, 2010). Indeed, investi-
as well as debatable convictions (Cases 7–2, 9–3). gating officers and crime scene investigators are
well aware of the importance of observing a scene
of crime; but they are in a dilemma when faced
1.4 PREEMINENCE OF OBSERVATIONS with distinguishing those observations that form
IN CRIME SCENE RECONSTRUCTION evidence from those that do not. The schematic
approaches prescribed in this book for observing
The basic conundrum is that ‘observing’ a crime and reconstructing different types of crime scenes,
scene during scientific investigation is more than it is hoped, would pave the way for streamlining
‘looking’ at the scene—it is a knowledge- based observation- based crime scene reconstruction
as a novel and useful approach during crime 1.5 ON THE COMPENDIUM

investigation. OF INFORMATION IN THIS
This manual is intended as a field guide for MANUAL AND FIELD GUIDE
the generalists, commonly designated as Scene of
Crime Officers (SOCOs) involved in forensic inves- Overall, this manual and field guide is designed to
tigations at crime scenes and for all those involved make it thought-provoking for any reader—a police
in criminal investigation, prosecution, and court officer, lawyer, forensic scientist, judge, or com-
trial, including the interested public readers who moner—with optimal knowledge in natural sciences
have basic knowledge in biological and physical to follow the foundational concepts in forensic sci-
sciences. The observations described in this book ence and to appreciate their application in real-life
are those perceivable by unaided human eye, and situations. It offers a methodology to distinguish
the hypotheses framed are the logical fallout of what to observe and how its presentation appears in
these observations. The epistemology applied does different types of crime scenes using simple to follow
not require reliance on statistical analyses where schematic flowcharts accompanied by demonstrative
the inference becomes probabilistic; it rather relies illustrations from real-life cases. The illustrations
on visually observable manifestations which are include photographs and sketches. While retaining
scored as being either ‘present’ or ‘absent’. While the original drawing in the sketches, the legends have
the observations described are fundamentally scien- been printed for ensuring readability. The chapter
tific, the manners that these are visually observed, presentation in this book is briefed as given here.
diagrammatically represented in sketches, and
photographically recorded are all skills involving • Conceptual foundations in forensic science
human input and artistic dexterities. This author lead the reader through the basic concepts that
was the Course Coordinator for the first-ever train- form the tenets of forensic science—identifi-
ing course on crime scene investigation organized cation, individualization, and reconstruction.
in the Tamil Nadu Forensic Sciences Department on A paradigm illustrating class identification
the advice of the then Director Dr. C. Damodaran, and individualization is presented along with
which was aptly named ‘The Art and Science of a novel scheme for observations-based crime
Observing Crime Scenes’ abbreviated ‘ASCriS’ scene reconstruction.
(Jayaprakash, 2003), and the manual brought out • General crime scene procedure is explained
during that training contained the prototype of the with hints to successfully record crime
flowcharts contrived by this author and adapted in observations using notes, sketches, and
this book. photography. The real-life-case-situations-
The methodology recommended for framing related sketches reproduced in this field
and testing hypothesis strictly relies on observa- guide illustrate the relevance of vary-
tions and clues recorded in crime scenes which ing types of sketches. The importance of
are to be supported by contemporaneously made sketches can be appreciated by the instances
photographs, sketches, and notes. Failure to offer where they serve as stand- alone illustra-
provenance on the crime scene photographs may tions depicting measurements for which
render the ‘observed premises’ questionable. It is scope does not exist in photography.
cautioned that crime scene investigators cannot • Case-wise chapters on major types of crime
rely on assumptions, surmises, witness statements, scenes include easy-to-follow flowcharts to
or confessions by suspects when reconstructing serve as schematic checklist, for prompting
crimes. The logic followed during hypothesis test- the scene investigator to recognize relevant
ing is inductive reasoning wherein a specific find- observations and physical evidence with
ing in a crime scene (observed premise) is verified some cues for reconstruction along with
for its corollary to a broad generalization (accepted exemplifying sketches and photographs.
premise) recognized in the concerned field of sci- These real-life case examples include death
ence as indicating a logical truth. In this field guide, due to hanging, traumatic injuries, burns,
the inductively arrived generals are considered as fall from height, electrocution, drowning,
being collections of particulars that are indefinite in and poisoning. Procedures desirable for
number and that there is reasonable confidence (in exhuming dead bodies are also described.
believing) that the inductive truths that have been Scene investigations relating to rape and
accumulated so far are acceptable as generalizations firearm cases, explosions, structure fires,
in science (Boeree, 1999; Jayaprakash, 2013). and vehicle-related cases are also included.
Introduction 5
• In each case situation, simple- to-

follow science laboratories, opinions from medical doctors,
strategies are prescribed to frame two statements of witnesses as well as confessions of sus-
opposing hypotheses, one primary and the pects should be reconcilable with the evidence-based
other alternative. These are followed by one reconstruction made in the crime scene. In the case
or more sequential hypotheses, each based of discrepancy, it is for the investigating officer to
on arguments flowing from the observed initiate action for reconciliation. Indeed, the circum-
premises recorded in the crime scene which stances in the crime scene, when observed properly,
is tested against the accepted (major) prem- offer the most realistic proof on the facts relating to
ises. The reconstructions flowing from the a crime. In this regard, observationalism is the key
sequential hypotheses are combined together to generate irresistibly acceptable reconstructions
to form the conjoined reconstruction. from the crime scene circumstances which may, at
• The arguments are designed to be straight- times, even appear improbable. Here the golden rule
forward so that the inference or recon- is, as stated by Sir Arthur Canon Doyle in The Sign
struction flows on its own. The final of the Four, “when you have eliminated the impos-
reconstruction remains stable in that it sible, whatever remains, however improbable, must
supports only one hypothesis and does not be the truth?” (Doyle, 1908).
acquiesce to the opposing hypothesis. The
scholarly citations provided on the vari-
ous premises considered as accepted would REFERENCES
form a ready- to-
reckon resource material
to facilitate the Scene of Crime Officers Boeree, C. G. Epistemology, 1999, http://webspace.
(SOCOs) to contextually apply those prem- ship.edu/cgboer/epist.html
ises during crime scene examination. Cordner, S. Suicide, accident, murder, or natu-
• Preconceived theories, the most deadly ral death, in Forensic Medicine: Clinical and
enemy of all inquiries (Gross, 1906), are Pathological Aspects; Payne-James, J., Busuttil,
often associated with the belief in certain A. and Smock, W. (Eds.) London: Greenwich
myths that have no scientific foundation. In Medical Media, 2003, 133–147.
an attempt to clarify for the reader, myths De Forest, P. R., Gaensslen, R. E. and Lee, H.
and facts relating to the various types of C. Forensic Science: An Introduction to
crimes have also been included in the dis- Criminalistics, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1983.
cussion. The discussion in each chapter, Doyle, C. A. The Sign of the Four, London: Smith,
both case- specific and general, has been Elder & Co., 1908.
designed to familiarize the reader with the Fulero, S. M. and Wrightsman, L. S. Forensic
relevant literature pertaining to subfields of Psychology, Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage
particular interest to that chapter. Learning, 2009.
• A scheme for preparing the crime scene Gross, H. Criminal Investigation: A Practical
report is included along with a design for Handbook for Magistrates, Police Officers and
hands-on work-based learning using mock Lawyers, translated by Adam, J and Adam, J. C.
crime scenes. Madras: Krishnamachari, 1906.
• The epilogue provides an overview of Horswell, J. Crime-scene investigation and exami-
the stress in this book on the need for nation: Major incident scene management,
observations- based reconstruction and in Encyclopedia of Forensic Science, Siegel,
the importance of crime scene generalists J. A., Knuper, G. and Saukko, P. (Eds) London:
to perform as SOCOs so that crime scene Academic Press, 2000, 428–432.
reconstruction would be popularized ben- Houck, M. M., Crispino, F. and McAdam, T. The
efitting crime investigation. Science of Crime Scenes, Oxford, UK: Elsevier,
• The essential procedures relating to physi- 2012.
cal evidence collection, preservation, and Inman, K. and Rudin, N. Principles and Practice
their analytical relevance are included in the of Criminalistics: The Profession of Forensic
Appendix. Science, Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2001.
Jayaprakash, P. T. The Art and Science of Observing
Fundamentally, this author’s experience shared in Crime Scenes, Chennai, India: Forensic
this book supports the inference that any detail in Sciences Department, Government of Tamil
every sources ranging from reports from forensic Nadu, 2003.
Jayaprakash, P. T. Practical relevance of pattern Saukko P, and Knight B, Knight’s Forensic Pathology,
uniqueness in forensic science, Forensic Sci Int., Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis
231 (1–3) (2013): 403.e1–403.e16. Group, 2016
Kirk, P. L. Crime Investigation, New York: John Sharman, L. E. and Elliot, D. A. Scene analysis and
Willey & Sons, 1974. reconstruction, in Encyclopedia of Forensic
Manoj, M. 9 death penalties wrongly imposed: Science, Siegel, J. A., Knuper, G. and Saukko, P.
Ex-judges to President, Times of India, (Eds.) London: Academic Press, 2000: 457–462.
August 19, 2012. Available at: https://timeso- Shkrum, M. J. and Ramsay, D. A. Forensic Pathology
findia.indiatimes.com/india/9-death-penalties- of Trauma Common Problems for the
wrongly-i mposed-E x-j udges-t o-P resident/ Pathologist, Totowa: Humana Press, 2007.
Sutton, R., Trueman, K. and Moran, C. (Eds.) Crime
articleshow/15552912.cms
Scene Management Scene Specific Methods,
Maxeiner, H. and Bockholdt, B. Homicidal and sui-
West Sussex: Wiley, 2017.
cidal ligature strangulation—A comparison of
Svensson, A., Wendel, O. and Fisher, B. A. J.
the post-mortem findings, Forensic Sci Int., 137
Techniques of Crime Investigation, New York:
(2003): 60–66 Elsevier, 1981.
Misra, G. J. and Damodaran, C. Perspective The Forensic Science Regulator, Department of
Plan for Indian Forensics, Final Report pre- Justice and The Royal College of Pathologists,
sented to the Ministry of Home Affairs, 2012. Code of Practice and Performance
Government of India by the Consultants, Standards for Forensic Pathology in England,
New Delhi, 2010. Available at https://mha. Wales and Northern Ireland, Home Office,
gov.in/sites/default/files/IFS%282010%29- Available at www.rcpath.org
FinalRpt_3.pdf Zannin, A. and Huber, L. Crime scene investigation,
Saferstein, R. Forensic Science: From the Crime in Manual of Forensic Science: An International
Scene to the Crime Lab, 4th Ed. New York: Survey, Barbaro, A. (Ed.) Boca Raton: CRC
Pearson Education, 2019. Press, 2018, 1–20.
Chapter 2
Conceptual Foundations in
Forensic Science and the Position
of Crime Scene Investigation
2.1 FOUNDATIONAL No one can act (commit a crime) with the force
CONCEPTS UNDERLYING (intensity) that the criminal act requires without
FORENSIC SCIENCE PRACTICE leaving behind numerous signs (marks) of it; either
the wrong- doer (felon, malefactor, offender) has
left signs at the scene of crime, or on the other
The existence of forensic science as a distinct pro-
hand, has taken away with him—on his person
fession derives justification from its ability to pro- (body) or cloths—indications of where he has been
vide services that fulfill societal needs relating to or what he has done.
crime investigation and administration of justice.
Foremost, it is emphasized that forensic science is Regarding the infallibility of such signs and
not intended to establish guilt or innocence of indi- marks that form tangible evidence, Kirk (1974)
viduals. Instead, it serves to establish relationships comments ‘Physical evidence cannot be wrong, it
between physical clues available in crime scenes, cannot perjure itself, it cannot be wholly absent.
both collectable and observable, which are corre- Only human failure to find it, study and under-
spondingly used for relating with similar clues from stand it, can diminish its value’.
other sources including suspects or for deducing In forensic science, Locard’s principle accounts
events that formed part of the happenstances in the for a) the occurrence of transfer of traces in the
crime scene. form of physical evidence when two objects con-
The practice of forensic science is governed tact each other and b) the ability of the examiner
largely by four principles that are interrelated, to discern signs (marks) of the transfer (such as
viz. principle of exchange, principle of identifica- finger marks) (Inman and Rudin, 2001; Saferstein,
tion, principle of individualization, and principle of 2019). Interestingly, these two fallouts connect
reconstruction. These principles have emerged to be the other two principles, viz. identification and
a domain of knowledge over a period of time con- individualization.
sequent to their value-orientation ascertained from Physical evidence may be defined as any
the end users—the police and the judiciary. All material in either gross or trace quantities that
types of investigations, comparisons, experimen- can establish through scientific examination and
tal analyses, or interpretations carried out in every analysis that a crime has been committed (Eckert
crime scene and in each forensic science laboratory and James, 1997). As automobiles run on gaso-
can be understood to be following one or more of line, crime laboratories run on physical evidence
these four principles. which includes any and all objects that can estab-
lish that a crime has or has not been committed
or that provide a link between a crime and its
2.2 THE PRINCIPLE OF EXCHANGE victim or perpetrator (Saferstein, 2019). In this
book, physical evidence available in crime scenes
This principle put forth by Edmund Locard (1817– are recognized as belonging to two categories;
1966) states that when two objects come into con- one that are in collectable form which enable
tact, there is always a transfer of traces. The essence analysis at the laboratory; the other that are non-
of this principle as reproduced by Inman and Rudin collectable but presenting in observable form,
(2001) reads as follows. as patterns that are photographically recordable
DOI: 10.4324/9781003267096-2 7
which, although not analyzable in a laboratory, iii. Tread pattern in a class of tire with unique
can still aid in reconstructing the sequences that patterning that differs from those in other
occurred in the crime scene. classes of tread patterns.
In a death scene, dead body is the most valuable iv. Paired nasal bone is a trait that is mor-
piece of potential evidence (Svensson et al., 1981; phologically unique for the class of human
Horswell, 2000). Dead bodies can reveal both col- skulls among the skulls of primates.
lectable and observable physical evidence. Physical
evidence collectable from dead bodies include blood
or seminal stains, hairs or fibers that may be held in 2.4 THE PRINCIPLE
fingers or loosely sticking, tissue traces in nail, etc. OF INDIVIDUALIZATION
The observable evidence to be recorded before the
dead body is moved from the crime scenes illustrated Individualization is a process by which the exam-
in this field guide (briefed in Section 1.3) include the iner concludes a specific source of origin for an
position of the deceased which can indicate cadav- evidence material based on the spatial relationship
eric spasm, the flow patterns of blood and other between the visually observable features in the pat-
body fluids, the patterns of burns which are useful terns which is considered unique to that evidence
in deducing possible movement of the victim or the material and the particular source object (Evett
dead body, etc. Examples of observable physical evi- and Williams, 1996). Here, characteristics such as
dence in other crime scenes comprise pellet and tat- numerical events are meaningless since visual per-
too marks in firearm-related cases, pitted marks of ception evaluates every bit of discernible detail in
missiles in explosions, fire scene patterns in structure the two patterns (Ashbaugh, 1999).
fires, tire and skid marks in vehicular accidents, etc. Uniqueness forms the basis for individualiza-
tions such as those achieved via physical matching
or when matching fingerprints which reveal conclu-
2.3 THE PRINCIPLE OF IDENTIFICATION sive facts on the origin of the concerned physical
evidence from a particular source. Uniqueness is
Identification of a substance establishes the physical, seen as the only relevant proposition that underlies
chemical, or biological identity of that substance the random and indeterministic generation of fea-
‘with the most certainty that existing analytical tures which enable comparison and source attribu-
techniques will permit’ (Saferstein, 2019). A sub- tion (Jayaprakash, 2013).
stance or a thing is identified following protocols
that prescribe a set of characteristics that are dis- Few examples are given here:
tinctive or unique for that class of substance or
thing (Jayaprakash, 2013). i. Patterns in one of the torn edges in paper,
Some authors like Saferstein (2019) discuss tape, or metal sheet exhibiting complemen-
‘identification’ and ‘comparison’ separately. In this tariness and that match with the patterns in
book, ‘identification’ is considered to include ‘com- the other torn edge.
parison’ since the process of identification relies on ii. Striation marks on a bullet from a crime
testing procedures that are comparative in nature. scene matching with the striation marks from
Class identification relies on identifying a kind of a bullet fired from the suspected firearm.
trait or a combination of traits that is uniquely pres- iii. Wear patterns in a tire or footwear print
ent among the items in a class thereby excluding the matching with the wear patterns in simi-
items belonging to other classes. lar prints made by the suspected source
objects, the tire or footwear.
Some examples are given here: iv. Radiographic patterns of bone morphol-
ogy such as the sinus patterns or skull
i. .22 is the kind of caliber that is uniquely suture patterns recorded from a recovered
measurable for a class of rifled firearms and skull matching with similar patterns seen
ammunitions among firearms. in antemortem radiographic records of a
ii. Ganja (marijuana) is identified by the known individual.
combination of the unique morphologi-
cal characteristics of the cystolithic hairs Source attribution through physically matching the
and the chemical characteristics of THC unique complementariness in correspondence such
(tetrahydrocannabinol). as among the two broken edges of a torn paper has
Position of Crime Scene Investigation 9
FIGURE 2.1 Uniqueness paradigm relevant for individualization in forensic science practice.
remained an extremely reliable method for indi- sample) (Figure 2.2). In addition to physical evi-
vidualization for over 100 years in forensic science dence, observable patterns traditionally mentioned
justifying its choice for substantiating the relevance as being useful during crime scene reconstruction
of individualization as a tenet of forensic science. include those relating to bloodstains, glass fractures,
Uniqueness paradigm is shown to be relevant for and shooting incidents (Lee et al., 2001; Suboch,
both class identification and individualization in 2016). Authors like Sharman and Elliot (2000)
forensic science practice (Figure 2.1. Adapted after have broadly recognized the importance of various
Jayaprakash, 2013 with permission from Elsevier). marks, stains, traces, damages, and items in situ at
the scene as being useful sources of information for
framing hypothesis when making reconstructions.
2.5 THE PRINCIPLE OF Restricting ‘reconstruction’ as a process of infer-
RECONSTRUCTION ring events based on identifications and/or individu-
alizations (associations) established by the analysis
Traditionally, authors have considered reconstruc- of collectable physical evidence in a forensic sci-
tion to be an offshoot of ‘association’ established ence laboratory would downsize the overall scope
during physical evidence analysis (Kirk, 1974; for crime scene reconstruction—it would preclude
Svensson et al., 1981; De Forest et al., 1983; Inman all those reconstructions achievable by studying an
and Rudin, 2001; Houck et al., 2012; Sutton et al., array of evidence which are merely observable in
2017; Zannin and Huber, 2018; Saferstein, 2019). crime scenes but are not collectable and hence not
Here, a reconstruction is made on the basis of an truly portable for laboratory analysis. A novel con-
analytical finding from the laboratory that estab- cept put forth in this book is the scheme for using
lishes an association between a physical evidence observable evidence in crime scenes for reconstruct-
collected from the crime scene (questioned sample) ing events (Figure 2.3). In this method, a hypoth-
and the evidence collected from the suspect (control esis framed on the basis of an observation made
Collectable and portable physical evidence

(Enabling specific event reconstructions)
Locard’s principle
Trace evidence transfer

due to contact
(victim «» suspect «» SOC)
Identification principle Individualization principle

Attribution to a class Attribution to specific source
Examples: Identification as Examples: Physically
ganja, opium, dynamite, matching broken pieces of
cyanide, alcohol, glass; matching a fingerprint
insecticide, a fiber type, a or a DNA profile or striations
brand of tire, etc. in a bullet etc., to their
source objects.
Reconstruction as a corollary of the laboratory analysis
Reconstruction principle
Event reconstructed: specific events –
the substance originated from a
particular class of substances or from
a particular source object.
FIGURE 2.2 A schematic diagram elucidating the relationship between collectable physical evidence from
crime scenes and reconstruction of specific events.
Observable physical evidence: non-portable

(Enabling dynamic event reconstructions)
Observations in the dead

body and the scene of
crime
Observations in the dead Observations in the scene

body of crime
Cadaveric spasm or Blood spatter patterns,
directionality in the burn and smoke patterns,
discharged body fluids marks left by missiles from
such as blood, saliva, firearms and explosives,
urine etc. skid and tire patterns etc.
Framing and testing hypothesis at the SOC itself
Reconstruction principle
Event reconstructed: dynamic events –
seizure of movement or additional
movement in dead bodies; movements of
the missiles from firearms or explosives
FIGURE 2.3 Schematic diagram elucidating the relationship between non-collectable and non-portable but
observable physical evidence from crime scenes and reconstruction of dynamic events.
in the crime scene is tested against premises which suspect’s clothing originated from the bloodstain
are known or accepted among the scholarly com- in the crime scene enables reconstructing a specific
munity practicing forensic science for arriving at an event, viz., contact and transfer of the bloodstain
inference or reconstruction. Such hypothesis-based from the crime scene onto the clothes of the sus-
reconstruction may be defined as inferring or recon- pect. Here, the reconstruction is a natural corol-
structing an event by establishing a cause–effect lary of the laboratory analysis. There is no need
relationship wherein an observable effect manifest- for the reconstructionist to frame any hypotheses
ing in a crime scene is proposed as an assured corol- and test them. Every identification or individualiza-
lary of a known cause. Multiples of such hypotheses tion (association) established in a forensic science
relating to a sequence of events, termed as sequen- laboratory inescapably leads to the next step of
tial hypotheses, lead to the reconstruction of a series reconstructing a specific event. However, all such
of events, which, when summed up together, form reconstructions have to be delayed until the receipt
a conjoined reconstruction that is nearer to the of the laboratory report. Such a holdback would
ground reality. not entail the utility of laboratory-analyses-based
reconstructions for the immediate progression of
investigation although these would prove invalu-
able during the later stages of investigation as well
2.6 SPECIFIC EVENT as prosecution.
RECONSTRUCTION VERSUS DYNAMIC In contrast, utilizing the observable evidence
EVENT RECONSTRUCTION available in crime scenes for crime reconstruction
is seen to have two distinct advantages. First, that
To be considered scientifically acceptable, the crime the reconstruction is made in the crime scene itself
scene reconstruction advocated in this book should and thus entails immediate utility for the benefit of
conform to the following standards: further progression in the course of investigation.
Second, that the crime scene observations when used
as observed premises enable the SOCO in recon-
i) It must be based on the observations made structing events that are dynamic. For all that, the
by the SOCOs themselves and not anything responsibilities of the SOCO will have to extend
that is hearsay. to recognizing those observations valuable to form
ii) The observations so made by the SOCO observed premises, identifying the corresponding
must be supported by photographs and/or Accepted (major) premises from scholarly literature,
recovery of physical clues, suitable sketches, and then framing and testing the hypothesis, all of
and contemporaneous notes. these in the crime scene itself. Evidently, these respon-
iii) The reconstruction should not be based on sibilities would prove to be an additional encum-
the statements of witnesses or investiga- brance to the SOCOs who are routinely used to the
tion officers. SOCOs are reminded that mundane duties of collecting and packing physical
the opinions of investigation officers are evidence from crime scenes.
invariably surmises from multiple sources Dynamic events indicate activities involving an
including witness statements and hence element of movement. One popular reconstruction
cannot form the basis for any scientific that falls in the category of dynamic event recon-
reconstruction. structions is by applying bloodstain pattern analy-
iv) While reconstructions can take into consis. Dynamic events in the flow patterns indicating
sideration the description of facts by other consistencies in directionality of discharged body
experts such as injuries by medical doctors, fluids such as saliva, urine, and blood are shown to
for the purposes of relating crime scene be useful in reconstructing the posture of the dead
observations, the final opinion of the other bodies (Cases 4–1, 4–4, 4–7, 4–8, 4–9, 4–10, 4–12).
experts cannot form the basis for any crime Dynamic events reconstructed may also relate to the
scene reconstruction. zigzag gait pattern left by the suspect (Case 5–1) or
to the movement of a burning victim as evidenced
by the distribution of smoke/burn patterns or
Generally, any reconstruction based on physical bloodstain patterns (Cases 7–1, 7–2) or the move-
evidence analysis conducted in forensic science lab- ment of a dead body as deduced by the bloodstain
oratories indicates events that are specific. A labo- pattern that was incommensurable to the posture of
ratory analysis establishing that a bloodstain on a the dead body (Case 4–12). Diagnosing the seizure
of dynamism in the body movement evidenced by Fudge, 2014). Every observation is a ‘fact’ either
observing cadaveric spasm (Cases 4–5, 4–6, 9–1, manifesting as such or inferentially. Manifest facts
9–3) also aids in reconstructing the final activ- are obvious and eloquent, while inferential facts
ity of the victim. Dynamism may also pertain to require mental workout from one considered true to
the movement of the agency causing the marks on another acceptable as true. The ‘observations’ rec-
objects such as the pitted marks caused on obstruct- ommended as being useful for crime reconstruction
ing surfaces by the missiles and debris from the seat in this field guide are qualitative and do not require
of explosion (Cases 14–1, 14–3) or the pattern of measurements, equations, or statistics. Being quali-
injuries caused by the pellets fired from a shot gun tative, observable facts are demonstrative. During
(Case 13–1) and the marks caused by bullets that hypothesis testing, the observable facts are tested
ricochet (Case 13–2) or the fractures caused by bul- for acceptance using facts that have gained prior
let on glass (Case 13–2). The observable evidence acceptance. Evidently, the hypothesis would be
such as those described earlier are to be recorded at multiple such as one primary hypothesis and
the crime scene itself when the scene still remains another alternative hypothesis. Sub-hypotheses or
unaltered and the SOCO is the only competent offi- sequential hypotheses are those proposed for the
cer who can accomplish it. sequence of observed facts in the same-case sce-
Postulation of hypothesis during reconstruc- nario. The series of reconstructions generated by
tion requires the observations of those effects man framing a series of sequential hypotheses can be
ifesting in the crime scene to be treated as observed brought together to arrive at a conjoined recon-
premises which should be tested against corre- struction that projects broader details of a particu-
sponding causes or the Accepted (major) prem- lar crime scene which can be argued to be nearer to
ises that are to be identified from different areas the ground reality.
of forensic science. These ventures necessitate the Authors have recognized that offering proof
SOCOs to be resourceful and ready to accomplish or disproof to the exclusion of all other possibili-
the reconstruction in the crime scene itself. Once ties is impossible in science (Platt, 1964; Kinraide
the SOCO develops such a reconstruction in the and Denison, 2003). Hypotheses are supported and
crime scene itself, it proves to be robust in steering not proved. When multiples of sub-hypotheses and
the investigation process, an objective of great value sequential-hypotheses are supported, one is led to
orientation for crime investigators. As would be arrive at strong inference that one of the major
evident from the case examples in this field guide, hypotheses (among primary and alternative) is
crime reconstruction is the only scientific method excluded, and the other remains supported. It is in
available to answer the question ‘how a crime could this stage that one finds, similar to Fudge (2014),
have happened?’ especially when the manner of a confluence between the concept of Platt’s strong
death is equivocal. During crime reconstruction, inference and the bold inference by Sherlock Holmes
physical evidence and related observations reveal in The Sign of the Four “when you have eliminated
the facts; when the evidence is inconsistent with a the impossible, whatever remains, however improb-
hypothesis, the hypothesis must be changed to fit able, must be the truth?” (Doyle, 1908).
the evidence—not the other way round (Becker,
2005). Highlighting the advantages of observable
evidence in dynamic event reconstruction as the 2.8 THE CONCEPT
major objective of this field guide, those useful OF CRIME SCENE GENERALIST
observations that manifest oftentimes in various
types of crime scenes are illustratively emphasized It has been recognized that the duties of bench sci-
all along this book. entists, Laboratory Science, and those of a crime
scene investigator, Field Science, are two very dis-
tinct vocational activities. The basic distinction is
2.7 ON THE OBSERVE–HYPOTHESIZE that the crime scene investigator must be respon-
MODEL FOLLOWED IN THIS BOOK sible for ‘interpreting’ the evidence, a responsibil-
ity that involves ‘hypothesis testing’ (Horswell,
The method of inductive inference in science is 2004). However, there is a lack of uniformity
traceable to the premier work of Francis Bacon on the criteria required for employment as crime
revived by the recommendation of strong infer- scene examiners; some countries employing bench
ence by Platt (1964) which has remained espoused scientists, some deputing uniformed or plain-
by many scholars (Kinraide and Denison, 2003; clothed police, and a few employing professional
scientists for that purpose. Most authorities recom- REFERENCES

mend deploying graduate scientists, who are gen-
eralists, as crime scene investigators (Fisher and Ashbaugh, D. R. Quantitative—Qualitative Friction
Fisher, 2012; Horswell, 2004; Sharman and Elliot, Ridge Analysis, Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press,
2000; Chisum, 2001; Chisum and Turvey, 2007). 1999.
Generalists holding Master’s degree in science were Becker, R. F. Criminal Investigation, Boston: Jones
deployed for CSI work in Tamil Nadu, India, as and Bartlett Publishers, 2005.
early as in 1972. Chisum, W. J. The past, present, and future of crimi-
The assortment of cases described in this nalistics, Sci Justice, 41 (1) (2001): 55–61.
book should make it obvious that the knowledge Chisum, W. J. and Turvey, B. E. Crime Reconstruction,
base required for interpreting the observations in Boston: Elsevier/Academic Press, 2007.
such types of cases should also be equally diverse. De Forest, P. R., Gaensslen, R. E. and Lee, H.
Specialization is likely to limit the application of C. Forensic Science: An Introduction to
science to specific fields. A forensic chemist spe- Criminalistics, New York: McGraw- Hill,
cialized in analyzing drugs may not have enough 1983.
self-
confidence to observe and interpret blood- Doyle, C. A. The Sign of the Four, London: Smith,
stain patterns in a crime scene the same way a Elder & Co., 1908.
biologist specialized in DNA forensics may not be Eckert, W. G. and James, S. H. The role of the foren-
adept to record and interpret fire scene patterns. sic laboratory, in Introduction to Forensic
Contrarily, investigation in the field requires a Sciences, 2nd ed., Eckert, W. G. (Ed.) Boca
generalist to dispense scientific assistance on mat- Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1997.
ters relating to any area of forensic science that Evett, I. W. and Williams, R. L. A Review of the
would vary in accordance with the particular cir- Sixteen Point fingerprint Standard in England
cumstances of the crime concerned. The science and Wales, 1996. Available at: www.thefin-
desired for crime scene investigation is general gerprintinquiryscotland.org.uk/inquiry/files/
and broad, roughly conforming to the definition DB_0769-02.pdf
by Siepmann (1998) as the study which attempts Fisher, B. A. J. and Fisher, D. R. Techniques of Crime
to describe and understand the nature of the uni- Scene Investigation, Boca Raton, FL: CRC
verse in whole or in part. Press, 2012.
Critical reports on forensic science practice Fudge, D. Fifty years of J. R. Platt’s strong inference,
have noted the need for specialist knowledge in J Exp Biol., 217 (2014): 1202–1204.
interpreting observable evidence such as bloodstain Horswell, J. Crime-scene investigation and exami-
patterns (NAS Report, 2009). Recommending nation: Major incident scene management,
generalists for crime scene investigation should in Encyclopedia of Forensic Science, Siegel, J.
not be viewed as precluding the utility of special- A., Knuper, G. and Saukko, P. (Eds.) London:
ists—instead a generalist at the crime scene would Academic Press, 2000, 428–432.
ensure better utility of such specialists. The preva- Horswell, J. The Practice of Crime Scene Investigation,
lent trend of letting the crime scenes to be visited Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2004.
by those merely trained to collect physical evidence Houck, M. M., Crispino, F. and McAdam, T. The Science
(whether police personnel or SOCOs from FSLs) of Crime Scenes, Oxford, UK: Elsevier, 2012.
may altogether prevent the opportunity to record Inman, K. and Rudin, N. Principles and Practice
and interpret any of the observable evidence avail- of Criminalistics: The Profession of Forensic
able in crime scenes. Indeed, proposing visit by an Science, Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2001.
expert in bloodstain pattern analysis to every crime Jayaprakash, P. T. Practical relevance of pattern
scene involving bloodstains would be impossible to uniqueness in forensic science, Forensic Sci Int.,
accomplish. Here, a modest and practical approach 231 (1–3) (2013): 403.e1–403.e16.
would be to train generalists who would be confi- Kinraide, T. B. and Denison, R. F. Strong inference:
dent enough to correctly observe and to appropri- The way of science, Am Biol Teach., 65 (6)
ately record and interpret such basic facts as, say, (2003): 419–424.
‘arc’ type in bloodstain pattern. Finer details about Kirk, P. L. Crime Investigation, New York: John
the specific angle in which the arc pattern has Willey & Sons, 1974.
been caused, if really considered necessary for the Lee, H. C., Palmbach, T. and Miller, M. T. Henry
reconstruction, can be sought from the concerned Lee’s Crime Scene Handbook, San Diego, CA:
experts. Elsevier Academic Press, 2001.
NAS Report. Strengthening Forensic Science in the Siepmann, J. P. What is science? J. Theoretic., 1–3
United States: A Path Forward, Report of the (1998). Available at: www.journaloftheoretics.
National Academy of Sciences (NAS), (the com/editorials/vol-1/e1-3.htm.
NAS Report), Washington, DC: The National Suboch, G. Real-world Crime Scene Investigation—A
Academy Press, 2009. Step-by-Step Procedure Manual, Boca Raton,
Platt, J. R. Strong inference, Science, 146 (1964): FL: CRC Press, 2016
347–353. Sutton, R., Trueman, K. and Moran, C. (Eds.) Crime
Saferstein, R. Forensic Science: From the Crime Scene Management Scene Specific Methods,
Scene to the Crime Lab, 4th ed., New York: West Sussex: Wiley, 2017.
Pearson Education, 2019. Svensson, A., Wendel, O. and Fisher, B. A. J. Techniques
Sharman, L. E. and Elliot, D. A. Scene analysis and of Crime Investigation, New York: Elsevier, 1981.
reconstruction, in Encyclopedia of Forensic Zannin, A. and Huber, L. Crime scene investigation,
Science, Siegel, J. A., Knuper, G. and Saukko, in Manual of Forensic Science: An International
P. (Eds.) London: Academic Press, 2000, Survey, Barbaro, A. (Ed.) Boca Raton, FL: CRC
457–462. Press, 2018, 1–20.
Chapter 3
General Crime Scene Procedure
3.1 ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES crime scenes would form the primary source pro-
OF SCENE OF CRIME OFFICERS viding the most authentic and factual information
for the SOCO to rely on. However, the prerequisite
Empiricism insisted in forensic sciences (NAS to assure such authenticity is that the crime scene
Report, 2009) has limited role in crime scene should remain undisturbed and preserved. In prac-
investigation wherein the techniques applied are tice, disturbance caused to the crime scenes is found
observational and the inferences drawn are evalu- to be the major cause affecting the authenticity of
ational, both processes operable solely on human the evidence.
inputs which are known for fallibility. When hands-
down data such as known error rate can be relied
on for validating laboratory analyses, the Scene of 3.2 ON THE BEST PRACTICES DURING
Crime Officer (SOCO) has to necessarily depend CRIME SCENE EXAMINATION
on demonstrable authenticity and transparency for
vouching the validity in his records relating to the In general, disturbances to crime scenes have been
procedure adapted in each crime scene. considered as the major sources of contamination
For the erudite readers, there is no dearth of (Baldwin and May, 2000a; Ashcroft et al., 2004;
scholarly literature on crime scene procedures from Lothridge and Fitzpatrick, 2013; Saferstein, 2019).
books (Kirk, 1974; Svensson et al., 1981; De Forest Disturbances to crime scenes are due to varied
et al., 1983; Lee et al., 2001; James and Nordby, human actions which, oftentimes, cause contami-
2003; Horswell, 2004; Becker, 2005; Beaufort- nation of physical evidence; in addition, these
Moore, 2009; Sutton and Trueman, 2009; Langford may, at times, affect the observations manifesting
et al., 2010; Fisher and Fisher, 2012; Saferstein, in crime scenes by altering them. Disturbances to
2019), chapters in encyclopedias (Horswell, 2000a, crime scenes are likely to occur during both the
2000b, 2000c, 2000d; Baldwin and May, 2000a, presecured and post-secured states, and the play-
2000b); Sharman and Elliot, 2000; Siegel, 2000), ers involved may vary contextually. Examples of
and instructive manuals (Ashcroft et al., 2004; those involved during the presecured states include
Forensic Science Regulator, 2012). The procedures emergency medical services (EMS) workers or the
enumerated in this chapter are those considered general public engaging in lifesaving activities and
concise and optimal for an effectual management of firefighters extinguishing fires. The players who
crime scenes in practice. may disturb the scenes in the post-secured state
The tasks to be accomplished by SOCOs during include police officers making cursory inspec-
crime scene search are twofold: to recognize poten- tion of the scene, investigating officers trying to
tial physical evidence and retrieve them after record- explain junior officers the nuances in the crime
ing their presence using appropriate techniques and scene, other officials accessing the scene, and also
to observe relevant manifestations in the crime the crime scene examiners. Furthermore, environ-
scene, record them appropriately, and to formulate mental influences such as heavy rain or snow and
a reconstruction that would explain the events sur- Dipteran infestations or other animal predations
rounding the crime. At the SOC, the information may also cause disturbances in crime scenes. It is
for the SOCO from the police will be secondary important that these disturbances are appropriately
since these are gathered from their understanding of recognized for preventing, minimizing as well as to
the crime scene, statements of witnesses, complain- account for their consequences. However, it has
ants, and suspects. On the other hand, the physi- been this author’s experience that when a victim
cal evidence and the observations available in the is dead and the body remains in the scene itself,
DOI: 10.4324/9781003267096-3 17
human disturbances are minimal since there is a scientific basis, is likely to breed inimical specula-
general reluctance on the part of both the local peo- tions on contamination as had happened in Kercher
ple and the officials to enter such scenes. case described here.
Disturbances leading to physical evidence The much publicized Kercher case acquired
contamination: Contamination is the process of notoriety mainly due to the generation of DNA
transfer of extraneous matter between the collec- profiles matching that of a suspect from a knife
tor and the evidence or multiple pieces of evidence, which was recovered 46 days after the discovery
producing tainted evidence that cannot be used in of the crime and on which there was no blood
the subsequent investigation (Saferstein, 2019). As (Hogenboom, 2014; Balk, 2015). In the same case,
the definition implies, contamination pertains to DNA profile linking the suspect was also gener-
collectable evidence, and SOCOs are required to ated from a bra clasp that remained in the scene
follow the standard protocols to ensure that the for 47 days since the occurrence of the crime and
evidence collected can be considered as ‘not con- its recovery. While these DNA profiles were used
taminated’ and as qualified for analysis and inter- to connect suspects who were included during the
pretation. While the SOCOs must strive to follow later course of investigation, there already was
the standard operating procedures for contamina- another suspect whose palm print was found in
tion prevention which have been reiterated time the scene and whose DNA was found in biologi-
and again (Houck et al., 2012; Fisher and Fisher, cal stains which were more copiously deposited
2012; Suboch, 2016; Saferstein, 2019), they must in the scene and who also chose to plead guilty.
routinely adhere to the following essential precau- Investigation officers’ prerogative to include new
tionary measures which should also be noted in suspects apart from finding DNA profiles matching
their report. a suspect on a knife discovered after 46 days and on
which bloodstains were absent appear counterin-
• Always use latex gloves and/or disposable tuitive. Explaining it as due to contamination begs
forceps when touching evidence, especially the question: Was it the particular suspect’s DNA
those requiring DNA analysis, and make alone that contaminated a knife that was recovered
sure to change the gloves for each evidence after 46 days of occurrence?
when they are in multiples. Remember that Disturbances affecting crime scene observa-
DNA profiling requires absolutely uncon- tion: In any scene, lifesaving always takes prece-
taminated samples. dence over evidence preservation. Those involved
• Clean and sanitize all equipment that are in saving the life of someone in the scene, such as
not disposable before and after visiting a the EMS workers as well the local residents, are
crime scene and between collecting each likely to disturb the articles in the scene as well as
piece of evidence. the posture of the victim. In addition, they may
also deposit used items such as vials, syringes,
It is this author’s advice that any DNA bear- packagings of medications, cotton or gauze pieces,
ing biological stain identified as useful in a scene of pieces of cloth, items used for cutting down bodies
crime should be, for purposes of transparency and such as knife, and many other related items in the
authentication, first described indicating the stain scene. During lifesaving, the original posture of
pattern, be it blood or other body fluids, which the body, in the case of already a dead victim, will
should also be immediately photographed before be lost due to disturbance and symptoms enabling
packing it for DNA analysis. SOCOs must reason- the diagnosis of such manifestations as cadaveric
ably account for surmising the presence of biologi- spasm will no more be evident. When hanging
cal stains that are not readily visible such as saliva bodies are cut down to save individuals, the noose
or semen before preserving the concerned physical may not be available in its original form, and signs
evidence/swab for DNA analysis. For example, the such as salivary discharge may not be recogniz-
presence of a bite mark must be described prior to able; and, instead, unrelated signs consequent to
collecting a swab of saliva from around that mark lifesaving activities may appear such as the frothy
for DNA analysis, and the starchy texture of a por- discharge manifesting due to administering water
tion of clothing should be described first before to the victim (see Case 4–14). Accidental deposi-
marking that area for suggesting semen detection tion of extraneous materials by individuals enter-
and DNA analysis. Attempting DNA analysis on ing into scenes also occurs such as the unburnt
evidence items that do not reveal any cue to infer match sticks spilled on the body of a burn victim
the presence of body fluid traces, apart from lacking along with an additional box of matches deposited
General Crime Scene Procedure 19
nearby as described in Case 7–2. Disturbances may In terms of welfare, the first priority when
also relate to chance alterations leading to dislo- visiting crime scenes is to ensure the safety and
cation of evidence as shown by the burnt piece physical well-being of officers and other individu-
of cloth shoved away from the protected area, as als. Depending on the context of the case, SOCOs
illustrated in Figures 7.17 and 7.18 in Case 7–1, must consider the possible biological, chemical, and
which, when superimposed with the protected radiological hazards and arrange suitable emer-
area, offered the important evidence that the vic- gency care as well as safeguard measures. In this
tim was moving along that location while still regard, the standard operating procedures pre-
ablaze. These disturbances may not challenge iden- scribed by Saferstein (2019) is recommended for
tification during scene examination; but these need regular adherence by SOCOs visiting crime scenes.
to be duly recognized by the SOCOs and appropri- If the SOCOs feel the need for wearing face masks,
ately described and accounted for when attempting as a general welfare measure, all those in the scene
scene reconstruction. must be supplied with face masks. At the same time,
Once a scene is secured, it is cordoned off to the SOCOs must maintain professional demeanor
prevent any disturbance. Here again, to what range and must not shun the odor of decomposition or
the cordoning should extend is decided on a case- the presence of maggots when dealing with decom-
specific basis. Appropriate training to the constab- posed remains—these are part of evidence. While
ulary in the police recruit school has been found the odor of decomposition may continue to linger
effective in prompting the constables deputed for even on the personal clothing, being the property of
cordoning the crime scenes in effectively preserving the gaseous products of bacterial activity, the odor
the scene. The bicycle tire marks illustrated in Case by itself seldom causes infection.
14–2 remained undisturbed because of the effec- Ensuring protection of SOCOs from pressure
tive barricading arranged by the police constables and threat: Some authors have recognized the need
trained in crime scene preservation that were among for a plan to protect SOCOs while they are pro-
the first to reach the scene. cessing the scene when there is apparent unrest or
Belated or second investigations of crime when the suspect(s) are still at large, or it is a high
scenes: At times, the SOCO may have to visit an profile case (Zannin and Huber, 2018). This issue
already disturbed crime scene belatedly or to clar- acquires particular relevance when SOCO makes
ify confusions in the findings of the initial inves- a reconstruction immediately in the scene itself, a
tigation. On such occasions, the SOCOs should situation contrasting the delayed reconstructions
at first conduct a thorough study of the appear- made in premises away from the crime scene after
ances recorded in the photographs taken of the the receipt of the analytical results from forensic
crime scene during the initial investigation and science laboratories. Obviously, SOCOs working
then relate those appearances with the manifesta- in crime scenes and making reconstructions are
tions in the crime scene during the belated visit for ‘exposed’ to the witnesses as well other bystanders.
identifying such observations and clues that have Perpetrators choosing to mingle with the bystand-
still remained in the scene as being reliable for use ers would readily recognize the role played by the
as evidence for reconstructions as shown in Case SOCO in locating those clues which would connect
7–1. On such occasions, mere statements recorded them with the crime scene incriminatingly. Such
by the investigation officer cannot form the basis experiences of this author include a case of homi-
for scene investigation or reconstruction by the cide in which one of the suspects, a juvenile, stand-
SOCOs. ing among the bystanders, volunteered to help in the
Ensuring health- related safety in the scene: scene to ‘know’ the progress of scene investigation
Before discussing the health-related safety issues, and another case in which the suspects, who knew
the SOCOs are advised to maintain above-average that clinching clues had been collected from the
physical health and enduring fitness, akin to the scene, visited this author’s residence and intimidat-
iron constitution recommended by Gross (1906), ingly referred to the case following which suitable
to work irrespective of the time—day or night, as security arrangements had to be made by the con-
well as to complete the scene examination, however cerned police authorities. Although it is not pleasant
long and laborious, in one continuous session. As to bear the pressure of being exposed to suspects or
against the laboratory analyses that can be contin- perpetrators, the SOCOs, being physically available
ued intermittently for many days, examination of in the scene, cannot insulate themselves from being
a crime scene in its ‘post-secured’ state has to be identified by bystanders as the person responsible
compulsorily uninterrupted. for locating a particular evidence of incriminating
value. Methods to ameliorate such situations include METHODS OF SEARCH
exercising modesty so that extra attention by the

STRIP METHOD GRID METHOD
onlookers will be prevented, refraining from flashy
discussions with fellow officers during and/or after STRIPS
the scene visit, and, more particularly, refraining
from discussing the case details with media or press
A B C
representatives. Any contribution by SOCOs should GRIDS
be shared only with the appropriate and designated
authorities, and this should be adhered to even after
testifying in the courts.
DIRECTION
OF SEARCH
3.3 CRIME SCENE SEARCH INWARD SPIRAL METHOD OUTWARD SPIRAL METHOD
The ability to record the evidence available in crime

scenes is an art involving varied skills and thus
challenges prescription of a specified methodologi-
cal framework. The approach recommended in this
field guide can only prompt the SOCOs to develop
an aptitude, both scientific and artistic, to appropri-
ately record the multifarious presentations that are
likely to crop up in different crime scenes. Initially,
the SOCOs may survey the scene to determine the ZONE METHOD WHEEL METHOD
safe areas to traverse and also to locate a place for
keeping equipment etc., without disturbing the
scene. After overall photography, the SOCO may
ZONES
adopt one or more methods for searching the scene
but should guard himself from relying on ‘hunch’ to
look for evidence on a hit-or-miss basis. Be it indoor SPOKES
or outdoor situations, the search approach should

be innovative so as to search below structures like
wall that obstruct scattering objects or fragments,
inside cracks in the floor into which blood traces or FIGURE 3.1 Basic methods recommended for
incendiary liquids are likely to seep in, the corners in searching crime scenes.
rooms where loose hairs usually accumulate, inside
the garbage bins where empty pill blister packs are 3.4 DOCUMENTATION OF
commonly thrown, and so on. THE CRIME SCENE
Indoor situations involving dead bodies may
fall within one of the following two broad classes— To be successful in documenting crime scenes, the
one in which the actions by the victim, mostly pre- SOCO requires both experience in recognizing
paratory in nature, terminate in the dead body with
evidence, observable and collectable, occurring at
the occurrence of death as it happens in cases of
crime scenes as well as the awareness on what can
suicides and the other in which the actions perpe-
be done in the laboratory using the collectable evi-
trated by another individual, the assailant, result
dence. In this regard, the SOCO must have a com-
in the death of the victim after which the assailant
moves away from the dead body as it happens in prehensive knowledge on the analytical potential
cases of homicides. Bearing in mind the observable available in the various divisions in a forensic sci-
and collectable evidence accruing in both the afore- ence laboratory—see Appendix. Well- timed com-
mentioned classes, the SOCO may consider the dead munication between the SOCOs and laboratory
body to be the convenient start point for initiating analysts may result in important evidence being rec-
the search. Concerning the mechanism of search in ognized in crime scenes.
outdoor crime scenes, the SOCO is free to choose Alongside documenting, the SOCO has to pos-
one or a combination of the methods illustrated in tulate in his mind multiple hypotheses appropriate
Figure 3.1. to the observations. The ability to recognize an
observed something as a usable premise for fram- crime scene observations are by making notes,
ing hypothesis depends on the knowledge base of sketches, photographs, and video records.
the SOCO on those premises earlier accepted by
the scientific community. This indeed places a par-
ticular burden on the SOCOs. To somewhat ease 3.5 DOCUMENTATION BY
this burden, many of the premises reported as PREPARING WRITTEN NOTES
being acceptable in citable literature are provided
in this book together with the relevant crime scene The objective of preparing the descriptive notes is
observations. to generate a written record of the visual presenta-
Because of the possibility to err when mak- tions in crime scenes which the SOCO considers as
ing observations, the SOCO must train his eyes being significant. These notes form the basis for the
not to pass over any presentation without evalu- SOCO to prepare his final report. Obviously, it is
ating it. The SOCO should never rely on memory impossible to recommend a particular prescription
when observing the scene, and instead, the notes, for writing the notes since the presentations in the
sketches, and the photographs prepared in the scene crime scenes vary much and are also case specific.
should form the basis for recording an observation. The descriptions accompanying the illustrations
In the context of using digital cameras, a sugges- in this field guide, though not claimed as the fin-
tion of proven practical value to refine crime scene est, would serve as examples enabling the SOCOs
observations is to review the photographic images to prepare descriptive notes in the cases they are
in suitable enlarged state in the scene itself and to required to investigate.
compare the recorded facts with those physically The notes must be clear and understandable for
seen in the scene for ensuring reasonably factual readers who may not possess formal knowledge in
representation. Notwithstanding the completion of science. To ensure reliability, notes may be written
the photography work, the position of objects in the in a bound notebook instead of loose leaf papers
crime scene should be left to remain as such until with entries contemporaneously made in chronolog-
the final stage wherein the SOCO decides to ‘col- ical order rather than in an out-of-sequence man-
lect’ the portable clues. This would enable further ner. Indicating even purely negative facts—this will
verification of the observed details if the SOCO speak about impartiality during observation (see
so desires. To be successful, the SOCO must not Figures 4.60 and 4.63 in Case 4–11).
divulge the hypothesis or the reconstruction until One should use coordinate method (mentioning
the completion of the documentation procedure— distances and cardinal directions based on compass
better clues may come into sight as scene investiga- from two stable landmarks) for locating important
tion proceeds further. The assistant chosen should objects and clearly specify the unit of measurement
be willing but should be tutored not to be proactive used. In situations where absolute precision would
in citing earlier experiences and thus influencing the be redundant, the measurements may be mentioned
hypotheses of the SOCO. with the prefix ‘about’, e.g., ‘The body was freely
Documentation of the crime scene acquires hanging. The downwardly pointing toes were about
legal importance when it is used as evidence in 1 in. above the floor level’ (see Figure 4.1 in Case 4–1).
courts. Here, documentation enables the reviewers One should tabulate details wherever possible such as
to mentally perceive the happenstances in the scene when listing the clues collected and suggesting rel-
of crime in the same way the SOCO perceived them evant laboratory analyses (see Table 5.1 in Case 5–3).
when examining that scene. From forensic science
perspective, documentation empowers the SOCO to
infer an evidence-based reconstruction of the crime. 3.6 DOCUMENTATION USING
It must be borne in mind that anything scribbled or CRIME SCENE SKETCHES
jotted in the crime scene can be interpreted as being
evidence. While in some countries like the United Crime-scene sketches need not be works of art. The
States, such materials are also routinely provided to sketches must be made by the SOCO himself so that
the opposing counsels, in countries like India, the his eyes will be drawn to every detail in the crime
defense counsels are entitled to demand the produc- scene. Additional advantages of sketches are that,
tion of rough notes, etc., made in a crime scene. As unlike photographs, they allow for incorporating
such, the SOCOs must retain every piece or written measurements and for emphasizing the most signifi-
material however trivial or informal it may appear. cant objects—both enabling accurate recollection of
The traditional methods available for documenting the crime scene circumstances at later dates.
The rough sketch made at the scene can be used evidence, it is stressed that photography is the only
for drawing a finished sketch later on. The cardinal method available for the SOCO to offer the prov-
points indicating direction as per compass, N, S, enance authenticating that the observation really
E, and W, should be marked in the sketches. When existed in the scene. Unlike the sketches that are
dealing with larger areas, graph paper is helpful in ‘hand drawn’ and the notes that are ‘handwritten’,
drawing a rough sketch. A rough sketch made in the photographs take precedence as evidence since they
scene of crime should be retained after the finished enable freezing the visually seen appearances in a
sketch is completed. There have been occasions crime scene in the form of ‘light drawn’ graphical
where the defense counsels sought the production of and picturesque record which is inherently life-like.
rough sketches during court testimony. It is thus the responsibility of the SOCO to ensure
A finished sketch can be one of the three main that every observable evidence is photographed suit-
types, viz. plan sketch or an aerial view sketch, ele- ably forming a graphic and life-like record of the
vation view sketch, and three-dimensional view or particular something that is visually perceived by
the perspective view sketch many of which are illus- the SOCO in the crime scene.
trated in this book. The SOCO must exercise full Instead of classifying photographs as ‘over-all’,
freedom in deciding the type of sketch or sketches ‘close-up’, etc., the focus shifts to the observable
which would aid him in emphasizing the points he evidence each photograph supports. The reader may
desires as being relevant. He may choose to draw note that every photograph displayed in this field
both a plan sketch and an elevation view sketch for guide supports one or more such observations that
the same case (see Figures 4.2 and 4.3 in Case 4–1); form the premises for the SOCO to frame hypoth-
or to make a three-dimensional view sketch in a esis and to infer reconstruction. For example, the
case of death due to burns (Figure 7.1 in Case 7–1) photograph of the dead body in Figure 4.1 in Case
although such sketches are usually drawn in cases 4–1 is seen to support many observable evidence
of shooting (Figure 13.8 in Case 13–2) or in explo- such as the freely hanging posture of the body,
sions (Figure 14.9 in Case 14–1 and Figure 14.50 in the downwardly pointing toes, the partly clenched
Case 14–3). fingers, the type of ligature knot in the origin, the
The SOCOs may also draw sketches that are location of the knot on the neck, the availability of
diagrammatic when explaining specific phenom- the cot for gaining elevation, all of which acquire
enon or features of interest. Examples of such importance during crime scene reconstruction. In
sketches include illustration of change in the direc- the same Case 4–1, close-up views are shown to
tionality of a skid mark (Figure 16.1 in Case 16–1), illustrate many of the scene manifestations such
the relationship between a hit mark due to collision as the details of the upwardly canted knot on the
and the height of the object that could have caused neck with intact hair bun (Figure 4.5), the drib-
the mark (Figure 16.4 in Case 16–2), the sequence of bling of saliva from the tilted angle of the mouth
marks caused by bullets (Figure 13.8 in Case 13–2), (Figure 4.6), the cobweb deposited on the scalp hair
dimensional details of depth in a well (Figure 8.26 (Figure 4.8), and the directionality in the down-
in Case 8–2), the location of hit mark by a bullet ward track of urine along the leg (Figure 4.9)—
(Figure 13.29 in Case 13–3), the possible direc- each observation leading to specific inference.
tion of ricochet (Figure 13.35 in Case 13–3), etc. Enlargements can also be made of chosen areas
Diagrammatic representations may also include the from one photograph for illustrating specific obser-
demonstration of the processes indicating accessi- vations such as the petechial hemorrhage in the
bility during simulation experiments (Figure 4.66 in tongue and salivary dribbling (Figure 4.7 in Case
Case 4–11), the location differences of the dummy 4–1), the track of urine along the toes (Figure 4.10
models used during a study (Figures 8.1 and 8.15 in in Case 4–1), the nature of knot (Figure 4.23 in
Case 8–1), etc. Case 4–3), patterned impression caused by cloth
(Figure 4.57 in Case 4–10), the protected space
caused by a match box and the patterns in the label
3.7 DOCUMENTATION USING (Figures 7.5–7.8 in Case 7–1), the type of blood-
CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY stain patterns (Figures 7.13–7.16 in Case 7–1), pat-
terns caused by localized burns (Figures 7.17 and
The situations for photographing potential observ- 7.18 in Case 7–1 and Figure 7.25 in Case 7–2), the
able evidence and other physical evidence in crime course of an electrical wire (Figure 9.15 in Case
scenes vary widely even among the same type of 9–3), and the impression caused by a trickle of
cases. In the context of the utility of any observable paint (Figures 16.16–16.18 in Case 16–3).
The methods and techniques useful for crime capturing it such as the date, time, and camera set-
scene photography are available in many of the tings available on the memory card must be pre-
books dealing with crime scene examination (Lee served as such as an ‘archive image’ recorded in a
et al., 2001; Fisher and Fisher, 2012; Saferstein, disc or media. During subsequent alterations of the
2019). In essence, the SOCO need not possess image, its traceability to the original image must be
the skills of professionally certified photographer; ensured by a process termed ‘audit trail’ in the same
but he should be able to bring out photographs of way the continuity of physical evidence is ensured
acceptable quality. He must ensure full confidence by ‘chain of custody’.
in handling the camera that he uses—experiment- Video recording proves to be useful when con-
ing with the camera at the crime scene would prove ducting simulation studies using models to dem-
disastrous. Before leaving for a crime scene, he onstrate the likelihood of certain events during
should confirm that the battery is fully charged and crime scene reconstruction. Such examples include
a spare battery is readily available; and a fresh and the possibility for the victim to access the location
exclusive memory card of sufficient capacity is avail- of the origin of the ligature simulated using a live
able. The SOCO being accountable for framing and model in a case of hanging (Case 4–11) or the pos-
testing hypotheses, he also assumes responsibility to sible location of fall of the victim simulated using a
guide the photographer, when one is so assigned, dummy in a case of fall from height (Case 8–1). Odd
to secure such photographs befitting the afore- circumstances that challenge re-photography of the
mentioned purposes. In crime scene work, techni- evidence such as examining the damages inside a
cally acceptable photographs must ensure the use well (Case 8–2) may also be videographed for facili-
of appropriate camera, proper lighting, acceptable tating review.
image quality, correct exposure, sharp focus that is
devoid of distortion, maximum depth of field along
with evidence for provenance. 3.8 PREPARING THE FINAL REPORT
Any of the currently available 35-mm D-SLR
cameras with 18–55 mm lens and with sensor size The cases described would show that the proclivity
APS-C (12 megapixels or more) is a good choice as for scientific input is profound during the process
an all-round camera for the scene of crime work. It of framing hypothesis and testing them; for once,
is better to avoid glare and strong shadow in photo- the right premises are recognized at the crime scene
graphs, and an angle-poised electrical lamp with an and tested against appropriate Accepted (major)
extension wire of sufficient length has been found premises, the ‘reconstruction’, or more informally,
useful to provide acceptable lighting for close-up the ‘opinion’ flows on its own. The methodological
photography since the angle of the incident light approach prescribed here guides the reconstruction-
can be maneuvered and better controlled. It is bet- ist to the reconstruction eliminating the need to rely
ter to always use a tripod for close-up photography on such abstract human variables as being thor-
as it has two advantages. The first is in maintaining ough, critical, or imaginative. The following broad
the lens plane parallel to the plane of the subject, suggestions may be useful for the SOCO in prepar-
a technique that enables obtaining images devoid ing the crime scene reports.
of parallax error. It should be remembered that let- The scene of crime report emanating from the
ting parallax error to creep in when photographing SOCO is to be addressed to the officer who requested
patterned evidence such as footwear or tire marks his services, invariably the investigation officer, with
in the crime scene would stave off later comparison a copy marked to the concerned senior police officer
with the control impressions in the laboratory. The for information. Descriptions may be in third per-
second advantage relates to avoiding ‘camera shake’ son following those in this field guide. The SOCOs
during close-up photography. Reasonable depth of must ensure that the description in the observation
field should be ensured when taking close-up pho- and/or the seizure report prepared by the investiga-
tographs of objects that have a depth—such as a tion officer corroborates the details recorded by the
sunken foot print or a bloodstain pattern covering SOCO. Another practical suggestion is to involve
an angular surface. the witnesses in such acts as measuring the dis-
The SOCOs should bear in mind the criticism tances, etc., so that they would remember to recol-
that digital images are viable to manipulations, and lect those acts at the time of trial which normally
in the absence of evidence to support image prov- would be long delayed. The SOCO may suggest the
enance, they may appear awkward in courts. The reconstruction he had drawn indicating it as being
original image along with the information about ‘plausible’. The scientific citations for the accepted
(major) premises indicated in this field guide are for (loose sheets and bound into note book),
the benefit of the SOCO, and mentioning them in pens, pencils, sharpener, erasures, ruler
the report would be superfluous. (30 cm), transparent sheets, marking pens,
Sections in a crime scene report may include the good- quality air bubble free sticky tapes
following: (1/2”, 1” and 2”), plastic and paper enve-
lopes of different sizes, self-locking covers,
i) Brief history and details regarding date and tweezers (both plain and rubber tipped),
time of visit by the SOCO scalpels 6”, brushes 12 mm, paper pins,
ii) Overall description of the scene including paper clips, good pair of surgical scissors of
photography sizes 4” and 6”, tongs 8”, thread roll, mod-
iii) Rough sketch eling clay, glass cutter, paper cutter, dispos-
iv) Detailed observations made in the scene able hand gloves, face masks, etc.
including photography Photography kit: This kit would include a
v) Plausible reconstruction and suggestions, if good D- SLR camera, flash unit, tripod,
any scales, number cards, arrowheads, etc.
vi) List of material evidence collected and
analyses required
vii) Further advice to the investigating officer
3.9 EQUIPMENT IN A MOBILE FORENSIC

SCIENCE LABORATORY (MFSL)
The success of crime scene investigation, although

basically a pursuit largely banking on human input,
still essentially depends on the ready availability of
basic aids and implements that are of inestimable
importance. While listing some of the items that
are considered indispensable, Gross (1906) noted
that such an outfit has been at time the sole cause
for a great success; and, indeed, the list of equip-
ment provided by Gross (1906) still remains rele- FIGURE 3.2 Tools and other items in a compart-
vant even after a century. When this author started ment in the briefcase designed for crime scene
the career as an SOCO in the early seventies, the investigation.
MFSL was a utility van with its rear portion modi-
fied into a laboratory- cum- dark-
room facilitating
the erstwhile wet- process-
based development of
photography films in the crime scene itself. With
the advent of digital photography, any minivan or
station wagon can be used as MFSL for carrying
the various kits some of which can be packaged
into custom-designed briefcases with multiple com-
partments (Figures 3.2 and 3.3). The minimum
required kits are listed next in the chapter and may
be expanded depending on affordability.
General crime scene kit: This kit is funda-

mental for recording crime scene observa-
tions. The items may include measuring
tape (50 m and 5 m), good-quality hand-
held magnifiers preferably of doublet or
triplet types of 20× or 30×, illuminated
magnifier, torch light, set squares of suffi- FIGURE 3.3 Appliances in a compartment in the
cient sizes, writing pad, A4 size white paper briefcase designed for crime scene investigation.
Kit for preparing swabs: Toothpicks to make 3.10 DESIRABLE PRE-DEPLOYMENT

cotton-tipped swabs, pH paper, cotton, TRAINING FOR SOCOs
gauze, or Whatman filter paper, regular
filter paper, paper bindles or sterile swab, Every member in an FSL is recruited on the basis
storage containers such as self-locking plas- of a master’s degree in a specific branch of science
tic bags (for dry swabs), glass or plastic jars and thus is destined to specialize in that branch.
(for wet swabs), glass or plastic test tubes, However, the SOCOs are to be drawn only from
distilled water in suitable container for dis- among such a general staff pool available in FSLs.
pensing in drops, scalpel, utility knife, scis- Obviously, it is difficult to expect a member quali-
sors, beakers, porcelain tile 6 × 6” size, test fied in a particular branch of science to perform
tube stand, etc. duties as a ‘generalist’. Sense of academic specialism
Reagents for preparing swabs: Strips pre- is inherent in forensic science, and. yet, the SOCOs
coated with benzidine compounds for spot must guard themselves from letting it to approach
testing the presence of blood, if available, syndromic proportions. Above all, the making of
or benzidine solution (0.25 g in 25 ml of a SOCO involves transformation of a staff accus-
glacial acetic acid) and 3% hydrogen per- tomed to Laboratory Science to the one befitting
oxide; acetone and distilled water for pre- Field Science. For achieving this end, the following
paring swabs of explosive residues; and one three-
pronged pre- deployment training is recom-
molar nitric acid (AR) for gunshot residues mended for SOCOs.
(GSR). (Specific methods for preparing
various swabs are mentioned in Appendix.) i) Division-wise training in the laboratory: In
Foot print kit: This kit enables making plas- this training, the prospective SOCOs are to
ter of Paris casts of sunken foot prints. be trained in each division of the FSL for a
The basic component is good-grade plas- specified period focusing on the capabilities
ter of Paris the quality of which should and limitations in the analytical facilities in
be checked by the SOCO well in advance that division.
since any failure in setting of the plaster ii) Training courses tailored for crime scene
during casting in the crime scene would investigators: There can be regular in-house
prove catastrophic. Additional materials training in FSLs for all the staff to learn the
required are foot print frames, spray guns, field techniques relating to investigating
shellac, alcohol, troughs of required sizes, the different types of crimes. This author’s
spoons, spatula, improvised materials for experience as the Course Coordinator for
reinforcement, etc., for casting foot prints; the training earlier mentioned and titled
and roller, acrylic sheet, printer’s ink, paper ‘Art and Science of Observing Crime
sheets, etc., for preparing inked foot prints. Scenes—ASCriS’ indicated that such train-
Electrostatic dust print lifter can be an ing and the manual (Jayaprakash, 2003)
additional tool for lifting foot prints in dust brought out were effective in providing
residue. opportunities for the participants to learn
Instruments: Binocular stereo microscope, interactively. However, a training of that
hand spectroscope, screw gauge (25 mm), kind did not provide the opportunity for
vernier calipers, mariner compass, dissec- hands-on learning.
tion box, etc. iii) Work- based learning (WBL) using mock
Electrical kit: Angle poised lamp, extension crime scenes: Accumulation of knowledge
board with a sufficiently long cable (30 m), through hands-on learning is vital for crime
line testers, electric shock proof hand scene investigators since they cannot wait
gloves, etc. for murders to happen for learning from
Mechanical kit: Hacksaw frame with good those crime scenes. This author’s experience
hack saw blades, cutting pliers, nose pli- in teaching the course ‘Professional Skills
ers, hammer, screwdriver set, chisels, span- in Forensic Science’ to master’s students in
ners, etc. Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia, indi-
Packaging materials: Tamper-evident packag- cated it was expedient to arrange mock crime
ing materials, card board boxes of different scenes for training candidates in observing
sizes, paper bags, waterproof pen, evidence and recording crime scenes (Figures 3.4 and
tape, thread roles, etc. 3.5). Undoubtedly, it would be burdensome
FIGURE 3.5 Close-up view of the head of the

hanging mannequin. Observable evidence depicted
include the course of the ligature, the location of the
FIGURE 3.4 A view of a mannequin representing a knot, protruding tongue, dribbling of saliva, and the
partially hanging body used in a mock crime scene. skin erosions caused by ants devoid of bloodstains.
to arrange mock crime scenes that are tech- Baldwin H. B. and May, C. P. Crime-scene investi-
nically flawless and at the same time artisti- gation and examination: Recovery of human
cally acceptable; and, yet, it has been found remains, in Encyclopedia of Forensic Science,
that mock crime scenes form the only effec- Siegel, J. A., Knuper, G. and Saukko, P. (Eds.)
tive resource for the candidates to learn by London: Academic Press, 2000b, 447–457
profiting from their mistakes when observ- Balk, C. Reducing contamination in forensic science,
ing details and recording them by making Themis: Research Journal of Justice Studies
notes, sketches, and photographs. and Forensic Science, 3 (1), Article 12, 2015.
doi: 10.31979/THEMIS.2015.0312. Available
at: https://scholarworks.sjsu.edu/themis/vol3/
REFERENCES iss1/12
Beaufort-Moore, D. Crime Scene Management and
Ashcroft, J., Daniels, D. J. and Hart, S. V. Crime Evidence Recovery, Oxford: Oxford University
Scene Investigation: A Reference for Law Press, 2009.
Enforcement Training, Washington, DC: Becker, R. F. Criminal Investigation, Boston: Jones
U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice and Bartlett Publishers, 2005.
Programs, 2004. De Forest, P. R., Gaensslen, R. E. and Lee, H.
Baldwin, H. B. and May, C. P. Crime-scene inves- C. Forensic Science: An Introduction to
tigation and examination: Preservation, in Criminalistics, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1983.
Encyclopedia of Forensic Science, Siegel, J. Fisher, B. A. J. and Fisher, D. R. Techniques of Crime
A., Knuper, G. and Saukko, P. (Eds.) London: Scene Investigation, Boca Raton, FL: CRC
Academic Press, 2000a, 440–443. Press, 2012.
Gross, H. Criminal Investigation: A Practical Lothridge, K. and Fitzpatrick, F. Crime Scene

Handbook for Magistrates, Police Officers and Investigation: A Guide for Law Enforcement,
Lawyers, Adam, J. and Adam, J. C. (Trans) National Forensic Science Technology Center
Madras: Krishnamachari, 1906. (NFSTC), supported under cooperative agree-
Hogenboom, M. Kercher trial: How does DNA ments by the Bureau of Justice Assistance, and
contamination occur? BBC News, January 30, by the National Institute of Justice, Office of
2014. Available at: www.bbc.com/news/ Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice,
scienceenvironment-24534110 2013, National Forensic Science Technology
Horswell, J. Crime-scene investigation and exami- Center (nfstc.org)
nation: Major incident scene management, NAS Report, Strengthening Forensic Science in
in Encyclopedia of Forensic Science, Siegel, J. the United States: A Path Forward, Report of
A., Knuper, G. and Saukko, P. (Eds.) London: the National Academy of Sciences (NAS), (the
Academic Press, 2000a, 428–432. NAS Report), Washington, DC: The National
Horswell, J. Crime-scene investigation and examina- Academy Press, 2009.
tion: Packaging, in Encyclopedia of Forensic Saferstein, R. Forensic Science: From the Crime
Science, Siegel, J. A., Knuper, G. and Saukko, P. Scene to the Crime Lab, 4th ed., New York:
(Eds.) London: Academic Press, 2000b, 432–440. Pearson Education, 2019.
Horswell, J. Crime-scene investigation and examina- Sharman, L. E. and Elliot, D. A. Scene analysis and
tion: Recording, in Encyclopedia of Forensic reconstruction, in Encyclopedia of Forensic
Science, Siegel, J. A., Knuper, G. and Saukko, P. Science, Siegel, J. A., Knuper, G. and Saukko,
(Eds.) London: Academic Press, 2000c, 443–447. P. (Eds.) London: Academic Press, 2000,
Horswell, J. Crime-scene investigation and exami- 457–462.
nation: Suspicious deaths, in Encyclopedia of Siegel, J. A. Crime scene investigation and exami-
Forensic Science, Siegel, J. A., Knuper, G. and nation: Collection and chain of evidence, in
Saukko, P. (Eds.) London: Academic Press, Encyclopedia of Forensic Science, Siegel, J.
2000d, 462–466. A., Knuper, G. and Saukko, P. (Eds.) London:
Horswell, J. The Practice of Crime Scene Investigation, Academic Press, 2000, 409–412.
Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2004. Suboch, G. Real World Crime Scene Investigation:
Houck, M. M., Crispino, F. and McAdam, T. The Science A Step-by-Step Procedure Manual, Boca Raton:
of Crime Scenes, Oxford, UK: Elsevier, 2012. Taylor & Francis, 2016.
James, S. H. and Nordby, J. J. Forensic Science: An Sutton, R. and Trueman, K. Crime Scene
Introduction to Scientific and Investigative Management—Scene Specific Methods,
Techniques, Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2003. Oxford: John and Wiley, 2009.
Jayaprakash, P. T. Manual on “The Art and Science Svensson, A., Wendel, O. and Fisher, B. A. J.
of Observing Crime Scenes”, Chennai, India: Techniques of Crime Investigation, New York:
Forensic Sciences Department, Government of Elsevier, 1981.
Tamil Nadu, 2003. (for official circulation). The Forensic Science Regulator, Department of
Kirk, P. L. Crime Investigation, New York: John Justice and The Royal College of Pathologists.
Willey & Sons, 1974. Code of Practice and Performance Standards
Langford, A. M., Dean, J., Reed, R., Holmes, D. for Forensic Pathology in England, Wales
A., Weyers, J. and Jones, A. Practical Skills in and Northern Ireland, Home Office, 2012.
Forensic Science, Harlow, England: Prentice Available at: www.rcpath.org
Hall, 2010. Zannin, A. and Huber, L. Crime scene investigation,
Lee, H. C., Palmbach, T. M. and Miller, M. T. Henry in Manual of Forensic Science: An International
Lee’s Crime Scene Handbook, San Diego, CA: Survey, Barbaro, A. (Ed.) Boca Raton, FL: CRC
Elsevier Academic Press, 2001. Press, 2018, 1–20.
Chapter 4
Scheme for Investigating
Cases of Death by Hanging
4.1 INTRODUCTION force of the sequential reconstructions from differ-

ent observable evidence in dead bodies as well as in
It has been realized that a reliable boundary dis- the scenes is also illustrated (Table 4.1 in Case 4–1).
criminating all suicidal cases from homicidal action, The other cases that follow are chosen to illustrate
only on the basis of post-mortem findings, does not some of the variations in hanging scenes that are
obviously exist (Gordon et al., 1988; Maxeiner more likely to confuse the scene investigators.
and Bockholdt, 2003; Saukko and Knight, 2004a). Confusions during the scene investigation in
Unlike other suicide methods, such as gun shot or hanging cases can be due to multiple reasons rang-
poison, which leave unambiguous vital signs in ing from preexisting motive-based allegation that
addition to particular and related physical evidence, the hanging was a simulation following homicide
hanging is recognized as one method where specific (Case 4–1) to confusion arising because of unusual
vital signs are not observable (Davis, 1980; Mant, postural findings such as the body parts supported
1986; Gordon et al., 1988). Indicating that the signs on the ground (Case 4–4), binding of body parts
conventionally considered vital were treated as (Cases 4–2 and 4–3), or unusual location of the knot
obsolete (Saukko and Knight, 2004b; Gilbert et al., (Case 4–11). Other confusing observations include
2008), authors have stressed the importance of the presence of unaccounted bloodstains (Cases 4–8
inspecting the place where the alleged hanging took and 4–9) or the presence of additional antemortem
place and locating firm circumstantial or preferably injuries (Case 4–10), etc. Homicides can also be
physical evidence of mechanical obstruction of res- staged as suicidal hanging (Cases 4–12 and 4–13).
piration to support death by hanging (Gordon et al., Case studies relating to suicidal strangulation using
1988; Saukko and Knight, 2004b). Improprieties in ligature are also included (Cases 4–15 and 4–16).
recording such evidence from the scene may render The flowchart (4.2) and the cases illustrated
the manner of death equivocal and arguable in many would enable the SOCO in investigating cases of
of the hanging cases, as exemplified in this chapter, hanging on a methodological basis. The discussion
especially when some interested parties endeavor to includes some of the myths and facts relating to
sustain the confusions. hanging scenes, the possible variations in the knots,
The first case study in this chapter has been the ligature materials and ligature marks, the pos-
described in greater detail so as to enable a begin- sibilities for cadaveric spasm in dead bodies and its
ner venturing into crime scene investigation to relevance in hanging scenes, the probable causes for
acquire a broader understanding on the scope for lesions in limbs and the significance of ant erosions,
observations-based reconstruction in hanging and consequent postmortem effusion of blood in
scenes. Importantly, the diversity in the probative hanging bodies.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003267096-4 29
30
4.2 FLOWCHART FOR

4.1. FLOW CHART INVESTIGATING
FOR DEATH
INVESTIGATING DEATH BY HANGING
BY HANGING
CRIME SCENE
OBSERVATIONS SKETCH PHOTOGRAPHY
DEAD BODY OVER-ALL SOC

SOC
- Ground plan
DEAD BODY SOC
POSTURE INJURIES FLUID DISCHARGES ACCESS TO KNOT
- Elevation view
- Access to origin
- Isometric view KNOT OVER ALL
- Object for elevation
OVERALL PETECHIAL SALIVA - Origin
- Cut down evidence
Free/partial/lying/others HEMORRHAGE When present: - Include cardinal - On neck – canted up - Ligature origin to
- Ecchymosed tip of - Dribbling downward directions - Hair-do location feet of body
HEAD TILT LIGATURE SOURCE
tongue - In angle of mouth
Left/right/front/back - From personal clothing - Object for elevation
- Others HIGHLIGHTS HEAD AND FACE
Stain on clothing etc.
EYES: Half-closed/others CONTUSIONS - Cut pieces, if any - Tilt in head - Bloodstains
- Profuse/limited
TONGUE: Protruding-bitten by - Along ligature - Ligature origin - Eyes and tongue
- Broad in extent
teeth/Not protruding - Below knot TRACE EVIDENCE - Saliva in mouth - Other body fluid
When absent: DUST/FIBERS - Knot on the neck stains
KNOT LOCATION/TYPE ABRASIONS/ - Knot in front? - In palm – fibers of rope CONTUSIONS/
LOCATION: Front/side/back/ BRUISES IN LIMBS - Collected in mouth? - In fingers and toes - Ligature origin to ABRASIONS - Cuts in ligature, if
canted up or not - Lesions in limbs - On the head etc. knot - Ligature/knot any
TYPE: sliding/fixed/simple loop - Relation to nearby related
NASAL DISCHARGE IMPRINT EVIDENCE - Victim’s height
ADDITIONAL BINDING – if any objects in vicinity - Others - Latches of doors /
- Bloody/normal - Fingerprints/ Foot / windows
OTHERS - Directionality prints/ Others - Toe to ground
LIGATURE ON THE NECK DIRECTIONALITY
- Oblique/circular/both - Self- inflicted? - Trace evidence
EVIDENCE OF - Salivary discharge
- Strangulation-self or by others - Assault related? VOIDED URINE STAIN - Object for elevation
ASSISTANCE - Nasal discharge
- Others - Conformity to - Imprint evidence –
- Intricacy in ligature - Urinary/fecal track
posture - Others scaled photos
EVIDENCE OF ANT EROSION IN course etc. - Vaginal/seminal
- Cadaveric spasm/rigor mortis - Wetness in cloth- On discharges
SKIN the floor/smell Include - Others
/lividity - With bleeding BLOODSTAINS measurements
Crime Scene Investigation and Reconstruction
- Without bleeding - Source wherever possible EROSION IN SKIN

BODY FLUID TRACKS AND - Evidence of VAGINAL/PENILE/ - Post mortem? - With bleeding LIGATURE
CONFORMITY TO POSTURE crawling ants FECAL DISCHARGE - Without bleeding
DOCUMENT/ USED RECONSTRUCTION
Saliva/blood/urine/feces Conformity to posture
TABLET STRIPS
HANDS /FINGERS; LEGS/TOES - Letter/pen LIGATURE MARK - After cutting down
- Downward/flexed/others - Tablet/packing (body laid down) - Cut ends connected
- Partially clenched fingers CUES FOR RECONSTRUCTION
- Downward toes STATUS OF - Oblique
- Consider observations on posture, knot and LATCHES - Interrupted
STATE OF DRESS/ATTITUDE objects for elevation when hypothesizing on - Doors - Circular
- Normal and unruffled accessibility to point of suspension. - Windows - Combination
- Disordered and ruffled – - Relate directionality of discharged saliva and - Additional marks
suspicious of homicide urine when hypothesizing the manner of death.
Cases of Death by Hanging 31
4.3 CASE STUDIES—CASES 4–1 TO 4–16
CASE 4–1: A CASE OF HANGING ALLEGED AS SIMULATION
THE CASE PRIMARY HYPOTHESIS

A female aged about 27 years was seen dead freely The manner of death was due to hanging sup-
hanging from a bamboo rafter in her house. porting suicide
The downwardly pointing toes were about
1 in. above the floor level. The fingers were seen
partly clenched (Figure 4.1). A possible object ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS
that could have been used to gain access for The manner of death was homicide, and hanging
tying the rope to the rafter on the roof was a was a simulation.
bamboo cot. However, the location of the cot
was about 1 ft. 4 in. behind the hanging body
(Figure 4.2—aerial view sketch). The mud floor SEQUENTIAL HYPOTHESIS 1
below the hanging body revealed a track of wet The bamboo cot seen about 1 ft. 4 in. on the
stain from the feet region toward the vertical western side of the vertical axis of the hanging
bamboo post. body (Figure 4.2) could have offered the eleva-
tion for the victim to tie the ligature knot on the
bamboo rafter.
FIGURE 4.1 A female dead body freely hang-

ing from a bamboo rafter. Note the bamboo cot, FIGURE 4.2 An aerial view sketch of the scene.
a possible object that could have been used for Note the location of the cot with reference to the
gaining access for tying the rope to the rafter. location of the body.
Observed premises material around the bamboo rafter, and then

The victim’s height (4 ft. 10 in.) would enable her completing the knot.
to reach the height of the bamboo rafter at 7 ft.
4 in. from the ground level (Figure 4.3—eleva- Observed premises
tion view sketch) when standing on the bamboo The knot in the point of origin was of a sliding
frame of the cot (1 ft. 9 in. high) and extending (slip) type with the ligature material encircling
her arm (about 2 ft. diagonally), considering 9 in. only once around the bamboo rafter (arrow in
as the average head height. Figure 4.4).
Accepted (major) premises Accepted (major) premises

Accessibility to reach the point of origin of the Knot and ligature analysis can assist in the deter-
ligature in elevation view is important to support mination of manner of death (Camps, 1968;
the hypothesis that the knot could have been Spitz, 1993; Busuttil, 2003). If the dead body
made by the victim herself. with the noose on the neck has to be hauled up,
the ligature material has to pass over the bamboo
Reconstruction rafter, pulled downward, and circled around the
The observed premise and the major premise rafter, probably multiple times, (to prevent slip-
work together supporting the hypothesis that the ping) before securing it with possibly a rolling
cot could have offered the elevation for the vic- hitch type of knot (non-sliding type).
tim to tie the ligature knot on the bamboo rafter
while standing on the cot with arms outstretched. Reconstruction
The sliding (slip) type knot with a single loop-
SEQUENTIAL HYPOTHESIS 2 ing of the ligature material around the bamboo
The sliding type knot in the point of origin indi-
cates making that knot first and then sliding it
toward the rafter; it does not support pulling the
weight of the body upwards, circling the ligature
FIGURE 4.3 An elevation view sketch of the FIGURE 4.4 Arrow indicates the sliding-
t ype
scene. Relevant measurements useful for scene knot in the point of origin. The ligature encircles
reconstruction are shown. the neck with the knot canted upwards.
rafter on the point of origin does not support (Shkrum and Ramsay, 2007; Payne-James et al.,
the proposition that the body had been hauled 2011).
upwards prior to making the knot. The sliding
type knot in the origin supports the possibility Reconstruction
that it had been made first followed by the knot The course of ligature and the knot on the neck
on the neck. in relation to the hair style do not support the
proposition that the body had been hung after
SEQUENTIAL HYPOTHESIS 3 death simulating hanging. On the other hand,
The type of ligature knot on the neck does not the observations relating to the ligature and the
support craggy execution in making it and then knot support the proposition that the knot was
pulling the weight of the body upward as it hap- made by the victim herself.
pens when simulating hanging.
SEQUENTIAL HYPOTHESIS 4
Observed premises Salivary dribbling and evidence of free flow of
The ligature was seen looped obliquely around saliva support death in hanging posture.
the neck with a sliding (slip) type knot behind
the right ear. The knot, canted upward, was seen Observed premises
underneath the bun of the hair that remained A drop of saliva was seen toward the left side
intact without getting disheveled (Figure 4.5). (tilted angle) of the mouth (black arrow in
Figure 4.6; enlargement in Figure 4.7). Mucous
Accepted (major) premises discharge from the nose was also seen. Vertically
Knot analysis can assist in the determination of downward copious flow of the dribbled saliva was
manner of death (Spitz, 1993; Busuttil, 2003).
Ligature simply looping around the neck, pres-
ence of a sliding-
t ype knot canting upwards,
and the hair not caught in the knot have been
indicated as supporting suicide in hanging cases
FIGURE 4.6 Observable evidence in the body

includes a drop of saliva collected on the tilted
side of the mouth (black arrow), mucous dis-
charging from the nose, vertically downward
FIGURE 4.5 Close-up view of the oblique liga- tracks of dribbled saliva on the saree in the chest
ture on the neck with sliding-type knot, canted region (gray arrows), and cobweb on the hair
upward, underneath the bun of the hair. (white arrow).
Observed premises
Tongue was protruding and found bitten between
the teeth. The protruding part of the tongue was
ecchymosed (contused) revealing petechial hem-
orrhages (white arrows in Figure 4.7).
Accepted (major) premises

Tongue is known to protrude and remain bitten
between the teeth in death by hanging, and pete-
chial hemorrhage in the tongue is a vital reaction
known to occur in death by hanging (Mason,
1993; Saukko and Knight, 2004b).
Reconstruction
FIGURE 4.7 Close-up view of the saliva on the Protruding tongue bitten between the teeth and
mouth (black arrow) and petechial hemorrhage on the presence of petechial hemorrhage with con-
the protruding part of the tongue (white arrows). tusion in the tip of the tongue support death
occurring in hanging posture.
indicated by the evidence of glistening stain in a
broad area of the saree in the chest region (gray Point to note
arrows in Figure 4.6). On touching, the stained Petechial hemorrhage in the protruding tip of the
area on the cloth felt stiff and starchy. Cobweb tongue has to be observed when the body is fresh.
was seen on the hair (white arrow in Figure 4.6). Delay in examining the scene will lead to drying up
and darkening of the protruding part of the tongue
Accepted (major) premises rendering the petechial hemorrhages unrecognizable.
While salivary discharge has been indicated as For color illustrations of petechial hemor-
being possible due to the pressure of the ligature rhage, see Cases 4–2 and 4–3.
even when a person was hung immediately after
death (Davis, 1980; Mant, 1986), the finding in SEQUENTIAL HYPOTHESIS 6
a filmed hanging (Sauvageau and Racette, 2007)
The cobweb entangled in the scalp hair of the
that saliva freely flowed from the mouth at 1 min-
victim supported ascent of the head of the victim
utes 11 seconds after hanging supports copious
to a level sufficient to gain contact with the cob-
flow of saliva as an indicator of death by hang-
web and thatch dust collected in the sloped inner
ing. The traces of the dried saliva on the clothes
part of the thatched roof.
make it possible to judge whether the situation in
The cobweb entangled in the scalp hair of
which the body was found corresponds to that at
the victim does not support the ascent of the head
the time the person was hanging (Eisenmenger
of the victim merely to reach the level seen in the
and Gilg, 2003).
hanging posture as would happen when elevat-
ing the body after tying the noose on the neck to
Reconstruction
simulate hanging.
The evidence of salivary dribbling on a broad
area of the cloth in the chest region and its Observed premises
downward directionality indicated copious flow
Cobweb interspersed with thatch dust was found
of saliva supporting a reconstruction that the
entangled in the scalp hair (white arrows in
deceased was in a hanging posture at the time
Figures 4.6 and 4.8). Similar cobweb was seen
the death occurred.
collected underneath the sloped thatched roof
above the cot.
Petechial hemorrhage in the tip of the protruding Accepted (major) premises
part of tongue bitten between the teeth supports Trace evidence transfer occurs during contact
death in hanging posture. (Locard’s principle) (Saferstein, 2019). Cobweb
the vertical flow of urine along the axis of the

body that included the leg and the downwardly
inclined dorsum of the foot terminating in the
little toe (arrows in Figure 4.9 and its enlarge-
ment Figure 4.10).

Discharge of feces, urine, and semen is fre-
quently observed in cases of death by suffocation
but is found also in connection with numer-
ous other causes of death, as a result of smooth
muscle sphincters relaxing due to an increase of
reflex activity in the convolution stage of suf-
focation (Eisenmenger and Gilg, 2003; Gilbert
et al., 2008). Such discharge of urine is possible
only if urine has accumulated in the bladder
(Eisenmenger and Gilg, 2003). Study of video
footings of filmed hangings by the Working
Group on Human Asphyxia (WGHA) (Sauvageau
et al., 2011) indicated the onset of decerebration
or decortication in about 19 to 38 seconds after
FIGURE 4.8 Cobweb interspersed with thatch
dust seen entangled in the scalp hair (white
arrows).
and thatch dust are trace evidence that transfer

due to contact.
Ascent of the victim’s head when standing on
the cot would lead to the contact of her scalp hair
with the cobweb collected underneath the roof.
Reconstruction
Cobweb in the scalp hair supported the ascent of
the victim’s head toward the roof to an extent at
which her scalp hair contacted the cob-web col-
lected underneath the thatched roof.
The theory that the victim’s body was ele-
vated after making the noose on the neck for
simulating hanging fails to account for the trans-
fer of cobweb and thatch dust onto the scalp hair
of the deceased.
Downwardly drained stains of urine observed
along the leg in situ in hanging posture supported
death occurring in that posture.
Observed premises FIGURE 4.9 Downward stains of urine along the

Downward stains of urine observed in situ in leg (arrow) in situ in the hanging posture of the
hanging posture indicated directionality in body—an observable evidence.
Downward track of bloodstain supported a)
death in hanging posture and b) consistency in
the vertical posture of the body during hanging.
Observed premises
Downwardly draining stains of blood issuing
from the vagina and running along the inner
aspect of the right thigh (Figure 4.11) indicated
directionality supporting draining of blood
driven by gravity commensurate with the hang-
ing posture.

a) Bleeding from vagina in females and sem-
inal discharge in males occur in death by
hanging (Eisenmenger and Gilg, 2003).
However, draining of such body fluids is
not equable to voiding urine that is initi-
FIGURE 4.10 Directionality in the vertical flow ated by the onset of damage to the cortex.
of urine as observable evidence. Note the course b) Blood and body fluids draining from
of the urine track along the downwardly inclined wounds run vertically down along the
dorsum of the foot terminating in the little toe axis of the body (Knight, 1997).
(arrows).
hanging (Sauvageau, 2009). Cortical impairment

is known to lead to loss of control of the stri-
ated muscles of the sphincter mechanism (Gray,
2006).
Reconstruction
The directionality in the urine stains indicated
the flow of incontinent urine driven by the gravi-
tational force after the toes pointed downward,
i.e., when the body had already attained the freely
hanging state. The presence of incontinent urine
and its downward direction supported brain
damage to have occurred in the hanging posture.
Point to note
Incontinent urine may not be readily detect-
able when it wets the cloth and gets absorbed or
when the urine collected on the floor dries up.
A practical suggestion is to look for wetness in
the cloth of the victim or for the smell of urine in
the clothes and the scene.
Urinary incontinence has not been described
in studies on agonal sequences in filmed hang-
ing in which copious salivary discharge has been FIGURE 4.11 Downwardly drained stain of
described. blood along the inner aspect of the right thigh.
Reconstruction The consistency in the course of the blood

Observed premise does not support death in track would not support reconstruction of the
hanging posture, while it would support the manner of death. It can merely indicate that
inference that the vaginal bleeding has occurred the body had not been moved after the blood
in the hanging posture of the body. escaped from the vaginal orifice.
TABLE 4.1 Negations and Corroborations Based on the Sequential Hypotheses and the Corresponding
Reconstructions Prioritized in Accordance to their Probative Value
Reconstructions based on observations on the dead Reconstructions based on the observations on the
body in the scene circumstances in the scene
1. Protruding tongue bitten between the teeth and the 1. Reconstruction based on the victim’s height and the
presence of petechial hemorrhage with contusion height of the cot corroborates the possibility for the
in the tip of the tongue corroborate the reconstruc- outstretched hands of the victim to reach the rafter
tion that death had occurred in hanging posture (for tying the ligature material) (Sequential hypoth-
(Sequential hypothesis 5). esis 1).
2. The downward directionality in the free and 2. The sliding-type knot with a single loop on the point
copious flow of saliva in conformity with gravity of origin in the bamboo rafter negates the proposi-
evidenced by the dried track of saliva corroborates tion of pulling the body upward and then making
the reconstruction that the posture of the body at the knot on the rafter. It rather corroborates the
the time of death was vertical (hanging) (Sequential possibility that the knot in the point of origin had
hypothesis 4). been made first followed by the knot on the neck
(Sequential hypothesis 2).
3. Vertically downward directionality in the course of 3. The location of the sliding-type knot on the neck
the incontinent urine corroborates brain damage beneath the bun of hair and the lack of cragginess
preceding death to have occurred in the hanging in the hair style corroborate the possibility that knot
posture (Sequential hypothesis 8). had been made by the victim herself (Sequential
hypothesis 3).
4. The downward directionality in the course of the 4. The cobweb entangled in the scalp hair corroborates
blood track would not be of any value in reconstruc- the elevation of victim’s head toward the roof to
tion except that it merely corroborates the escape of such an extent that the head contacted the cobweb
blood from the vaginal orifice while the body was in in the sloped roof. This inference negates the theory
hanging posture (Sequential hypothesis 9). that the victim’s body was elevated merely to the
noose level on the neck for simulating hanging (Se-
quential hypothesis 6).
Conjoined reconstruction Postscript

Crime scene reconstruction supports the pri- In this case, the brother of the deceased, citing
mary hypothesis that the manner of death is previous motive, averred that some known indi-
suicidal hanging and does not support simulat- viduals murdered the victim and hung the body
ing hanging following murder. Autopsy findings to simulate suicide. The fact that the observa-
were consistent with death by hanging. tions enumerated before have all been recorded
immediately during the initial investigation itself
enabled in clarifying that the allegation leveled by
the brother of the deceased was unsustainable.
CASE 4–2: A CASE OF ASSISTED HANGING
THE CASE
Three individuals were found dead hanging
freely from three ceiling fans in their house
(Figures 4.12–4.14).
PRIMARY HYPOTHESIS
The manner of death was suicidal hanging with assis-
tance by a mediator, possibly one among the victims.
ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS
The manner of death was homicide simulating
suicidal hanging.
The elaborate arrangements for extending the
ligature material to tie the legs to maintain them
elevated above the floor level in two individuals
suggested third-party assistance for hanging.
Observed premises
a) In two of the dead bodies, the legs were FIGURE 4.13 Similar to Figure 4.12, observable
seen flexed at the knee by extending the evidence suggesting assistance during the hang-
ligature material to tie the ankle and lift it ing of the male individual is additional cloth used
off the floor level; furthermore, the contriv- for tying the leg in the flexed posture and the
ance for elevation was not found near these absence of contrivance for elevation.
hanging bodies (Figures 4.12 and 4.13).
b) In all the hanging bodies, two or more
clothes had been used to make the liga-
ture and knot (Figures 4.12–4.14).
c) An iron tripod stool was seen lying near
the third dead body in which the legs,
although bound with an extended portion
of cloth, were not seen flexed (Figure 4.14).

a) Binding of body parts has been known in
hanging victims (Shkrum and Ramsay,
2007). Tying both the legs with the knee
in flexed state and maintaining the legs
above the floor level are impossible by
the victims’ own efforts.
b) In hanging cases, the ligature material is
usually single but may vary (Shkrum and
FIGURE 4.12 Observable evidence suggesting Ramsay, 2007).
assistance during the hanging of the female indi- c) The presence of the object for elevation,
vidual is additional cloth used for tying the leg in the metal stool, near one victim whose
the flexed posture and the absence of contrivance legs were not flexed indicated the pos-
for elevation. sibility for that victim to have mediated
Ecchymosis in the tip of the tongue bitten

between the teeth supports death in hanging posture.
Observed premises
a) The cloth used as ligature material was
broad and was found looped twice
around the neck, one horizontal and the
other oblique (Figures 4.15 and 4.16).
Correspondingly, the broad and shal-
low ligature marks on the neck were also
horizontal (gray arrows in Figures 4.17
and 4.18) and oblique (white arrows in
Figures 4.17 and 4.18). On one victim,
the oblique ligature mark along the man-
dible and neck appeared contused (white
arrow in Figure 4.17), the pattern corre-
sponding to the flexed state of the head
seen in the hanging posture (Figure 4.15).
b) The tip of the tongue bitten between the
teeth revealed petechial hemorrhages
(seen in Figure 4.19 with an enlargement
in Figure 4.20).
FIGURE 4.14 In the case of the female individ-

ual shown, the presence of tripod stool nearby
and the lack of flexing of the legs form observable
evidence supporting voluntariness during hang-
ing. The possibility that this individual assisted
the hanging of the previous two individuals is
seen to be supported.
the process of hanging for the two other

victims before hanging herself using the
metal stool for gaining elevation to hang
from the ceiling fan.
Reconstruction
The victim near whom the iron stool was found
was the last to use the stool to hang after pos-
sibly mediating and assisting the other two
victims.
The horizontal ligature mark in addition to the
oblique mark on the neck can be due to addi- FIGURE 4.15 Note the course of the cloth used
tional circular looping of the ligature material as ligature material—it was looped twice around
around the neck. the neck, one horizontal and the other oblique.
FIGURE 4.18 In conformity with the course of

the ligature on the neck shown in Figure 4.16, the
broad ligature mark on the neck was both circular
(gray arrow) and oblique (white arrow).
FIGURE 4.16 In the case of this deceased also,

the ligature material was looped twice around
the neck, one horizontal and the other oblique.
FIGURE 4.19 Petechial hemorrhages on the tip of

the tongue bitten between the teeth offer observ-
able evidence in death by hanging.
FIGURE 4.17 In conformity with the course of

the ligature on the neck shown in Figure 4.15, the
broad ligature mark on the neck was both circu-
lar (gray arrow) and oblique (white arrow), the
oblique mark revealing a contusion in the angle FIGURE 4.20 An enlarged view of the petechial
of the mandible. hemorrhages on the tip of the tongue.
Accepted (major) premises Reconstruction

a) The ligature can be wound multiple The ligature is known to be wound multiple times
times round the neck, and red or pink in hanging and with corresponding horizontal
neck marks suggest an antemortem hem- ligature mark caused by the circular looping of
orrhage which may simply be owing the ligature material round the neck in addition
to squeezing of blood postmortem. to the oblique ligature with the noose canting up
However, abrasions and contusions at the location of the knot. Ecchymosed tip of
adjacent to the furrow are suspicious of the tongue supports death in hanging posture.
homicidal strangulation (Shkrum and
Ramsay, 2007). Contusions indicate Conjoined reconstruction
antemortem causation (Dix, 2000). Sequential hypotheses 1 and 2 support the pri-
b) Ecchymosed tip of the tongue with pete- mary hypothesis that the manner of death was
chiae is a characteristic ante-mortem suicidal hanging with mediation by one indi-
sign in death by hanging (Mason, 1993; vidual to assist the other two individuals in the
Saukko and Knight, 2004b). process of hanging.
CASE 4–3: HANGING WITH WRISTS BOUND
THE CASE
A male individual was seen partially hanging on
a wooden pole in a construction site (Figure 4.21)
with both of his hands held at the back and bound
with a rope (Figure 4.22). The feet rested on the
floor. Subsequent to the initial investigation, fur-
ther enquiries were initiated during which course
the photographs and case records were referred
to this author for opinion.
PRIMARY HYPOTHESIS
Binding the wrists at the back and the apparent
lack of an object for elevation to make the knot
pointed to the involvement of another individual
and hence caused suspicion.
Binding the wrists at the back is possible by the
deceased himself, and the nearby brick wall
could have offered the elevation for the deceased
to make the knot.
The knot on the wrist held at the back could be
made by the deceased himself, and the petechial
hemorrhage in the protruding tongue supports FIGURE 4.21 A male individual seen partially
death in hanging posture. hanging on a wooden pole.
FIGURE 4.22 The hands of the deceased are seen

held at the back and bound with a rope. Note the FIGURE 4.23 Petechial hemorrhages on the tip
loose nature of the knot and the lengthy ends of of the tongue bitten between the teeth that form
the rope—observable evidence supporting acces- observable evidence in death by hanging.
sibility for the victim to manipulate the rope.
Observed premises palmar surface (Figure 4.23) indicated

accessibility for the victim to manipu-
a) The knot binding both the wrists at the
late the rope with the fingers.
back appeared loose in an enlarged view
b) Petechial hemorrhage in protruding
(Figure 4.22) and was seen located on
tongue is a vital sign suggesting death in
the outer aspect of the wrist with the
hanging posture (Mason, 1993; Saukko
two long free ends of the rope hanging
and Knight, 2004b). Salivary dribbling
downward. The SOCO who examined
noted by the SOCO immediately in
the scene immediately had also recorded
the scene also supports death in hang-
that the knot was loose.
ing posture (Davis, 1980; Mant, 1986;
a) The tongue was seen protruding with pete-
Sauvageau and Racette, 2007)
chial hemorrhage (Figure 4.23). In addi-
tion, the SOCO who examined the scene
Reconstruction
immediately had observed and recorded
dribbling of saliva from the mouth. Binding of limbs with loose knots has been
known to happen in hanging victims. Petechial
Accepted (major) premises hemorrhage in protruding tongue is a vital sign
in death by hanging, and dribbling of saliva also
a) Victims are known to bind themselves
supported death in hanging posture.
by tying their hands so as to preempt
attempts to escape during hanging. Such
bindings are usually loose and can be SEQUENTIAL HYPOTHESIS 2
easily released (Taylor, 1873; O’Hara, The brick and concrete structures in the scene
1956; Shkrum and Ramsay, 2007). could have offered the elevation required for the
Long free ends in the rope toward the deceased to make the knot on the point of origin.
Observed premises Reconstruction

a) The measurements of the brick wall and An individual of the estimated height of the
other concrete structures in the scene deceased can reach the wooden pole and make
were obtained (Figure 4.24a). the knot in the point of origin when resting on the
b) An experiment was conducted using brick wall, and the length of the ligature seen in
a live model to assess the possibility the hanging posture is consistent with a ligature
to make the knot on the wooden pole that can be made while resting on the wall and
when using the brick wall as an object sliding from there to attain the hanging posture.
for elevation (Figure 4.24b).
Conjoined reconstruction
Accepted (major) premises Victims of hanging are known to bind parts of the
a) When an individual sits on the brick wall body, especially the wrists, to preempt attempts
that was 1.16 m high, the extended hands to escape. Petechial hemorrhage in the tongue, a
can reach the height corresponding to vital sign and salivary dribbling supported death
that of the wooden pole in the scene to in hanging posture. The measurements of the
make the knot at the point of origin with brick and concrete structures in the scene and
a ligature of calculated length of about the estimated height of the deceased are consis-
0.61 m (Figure 4.24b). tent with the postulation that the deceased could
b) A ligature of initial length of about have used the brick wall to gain the elevation to
0.61 m is consistent with the estimated make the knot in the point of origin of the liga-
ligature length of about 0.87 m in the ture and then must have slid down from there
hanging posture (Figure 4.24a).
FIGURE 4.24b Sketch depicting the measurements

FIGURE 4.24a Sketch incorporating the mea- obtained during a live model experiment support-
surements of the brick wall and other structures ing the access of the model to make the knot on the
in the scene. wooden pole.
to attain the hanging posture seen in the photo- findings were consistent with death in hanging
graph. The possibility of suicide by hanging is posture although the hyoid bone had been pre-
supported. served for histopathological analysis to identify
fractures, if any.
Postscript The observations illustrated earlier and the
The posture of the hanging body, especially the sequential hypotheses enumerated relating to the
manner the hands were tied together, caused sus- ecchymosed tip of the tongue and the lengthy
picion, and a news report appeared in the press ends of rope on the wrist reaffirmed the possibil-
strengthening such suspicion. ity of suicidal hanging as the manner of death.
The SOCO who visited the scene immedi- In addition, experiments conducted on the basis
ately had observed and recorded dribbling of of the measurements of the brick and concrete
saliva, protrusion of the tongue with bluish dis- structures in the scene and the estimated height
coloration, and the knot on the wrist as not so of the deceased supported the proposition that
tight that the victim himself could have made it. the victim could have gained accessibility to
The SOCO had also found a hand-written note make the knot on the wooden pole to accomplish
implying a depressed state of mind. The autopsy the act of hanging.
CASE 4–4: A PARTIALLY HANGING BODY WITH URINARY TRACK

A male individual was seen partially hanging The flexed posture of the legs and the unecchy-
from a tree (Figure 4.25). The deceased was last mosed ligature mark did not support death by
seen engaged in a quarrel with another individ- hanging.
ual, and the posture of hanging with the legs sup-
ported on the bund of the tank was considered ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS
suspicious.
The flexed posture of the legs and the unecchy-
mosed ligature mark still supported death by
hanging.
Observed premises
a) The body was seen supported on the
slope of the bund of a tank with both the
knees partially flexed (Figure 4.25).
b) Downwardly drained tracks of urine
stains observed in situ along the legs
indicated directionality of flow of urine
commensurate with the partially flexed
state of the knees of the body in the
hanging posture (arrows in Figures 4.26
and 4.27).
c) The ligature material was a cloth with
the knot on the right side (Figure 4.28).
The ligature mark was broad and
unecchymosed on the left side of the
neck (arrow in Figure 4.29), while
FIGURE 4.25 A male individual seen partially on the right side the mark was absent
hanging on a tree with the knees flexed. (Figure 4.30).
FIGURE 4.28 The ligature material was a cloth,

and the knot was seen canted upward.
FIGURE 4.26 Downward tracks of urine stains

observed in situ along the legs. Note the direc-
tionality of flow of urine (arrows) which con-
forms to the partially flexed state of the knees of
the body in the hanging posture.
FIGURE 4.29 The ligature mark was broad and

unecchymosed on the left side of the neck (arrow).
FIGURE 4.27 Downward tracks of urine stains

along the rear part of the legs also conform to the FIGURE 4.30 Note the absence of ligature mark
flow of urine (arrows) after the legs have attained on the right side of the neck of the deceased, the
the flexed state. side in which the canted-up knot was seen.
Accepted (major) premises material is broad (Taylor, 1873; Shkrum

a) Suspension from low levels is possible and Ramsay, 2007).
in cases of death by hanging (Taylor,
1873; Polson et al., 1985; Shkrum and Conjoined reconstruction
Ramsay, 2007). Usually, incomplete sus- Suspension at low level has been shown to be
pension is an indication of suicide as a possible in death by hanging. The directionality
murderer will strive to achieve complete of the track of incontinent urine suggests brain
suspension (O’Hara, 1956). damage and death to have occurred after the
b) Regarding the downwardly drained track of knees attained the flexed posture. Unecchymosed
urine stains, the same set of Accepted (major) mark on the neck can be caused when the liga-
premises mentioned for Figures 4.9 and 4.10 ture material is broad. The alternate hypothesis
in Case 4–1 remain applicable. that the flexed posture of the legs and the unec-
b) Unecchymosed ligature marks are indi- chymosed ligature mark still supported death by
cated as common when the ligature hanging is seen to be sustained.
CASE 4–5: CADAVERIC SPASM IN A FREELY HANGING BODY
THE CASE
A male individual was found dead freely hanging
on a tree clasping a tree branch (Figures 4.31 and
4.32).
PRIMARY HYPOTHESIS
Clasping the branch indicated cadaveric spasm, a
phenomenon occurring during the onset of sud-
den death.
Clasping the branch indicated unusual posture
leading to suspicion.
Observed premises
a) The left hand of the victim was clasp-
ing a branch of the tree with the thumb
and index fingers on one side and the
other three fingers on the other side
(Figure 4.32).
b) The ligature material was a coir rope
(Figure 4.31), and the ligature mark was
narrow and deep (arrow in Figure 4.33).
Accepted (major) premises FIGURE 4.31 A male dead body found hanging
on a tree. A coir rope has been used as ligature
a) In sudden and violent death, either the material.
body as a whole or in part goes into a
state of instant rigidity termed ‘cadaveric
spasm’ superseding the general rule of Note

primary flaccidity of skeletal muscles Compare the ligature mark caused by a rope
(Dix and Graham, 2000; DiMaio and (Figure 4.33) with the broad and shallow ligature
DiMaio, 2001; Shkrum and Ramsay, mark caused by cloth material (Figure 4.29).
2007; Fierro, 2013).
b) The furrow in the ligature mark deep-
ens when the ligature material is thin
(Shkrum and Ramsay, 2007) and when
the duration of hanging is longer.
Clasping the branch with the hand that is flexed
at the elbow and thus maintained against grav-
ity indicated that instant rigidity viz. cadaveric
spasm had occurred in that hand and fingers
when the victim was holding the branch while
still alive and thus supported the primary
hypothesis. Cadaveric spasm is known to occur
in death by hanging. The deep and narrow liga-
ture mark is due to the narrow ligature material,
the coir rope.
FIGURE 4.33 Deep furrow in the ligature mark
on the neck, a characteristic commensurate with
the thin ligature material, the coir rope.
FIGURE 4.32 The left hand of the victim, flexed

at the elbow, was seen clasping a branch of the
tree. Note the thumb and opposed fingers index
fingers gripping for maintaining the posture of
the hand against gravity, observable evidence FIGURE 4.34 A female dead body seen partially
supporting the onset of instant rigidity on that hanging on a tree with both the hands clasping a
hand. branch—right side view.
CASE 4–6: CADAVERIC SPASM IN A PARTIALLY HANGING BODY
THE CASE
A female individual was found hanging on a tree
in a kneeling posture with both the hands clasp-
ing the branch (Figures 4.34 and 4.35).
PRIMARY HYPOTHESIS
Clasping the branch indicated cadaveric spasm, a
phenomenon occurring during the onset of sud-
den death.
Clasping the branch indicated unusual posture
leading to suspicion.
Observed premises
Both the hands were seen clasping the tree
branch. The right (Figure 4.34) and left hands
(Figure 4.35) were both seen held upward main-
taining the hold against gravity although the two
elbows remained unsupported.
Accepted (major) premises FIGURE 4.35 Left-side view of the dead body in
kneeling posture. Note the interlocked state of the
In sudden and violent death, either the body as
fingers of the hands and the hands being maintained
a whole or in part goes into a state of instant
upward against gravity, observable evidence sup-
rigidity termed ‘cadaveric spasm’ superseding
porting cadaveric spasm.
the general rule of primary flaccidity of skel-
etal muscles (Dix and Graham, 2000; DiMaio
and DiMaio, 2001; Shkrum and Ramsay, 2007; hands occurred when the victim was still clasp-
Fierro, 2013). ing the branch—an observation that supported
the primary hypothesis that the manner of death
Conjoined reconstruction was hanging.
If primary flaccidity had intervened, the skel-
etal muscles of the two hands would have lost Note
the tone leading to downward sagging of the Cases 4–5 and 4–6 illustrate that cadaveric spasm
hands in tune with gravity. The hands clasping has to be observed and recognized only when the
the branch at a higher elevation and maintain- dead body still remains in situ in the crime scene.
ing against gravity without any support for the See Section 4.4.3 of Discussion later in the chap-
elbows indicated that cadaveric spasm in the two ter for more details on cadaveric spasm.
CASE 4–7: PERSONAL CLOTHING AS SOURCE FOR LIGATURE MATERIAL
THE CASE and with tracks of bloodstains on the legs (arrow

A male individual was seen dead hanging with in Figure 4.37). The partially hanging posture
the legs supported on the ground (Figure 4.36) and the bleeding on the legs were considered to
be suspicious.
PRIMARY HYPOTHESIS
Legs supported on the ground and the presence of
bloodstains raised suspicion on the manner of death.
Deriving the ligature material from his own
clothing and free flow of saliva supported suicide
by hanging.
Observed premises
a) The ligature (Figure 4.38) was a portion
of cloth torn from the lungi worn by the
deceased, and, unusually, the lungi worn
by the deceased was seen to be adjusted
and tucked in between the legs (arrow in
Figure 4.39).
b) On unbuttoning the shirt (Figure 4.40),
multiple trickled tracks of saliva were
seen on the bare chest (white arrows
in Figure 4.41 and in the close- up of
Figure 4.42) along with skin erosion that
did not reveal effusion of blood (black
FIGURE 4.36 A partially hanging male individ- arrows in Figure 4.41 and in the close-up
ual. Note the clenched fingers. of Figure 4.42).
FIGURE 4.37 Multiple tracks of bloodstains on

the leg (arrow) FIGURE 4.38 Note the similarity in the designs
(adapted from Jayaprakash, 2006 with permission on the cloth used as the ligature material and the
from JFI). lungi worn by the deceased seen in Figure 4.39.
FIGURE 4.41 View of the multiple tracks of

saliva on the chest (white arrows) along with skin
erosion (black arrow)
(adapted from Jayaprakash, 2006 with permission
from JFI).
FIGURE 4.39 Note the tucked- in state of the

lungi (arrow) worn by the deceased.
FIGURE 4.42 Close-up view of the salivary track

(white arrow) along with skin erosion caused by
ants (black arrow). Note the absence of effusion
of blood in the skin erosions (black arrow)
from JFI).

a) Deriving the ligature material from vic-
FIGURE 4.40 On unbuttoning the shirt, skin tim’s own clothing and adjusting the
erosions and salivary tracks are seen on the chest remaining part of the costume by tucking
of the deceased. it in between the legs suggest suicidal act.
b) Free flow of saliva supports death by of hypostasis. The alternative hypothesis viz. sui-
hanging (Davis, 1980; Mant, 1986; cidal hanging is supported.
Sauvageau and Racette, 2007). The pres-
ence of multiple tracks of bloodstains Postscript
from skin erosions in the dependent Oftentimes, bloodstains on a dead body that
part, the legs, and their absence in the remain unaccounted for cause suspicion,
skin erosions in the upper chest region and such bloodstains typically include those
support that the skin erosions are of observed in hanging dead bodies. A study of the
postmortem nature and caused by ants. patterns of these bloodstains in the dead body
in situ in the scenes can enable attributing them
Conjoined reconstruction to postmortem skin erosions caused by ants, a
phenomenon frequent in tropical countries.
Multiple tracks of saliva supported continued and
In this case, the observation that the ligature
copious dribbling of saliva alongside the increase material has been derived from the lungi worn
in the tilt of the head due to the knot located on by the deceased and that the lungi has then been
the side of the neck. Deriving the ligature from adjusted by tucking it in between the legs offered
own clothing and adjusting the clothing sup- evidence indicating the voluntary involvement of
ported suicidal act. The presence of bloodstains in the deceased himself in these acts. Pertinently,
the legs and their absence in the chest supported Taylor (1873) observed that the strongest evidence
postmortem ant bite as the cause for skin erosions of foul play in hanging cases can be found in the
and consequent effusion of blood from the areas attitude and state of the dress of the dead body.
CASE 4–8: CONFUSION IN A HANGING DUE TO BLOODSTAINS
THE CASE b) The knot was in front of the chin, and the
A male individual was hanging dead with the feet trachea was not compressed (Figures 4.43
resting on the ground with bloodstains under- and 4.45). Salivary dribbling was absent.
neath the feet (arrows in Figures 4.43 and 4.44). c) The skin revealed erosions caused by
The location of the knot in front of the chin ants. The skin erosions in the neck were
(Figure 4.45) and the presence of bloodstains pale devoid of bloodstains (arrow in
in the body (Figure 4.46) led to suspicion and Figure 4.45) while the effusion of blood
reinvestigation. was profuse from the skin erosions in the
gluteal region (Figure 4.46). Ants were
seen crawling on the dead body.
PRIMARY HYPOTHESIS
Death is possible when the knot is in front of the Accepted (major) premises
neck, and the profuse bloodstains in the gluteal a) The wooden foldable chair seen behind
region of the dead body can be due to postmor- the body could have offered the elevation
tem skin erosions caused by ants. required for the deceased to reach the
rafter on the roof to tie the ligature knot.
ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS b) Death in hanging posture occurs due to
pressure on jugular vein and/or carotid
Death is not possible when the knot is in front of
artery that requires a weight of as low
the neck, and the profuse bloodstains in the glu-
as 2 kg or 2.5 to 10 kg, respectively
teal region of the dead body can be indicative of
(Shkrum and Ramsay, 2007). This is
antemortem injuries—a cause for suspicion.
possible even when the knot is in front
of the chin. Saliva does not dribble out
Observed premises when the head is tilted backward.
a) A wooden foldable chair was seen behind c) Effusion of blood due to ant erosions
the hanging body (Figure 4.43). occurs due to damages to the capillaries.
The absence of effusion of blood in the

neck region indicates lack of hypostasis
in the elevated neck region when the ants
eroded the skin. Effusion of blood in the
gluteal region indicates hypostasis in the
lower region when the skin was eroded
by the ants (Jayaprakash, 2006).
A chair, the object for providing the elevation to
reach the rafter to tie the knot, is available in
the scene. Death by hanging has been shown as
FIGURE 4.44 Enlarged view showing the blood-

stains below the feet resting on the floor (arrow)
from JFI).
possible when the knot is in the front of the neck.

Recognizing ant erosions as the cause for bleed-
ing in regions of hypostasis in the lower region
of a dead body in situ in the crime scene leads to
the reconstruction that body had been in hang-
ing position when the ants invaded the body and
eroded the skin. It is noted that hypostasis-based
possibility for bleeding from post-mortem skin
erosions would only clarify the cause for bleed-
ing and would not shed light on the manner of
death. Here, the reconstruction supported the
primary hypothesis that death is possible when
the knot is in front of the neck and clarified the
confusion caused by the presence of blood in the
dead body.
FIGURE 4.43 A hanging dead body with the
soles resting on the floor with bloodstains on the Postscript
floor (arrow) The observations relating to the circumstances in
(adapted from Jayaprakash, 2006 with permission from JFI). the scene of hanging and especially the profuse
FIGURE 4.45 Ant erosions in the elevated neck FIGURE 4.46 The same dead body shown in
region (arrow) evidencing the lack of effusion of Figures 4.43 and 4.45 evidencing profuse effu-
blood sion of blood from skin erosions caused by ants
(adapted from Jayaprakash, 2006 with permission in the lower gluteal region, indicating hypostasis
from JFI). (adapted from Jayaprakash, 2006 with permission
from JFI).
effusion of blood from the skin erosions in the
gluteal region and the lack of bleeding from the into the request letter to the medical doctor when
skin erosions in the neck region were all observed seeking autopsy. Such immediate recording of
and recorded immediately during the initial crime the scene observations enabled clarifying aver-
scene investigation. The reconstruction account- ments speculating foul play during subsequent
ing for the bloodstains was also incorporated reinvestigations.
CASE 4–9: WRONGFUL ACCUSATION IN A CASE OF DEATH BY HANGING
THE CASE The laymen witnesses construed the hanging as

A girl studying in 11th standard was found dead postmortem and believed that the victim had
hanging in her hut. Bloodstains were found on been raped, strangled to death, and then hanged.
the floor below the place where the body was The presence of profuse bloodstains on the floor
hanging (Figure 4.47) and also in the upper thigh confused the investigation, and, on the produc-
region of the victim (arrow in Figure 4.48) and on tion of some circumstantial evidence due to the
the foot (arrow in Figure 4.49). Signs of decom- interference by a local communal organization,
position such as effusion of blood from the nose four males were arrested on the charge of rape
and mouth appeared by the time the postmor- and murder and were remanded to judicial cus-
tem examination was conducted (Figure 4.50). tody. During the course of reinvestigation, the
investigation officer sought further opinion from

this author on the basis of the available photo-
graphs and records.
PRIMARY HYPOTHESIS
The bloodstains in the scene and on the leg can be
due to postmortem skin erosions caused by ants.
The bloodstains in the scene and on the thigh
can be due to antemortem injuries caused during
sexual assault.
Observed premises
a) Profuse bloodstains were seen on the
floor in the crime scene (Figure 4.47).
b) The downwardly directed bloodstain on
the thigh originated on the skin surface
of the thigh and not from the vagina
(arrow in Figure 4.48).
c) The tracks of bloodstain in the foot were
downwardly directed with crazed pat-
tern (arrow in Figure 4.49).
FIGURE 4.47 Profuse bloodstains on the floor in d) The surface of the sole along the periph-
the place where the female individual was found ery evidenced bloodstains (Figure 4.49)
dead hanging that were contiguous with the tracks of
(adapted from Jayaprakash, 2006 with permission bloodstains on the side of the foot indi-
from JFI). cating that the sole had been in contact
FIGURE 4.48 Irregular downward track of bloodstain in the upper thigh of the victim (arrow). Note
the origin of the stain from the thigh itself
(adapted from Jayaprakash, 2006 with permission from JFI).
FIGURE 4.51 View of the face of the same victim

shown in Figures 4.48 and 4.49 enlarged from
a photograph taken immediately in the scene
showing ant erosions in the eyelids and around
the eyes (arrows). Absence of bleeding from these
skin erosions is due to the elevated level of head
in hanging posture
from JFI).
with the floor where the effused blood

had collected.
e) When the face of the victim was enlarged,
skin erosions were seen on the outer
aspect of the eyelids while effusion of
blood was absent (arrows in Figure 4.51).
FIGURE 4.49 Multiple downward tracks of
bloodstains on the side of the foot of the victim Accepted (major) premises
(arrow). Note the crazed pattern. Bloodstains
a) Ants cause postmortem skin erosions
along the periphery of the sole indicate contact
(Spitz and Fisher, 1980; Polson et al.,
with the floor surface where the effused blood
1985; Gordon et al., 1988; Mant, 1997;
had collected
Byrd and Castner, 2001).
(adapted from Jayaprakash, 2006 with permission b) Ant erosions on the skin can lead to
from JFI). bleeding when they are located in areas
of hypostasis (Jayaprakash, 2006).
c) When a dead body evidencing blood-
stain patterns caused by ants is moved,
the original posture of the body can be
deduced by orienting the flow in the pat-
tern of the bloodstains in tune with grav-
ity (Jayaprakash, 2006; Gunn, 2009).
d) Blood effusing from skin erosions caused
by ants obeys the rule of gravity and thus
flows downward collecting below on the
floor and staining the sole.
e) Skin erosions located in higher areas such
as on the face in a hanging body do not
reveal the evidence of effusion of blood due
FIGURE 4.50 Photograph of the same dead to lack of hypostasis (Jayaprakash, 2006).
body shown in Figures 4.48 and 4.49 taken on
the day of autopsy. Note the signs of decomposi- Conjoined reconstruction
tion leading to postmortem discharge of bloody The effusion of blood in the thigh can be a post-
fluid from the nose and mouth. mortem artifact caused by ants. The absence of
bleeding in the ant erosions in the facial region the autopsy, by which time the body had further
and the downwardly oriented crazed pattern of decomposed. During the postmortem exami-
bloodstains along the axis of the body in the foot nation, the medical doctor observed that the
and bloodstains in the sole support that the body deceased would have died about 36 to 40 hours
had been in a hanging posture while hypostasis earlier and that the deceased had ‘hymen torn’
and the ant erosions occurred. and ‘hyoid bone fractured’ and opined that ‘she
The profuse bloodstain on the floor could be had been subjected to sexual intercourse prior to
attributed to the skin erosions caused by the ants death’. The medical doctor clarified that the opin-
in the areas of hypostasis in the legs. The pri- ion on subjecting the deceased to ‘sexual inter-
mary hypothesis is supported, and the bleeding course’ was based on the finding that the vagina
is explainable as due to post-mortem artifact. of the deceased admitted two fingers easily dur-
This case exemplifies a situation where the signs ing the postmortem examination. The presence of
of decomposition have further compounded bloodstains in the scene was the major ground for
guesstimating foul play and construing the case
the confusion caused by the presence of unac-
as one of rape and murder resulting in wrongfully
counted bloodstains in the scene.
accusing four individuals as suspects. However,
the reconstruction described earlier made dur-
Postscript
ing the further investigation duly accounted for
The observations relating to the bloodstain pat- the postmortem nature of the bloodstains in the
terns described from photographs taken of the scene as well the dead body and thus clarified
aforementioned scene have not been recorded the confusion in the manner of death leading to
immediately during the initial investigation. the release of the detained suspects
Consequently, the bloodstains in the scene and See Section 4.4.5 of the Discussion section
on the dead body remained unaccounted for given later in the chapter for more information
both during the initial investigation and during on skin erosions caused by ants.
CASE 4–10: ADDITIONAL ANTEMORTEM INJURIES IN A CASE OF HANGING
THE CASE b) Downward tracks of dried bloodstains

A male individual was found dead hanging on a were seen from two superficial incised
tree. There were bleeding injuries in the abdomen wounds, one in the scrotum (Figure 4.55)
and scrotum. and another in the abdomen (white
arrow in Figure 4.56).
c) The cloth (inner wear) corresponding to
PRIMARY HYPOTHESIS the incised injury in the abdomen did
Self-inflicted wounds may be found in cases of not reveal any damage although blood
death by hanging. had soaked the cloth from the inner side
(black arrows in Figures 4.55 and 4.56).
d) A bloodstained razor blade was found
inside the shirt pocket of the victim.
The injuries could be due to violence hence caus- The blade surface revealed a patterned
ing suspicion. imprint in bloodstain (white arrows in
Figure 4.57A) which was similar to that of
Observed premises the weave pattern of the shirt worn by the
a) A ligature mark (Figures 4.52–4.54) deceased (white arrows in Figure 4.57B).
ending obliquely behind the right ear In addition, fragmentary ridges of finger-
(arrow in Figure 4.53) was seen, and print that did not reveal sufficient area for
salivary discharge was observed from comparison were also seen (black arrow
the tilted angle of the mouth (arrow in in Figure 4.57A). The fingers of the victim
Figure 4.54). revealed dried bloodstains.
FIGURE 4.54 View of the horizontal ligature

FIGURE 4.52 View of the ligature mark on the mark (arrow) on the left side of the neck. Note
front of the neck. the downward track of saliva (arrow) from the
mouth.
FIGURE 4.55 Downward tracks of dried blood-

stains from the scrotum. Note the absence of
damages on the cloth (inner wear) correspond-
FIGURE 4.53 View of the oblique ligature mark
ing to the incised injury in the abdomen (black
on the right side of the neck.
arrow).
Accepted (major) premises suggested lifting away the cloth when

a) The ligature mark supports hanging, and inflicting the injury—an observation
the salivary discharge is characteristic of supporting self-infliction of the injury.
death by hanging (Davis, 1980; Mant, d) Weave pattern in clothes gets transferred
1986; Sauvageau and Racette, 2007). to contacting objects in the presence of
b) The superficial incised wounds in hanging liquid residue such as blood, and thus the
individuals may have been produced by presence of bloodstains in the fingers of
the person himself before hanging (Taylor, the victim and the razor blade supports
1873; Shkrum and Ramsay, 2007). the proposition that the razor blade had
c) The absence of cuts or damages in the been placed inside the pocket by the vic-
cloth atop the injury in the abdomen tim himself.
FIGURE 4.56 Incised wound on the abdomen (white arrow). Note the bloodstains on the inner surface
of the cloth (black arrow) contacting the wound on the abdomen.
FIGURE 4.57A Close-

up photograph of the FIGURE 4.57B Close-up photograph of the weave
razor blade found inside the shirt pocket of the pattern of the cloth worn by the deceased (arrow).
victim showing the weave pattern of the cloth
impressed on the bloodstains (white arrow) along
with fragmentary finger ridges (black arrow). pattern of the shirt that was found inside the
shirt pocket of the victim supported contact of
the shirt material with the bloodstained razor
Conjoined reconstruction blade while the blood was still wet facilitating
The salivary discharge and the nature of the the transfer of the weave pattern of the shirt as
ligature mark supported death by hanging. The imprint evidence on the razor blade. The pri-
absence of damage in the inner wear suggested mary hypothesis that the injuries are self-inflicted
self-infliction of the incised injury in the abdo- is supported, and the external signs supported
men. The bloodstained razor blade with weave death by hanging.
CASE 4–11: CONFUSION DUE TO IMPROPER SCENE INVESTIGATION
THE CASE maintaining the relationship with the patterns

A female individual had been found hanging dead on the floor. By recording the measurements of
from the ceiling fan hook in a first floor room. the live model, the maximum height of the victim
Averring foul play on the basis of discrepancies was estimated to be 165 cm (a limitation was the
in the measurements made in the scene, failure to unknown extension of the neck of the victim due
describe the objects such as stool etc. to reach the to hanging).
fan hook and that a knot located in front of the
chin and lack of salivary dribbling were unlikely ii) Estimating the ligature length
in hanging, the mother of the victim approached Estimated length of the ligature material was
the court twice seeking fair investigation. The 120 cm when based on measurements of the crime
investigation officer undertaking reinvestigation scene (Figure 4.60) and 117.5 cm when attempted
sought the services of the author to reconstruct
the occurrence.
PRIMARY HYPOTHESIS
Ligature knot in front of the neck, the lack of
salivary discharge, the possibility to latch the
door from outside, and the failure to describe the
objects such as stool etc. to reach the fan hook
during the initial investigation support the hang-
ing to be a simulation.
Ligature knot in front of the neck, the lack of
salivary discharge, the possibility to latch the
door from outside, and the failure to describe the
objects such as stool etc. to reach the fan hook
during the initial investigation are improprieties
accountable by appropriately reconstructing
the scene and thus may still support death by
hanging.
Among others, the plan for reconstruction

included steps i to v as given here:
i) Estimating the height of the victim using a

photograph taken during the initial investigation
During the initial investigation, the victim had
been laid on the floor in a location indicated
by witnesses (Figure 4.58) and had been pho-
tographed (Figure 4.59). The victim’s head, leg,
etc., seen in the photograph in Figure 4.59 were
studied for their relationship with the patterns in FIGURE 4.58 Aerial view sketch of the scene
the flooring such as the joining lines between two house indicating the location where the victim’s
marble slabs and the pattern of grains in the slab body was laid and photographed during the ini-
surface. A live model was allowed to lie on the tial investigation. The joining lines of the marble
floor in a posture corresponding to the posture slabs are also shown. The room where the victim
of the victim seen in the photograph and also was seen hanging is shown as ‘scene of crime’.
FIGURE 4.59 Photograph of the dead body on the marble floor taken during the initial investigation.
Note the joining lines of the marble slabs.
by photogrammetric method (Figures 4.61 opened or closed using the stick inserted through
and 4.62). In the latter method, the images in the window.
Figures 4.61 and 4.62 were both proportionately
enlarged, a reduction factor was calculated for iv) Possibility for death to occur when the
the image of the victim based on the estimated ligature knot was in front of the chin
height of the victim arrived at as mentioned ear- The finding of the ligature knot in front of the
lier, and the same factor was applied for calcu- neck (Figure 4.64) with mark of the knot under
lating the length of the rope. The average whole the chin (Figure 4.65) may appear infrequent.
number 119 cm was arrived at as the estimated Authors note that the point of suspension in
length of the rope excluding the length of the hanging is usually at the side of the neck, but sus-
knotted part and the noose. pension does occur from the front, which results
A rope of similar length was used for experi- in a horizontal furrow on the back of the neck
mentally arriving at the extent of stretch when (Shkrum and Ramsay, 2007) or in a circular mark
hanging a weight estimated to be similar to that as the lower jaw prevents the ligature from rising
of the victim. upward (Taylor, 1873). When the knot is in front
of the neck, the head would be flexed backward
iii) Possibility to latch the room from outside hindering dribbling of saliva from the mouth.
It was found possible to reach the inside latch of
the door to the room by inserting a stick through v) Feasibility for the victim to reach the fan
the window—where the latch to window distance The feasibility for the victim to reach the fan
was 1.47 m (Figures 4.60 and 4.63). It was also hook was studied on the basis of the measure-
found that the latch could be manipulated and ments made in the crime scene and the estimated
FIGURE 4.60 Sketch of the scene incorporating the measurements of the objects available along with
the estimated height of the victim.
FIGURE 4.62 Photograph showing the ligature

FIGURE 4.61 Photograph of the hanging body origin in relation to the body taken during the
taken during the initial investigation. initial investigation.
height of the victim. A diagrammatic sketch which had been taken while the dead body was
(Figure 4.66) was prepared applying the esti- still hanging in situ in the scene.
mated measurements to the actual measurements Negations and corroborations based on the
of the table, chair, and the ceiling in the crime sequential hypotheses listed in the order of their
scene to illustrate the feasibility for the victim probative importance during reconstruction:
to reach the fan hook. The ceiling fan that was
found on the floor of the room was refitted in the a) The inner latch in the door in the scene
fan hook in the ceiling. A live model, a woman of can be reached and fastened from out-
similar height estimated for the victim, was used side through the northern window by
to verify the feasibility to reach the fan hook, and inserting a sufficiently long stick.
the demonstration was video recorded. While b) Considering the estimated length of the
standing on the table top, the model was able rope, there is a strong probability that
to extend her arm (C to A in Figure 4.66) and the victim could have been freely hang-
remove the nut but could not remove the bolt of ing in the initial stage in which death
the ceiling fan. When the model was allowed to ensued. The atypical or partial state of
climb onto the cane chair that had been placed hanging seen in the photograph taken
atop the table, she could reach the bolt and nut during the initial investigation can be
of the ceiling fan and remove the fan. The table attributed to the descent of the body due
and the cane chair were material objects that to stretching of the ligature material con-
had been recorded in the photograph Figure 4.61 sequent to hanging.
FIGURE 4.65 The ligature mark underneath the

chin seen in the photograph taken during the ini-
tial investigation.
c) The location of the knot in front of the chin

is indicated as an infrequent but as a pos-
sible feature during death by hanging. Lack
of salivary dribbling is explainable as a con-
sequence of the head getting tilted backward
by the knot located in front of the chin.
d) The reconstruction based on the initially
taken photographs, measurements made
in the scene, and the live model simu-
lation study indicate possibilities for a
FIGURE 4.63 Photograph illustrating the possi-
person (of the stature of the deceased) to
bility to reach the inner latch of the closed door
reach the fan hook level and accomplish
when inserting a stick through the window.
the act of hanging in the room where the
dead body was found. The live model
simulation was videographed.
The alternative hypothesis that ligature knot in
front of the neck, the lack of salivary discharge,
the possibility to latch the door from outside,
and the failure to describe the objects such as
stool etc. to reach the fan hook during the initial
investigation are improprieties accountable by
reconstructing the scene, and thus death by the
hanging is seen to be sustained.
Limitations in the reconstruction

The following are the limitations in the recon-
struction suggested before.
i. The rope used for the hanging experi-

ment in the laboratory is not the same
FIGURE 4.64 The location ligature knot in front rope used by the victim. It was informed
of the chin and canted upward. that the rope in which the body was
FIGURE 4.66 Diagrammatic sketch illustrating the feasibility for a live model of victim’s estimated
stature to access the fan hook.
found hanging had not been recovered iii. The knots in the experiment in the labo-
during the initial investigation. ratory are of single and slipping type.
ii. The ropes used in the experiment in the There is no information on the type and
laboratory, both the new one and the old number of knots in the coir rope in which
one, are prone to elongate differently. the body was hanging. For double knots,
There is no clue as to whether the rope the elongation would be more.
used by the deceased for hanging was a iv. The elongation factor relating to the
new or used one, and it is impossible to noose has not been established as the
surmise the precise extent of elongation neck circumference could not be equaled
of the rope used for hanging. during the hanging experiment.
v. The extent of elongation of the neck could Postscript

not be calculated as cadaver experiment This case exemplifies a situation wherein impropri-
could not be conducted. However, neck eties in crime scene investigation such as measure-
is known to elongate during hanging. ment discrepancies, failure to describe the objects
vi. The extent of elongation of the body as a such as stool etc. which could offer elevation to
whole consequent to primary flaccidity, make the knot, and failure to describe and recover
although a known phenomenon, cannot the ligature material cumulatively prompted aver-
be calculated experimentally. ring homicide and then staging it as hanging.
vii. Measurements of body proportions are The reconstruction described before ruled
known to vary among the different indi- out homicide and established that the deceased
viduals of the same sex, and the mea- committed suicide, and, based on other circum-
surements of the live subjects employed stantial evidence, the husband of the deceased
in this study cannot be claimed as being was charged for willful conduct which had driven
equal to those of the victim. the deceased to commit suicide.
CASE 4–12: HOMICIDE SIMULATED AS HANGING (1)
THE CASE body had been moved from another posture to

A male individual aged about 65 years was found the hanging posture—which is an example sup-
dead hanging in sitting posture inside a shed porting homicide.
(Figures 4.67 and 4.68). The ligature material
included a dhoti and a towel that had been knot- ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS
ted together. Although the body is supported on the floor,
death could still have occurred due to hanging.
PRIMARY HYPOTHESIS
Observed premises
Incommensurable directionality in the tracks
of bloodstains from the nose indicated that the a) There were two tracks of bloodstains
from the nose—one running downward
in tune with gravity and also corre-
sponding to the hanging posture of the
dead body (black arrows in Figures 4.69
and 4.70) and the other running side-
ward (white arrow in Figure 4.70).
b) Sand particles were seen sticking on the
face, scalp, and shirt which were collected
using a brush. Loose soil outside the shed
revealed evidence of disturbance, and a
sample was collected.

a) The directionality of the track of body
fluids in dead bodies can be useful in
indicating the movement of the body
(Gordon et al., 1988; Jayaprakash, 2006).
b) Soil particles adhering to the head, face,
and the body are a sign indicating strug-
gle or movement of the body. The con-
FIGURE 4.67 A male individual seen dead in trol soil collected from outside the shed
partially hanging posture. was compared for suggesting origin.
FIGURE 4.68 Sketch of the scene showing the relevant measurements.
FIGURE 4.70 On bringing down the dead body,

apart from the downward track of bloodstain
(black arrows), the presence of an additional track
of bloodstain running sideward (white arrow)
offered observable evidence supporting move-
ment of the body prior to the hanging posture.
FIGURE 4.69 A downward track of bloodstain Conjoined reconstruction

(arrow) which was in tune with the hanging pos- The downward directionality in the bloodstain
ture as well as gravity. indicated effusion and flow of blood from the
nose conforming to gravity in the hanging posture Similarity between the soil collected from the
of the body. The sideward directionality in the deceased and the soil from outside the shed sup-
bloodstain running toward the left ear indicated ported that the body had been moved from out-
that the body had been in supine position prior to side the shed.
moving it to the hanging position. Hanging was The primary hypothesis supporting homicide
a simulation of suicide, and the posture of hang- was seen to be sustained. Autopsy findings were con-
ing is secondary following the supine posture. sistent with strangulation as the manner of death.
CASE 4–13: HOMICIDE SIMULATED AS HANGING (2)

A female individual was found dead hanging in the The disordered dress and craggy hairdo sup-
standing posture inside her house (Figure 4.71). ported simulation of hanging.
The body indicated evidence of decomposition.
FIGURE 4.71 A female individual seen hanging dead in a standing posture inside her house.
b) The steel wire used as the ligature had

been twisted on itself in the point of
origin (Figure 4.73). After forming the
noose on the neck, the other end had
been twisted around the wire at the back
of the head (Figure 4.74). The hair of the
deceased was seen to be disheveled and
caught in the twists of the steel wire on
the back of the neck (Figure 4.74).

a) The strongest evidence of homicide (in
hanging cases) is often found in the atti-
tude and state of the dress of the dead
body (Taylor, 1873).
b) Ruffling of the hair in the knot on the
neck is suspicious (Shkrum and Ramsay,
FIGURE 4.72 View of the disordered state of the 2007) and suggests the involvement of
dress and the craggy hairdo. external agencies in making the knot.
The disordered state of the dress, the ruffled
hair, and the twisted wire to form the knot on
the back of the neck entangling the hairs indi-
cated the hanging to be a staged one to simulate
suicidal hanging.
Autopsy findings were consistent with throt-
tling as the cause of death.
The primary hypothesis supporting homicide
simulated as hanging was seen to be sustained.
FIGURE 4.73 The twisted state of the steel wire

in the point of origin.
Death by hanging is possible using metal wire as
ligature material.
Observed premises
a) The disordered dress exposing the body FIGURE 4.74 The twisted state of the steel wire
indicated evidence of struggle (Figures 4.71 at the back of the head in the midst of disheveled
and 4.72). hair.
CASE 4–14: ATTEMPT TO REVIVE A HANGING VICTIM—FROTHY DISCHARGE

A female individual was found dead in lying Frothy discharge from nostrils can result due to
position with frothy discharge from her nostrils orally administered water entering into the lungs
(Figure 4.75). In the scene, a coir rope was found when trying to save hanging victims who are imme-
tied to the roof with a cut end (white arrow in diately ‘cut down’ by witnesses. Ligature mark may
Figure 4.76) along with a cut piece of rope lying not be prominent on the neck of such victims.
on the floor (black arrow in Figure 4.76).
Frothy discharge from nostrils, an indication
unrelated to death by hanging, causes confusion.
Observed premises
a) Frothy discharge similar to that found
in cases of drowning was seen from the
nostrils (Figure 4.75).
b) The piece of rope on the floor revealed
a cut end (white arrow in Figure 4.77)
and a slip type knot (black arrow in
Figure 4.77). The cut end could be joined
with the cut end of the coir hanging from
the roof (arrow in Figure 4.78) to recon-
FIGURE 4.75 A female individual found dead in struct the noose (arrow in Figure 4.79).
a lying posture with frothy discharge from the c) A faint ligature mark was seen on the
nostrils. neck of the victim (Figure 4.80).
FIGURE 4.76 Coir rope with a cut end (white

arrow) found tied to the roof in the scene house FIGURE 4.77 The piece of rope on the floor
along with a cut piece of rope lying on the floor with a cut end (white arrow) and a slip type knot
(black arrow). (black arrow).
FIGURE 4.80 Faint ligature mark (white arrow)

on the neck of the victim.
FIGURE 4.78 Enlarged view of the cut end
(white arrow) in the rope hanging on the roof.

a) Frothy discharge occurs in cases of death
by drowning (Shepherd, 2003) and is also
possible when the water orally adminis-
tered to save a gasping victim enters into
the trachea and then the lungs.
b) Reconstruction of the noose by match-
ing the cut ends of the coir rope indicates
that the ligature had been cut.
c) The ligature mark on the neck is absent
if a person is promptly “cut down” from
hanging position (Shkrum and Ramsay,
2007).
The reconstructions that the ligature had been
“cut down” and water had been administered
in an attempt to revive the victim were corrobo-
rated by the witnesses when they were prompted
FIGURE 4.79 Reconstruction of the noose by during examination.
joining the two cut ends using a thread (white The primary hypothesis that the victim was
arrow). hanging and then was “cut down” was supported.
CASE 4–15: A CASE OF SELF-STRANGULATION

A female individual was found dead lying on The possibility of suicide by self-
strangulation
her back (Figure 4.81). A piece of cloth was seen cannot be excluded.
encircled around her neck with a half knot in
front (Figure 4.82), and the cloth was similar to ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS
the saree worn by the victim.
The possibility of homicide by strangulation can-
not be excluded.
FIGURE 4.81 A female dead body lying on its back.
FIGURE 4.82 A piece of cloth seen encircled FIGURE 4.83 Sign of lividity (white arrow) in
around the neck with a half knot in front. the finger tips in contact with the ground.
Observed premises a piece of cloth torn from the saree of the victim,
a) The finger tips in contact with the ground and the manner the torn end of the saree had
revealed signs of lividity (white arrows in been tucked inside the hip of the victim when
Figure 4.83). wearing supported the involvement of the vic-
b) On removal of the saree tucked inside tim and the possibility of self-strangulation and
the hip of the victim, the saree revealed suicide. Autopsy findings were consistent with
torn edges (‘A’ in Figure 4.84) the surface death due to asphyxia.
designs of which corresponded with the The primary hypothesis that the manner
surface designs on the torn edges of the could be suicide by self-strangulation is seen to
piece of cloth found around the neck of be sustained.
the victim (‘B’ in Figure 4.84).

a) Lividity indicated prolonged contact of
the fingers on the ground.
b) A ligature simply looped around the
neck or with a single or double knot can
cause death (Camps, 1968; Polson et al.,
1985; Shkrum and Ramsay, 2007), and
the correspondence in the surface designs
between two objects is considered to be
indirect physical matching (De Forest
et al., 1983). The manner the saree had
been worn by tucking the torn portion
inside the hip indicated the voluntariness
of the victim in arranging the saree. FIGURE 4.84 Pattern correspondence between
the torn edges as well as the surface designs on
Conjoined reconstruction the saree worn by the deceased (‘A’) and the
It is known that a ligature encircling the neck can piece of cloth found around the neck of the vic-
cause death. The source of the ligature material, tim (‘B’).
CASE 4–16: SELF-STRANGULATION USING A TOURNIQUET
THE CASE
A male individual was found dead in the supine
posture with plastic string round his neck and
knotted on to a piece of about 12.5 cm long
stick located inside the cervico- mental angle
(Figures 4.85 and 4.86). On flexing the head
backward, the plastic string was found knot-
ted on to the stick and twisted multiple times
beneath the knots (Figure 4.87). The manner the
plastic strings were knotted to the stick is shown
in Figure 4.88.
PRIMARY HYPOTHESIS FIGURE 4.85 Dead body of a male with plastic

It is possible for the victim himself to make the string round the neck and knotted on to a piece
tourniquet and commit suicide. of stick.
FIGURE 4.86 The location of the string and the stick inside the cervico-mental angle.
It is possible for another individual to make the
tourniquet and strangulate the victim.
Observed premises
a) Two ends of a pair of plastic strings were
found knotted onto the middle part
of the wooden stick (Figures 4.87 and
4.88), and the strings had been twisted
multiple times tightening the wires as a
tourniquet around the neck.
b) The location of the knots was on the
middle of the stick. When examining
the body, the chin obstructed untwist-
ing the stick as the space in the cervico-
mental angle did not permit rotating the
stick to release the twists. The strings
had to be cut and removed from the neck
along with the stick.

a) Tourniquet mechanism wherein the lig-
ature is applied with several turns and
knotted on the neck has been indicated FIGURE 4.87 View of the plastic string knotted
as presumptive of suicide (Camps, 1968; and twisted on to the stick on flexing the head
Polson et al., 1985). backward.
c) The location of the knot in the middle of the

stick measuring about 12.5 cm indicated
that twisting the stick necessarily required
voluntary flexing of the head of the victim
backward for permitting the ends of stick
to turn multiple times within the cervico-
mental angle during the act of twisting it.
Accomplishing tourniquet mechanism in the
cervico-mental angle requires voluntary action
of the victim and thus is presumptive of suicide.
The inaccessibility for another individual to twist
the stick within the cervico-mental angle except
when flexing the head backward reinforced vol- FIGURE 4.88 The plastic string and the stick
untary act by the victim supporting the manner after removal from the neck.
to be suicide by self-strangulation.
4.4 DISCUSSION stretching of the ligature material because

of the weight of the body as well as the
4.4.1 Myths and Facts Relating to Observations in stretching of the neck muscles.
Hanging Scenes iv. Myth: Binding of the hands or legs in a
hanging dead body indicates homicide.
i. Myth: When persons hang themselves, it is Fact: Victims are known to bind wrists or
not possible to die when the body weight is legs with duct tapes, cords, etc., and such
supported on the floor. bindings are not necessarily indicative of
Fact: In hanging, asphyxia is not only rap- homicide. Usually, these bindings are loose
idly induced, but it also supervenes under and can be easily released (Taylor, 1873;
unexpected circumstances such as when Shkrum and Ramsay, 2007).
the body is in great part supported (Taylor, v. Myth: Bruises in arms or legs indicate foul play.
1873; Polson et al., 1985; Dix, 2000). Fact: Bruises in arms (in front) and legs
ii. Myth: In hanging, it is not possible to (at the rear) occur due to the contact with
die when ligature does not compress the nearby objects because of convulsions that
trachea such as when the knot is located occur in about 15 seconds after hanging
underneath the chin. (Sauvegeau and Racette, 2007).
Fact: In hanging, unconsciousness and death vi. Myth: In hanging bodies, blood clots after
occur due to the compression of jugular vein death and thus would not effuse when post-
and carotid artery which require only about mortem injuries occur.
2 kg to 10 kg respectively while compres- Fact: Blood continues to remain liquid lon-
sion of trachea requires about 15 kg weight ger in asphyxial deaths (citation of Professor
(Polson et al., 1985; Shkrum and Ramsay, John Glaister in the Dr. Ruxton case and
2007). Whether ligature presses the trachea Taylor by Gordon et al., 1988; Eisenmenger
or not, the jugular vein and carotid artery and Gilg, 2003) and profusely effuses when
would be compressed since the ligature nec- capillaries are damaged (Jayaprakash, 2006).
essarily passes along the sides of the neck.
iii. Myth: A freely hanging body continues to
be freely hanging. 4.4.2 Variations in Knots, Ligature Materials, and
Fact: A freely hanging body would continue Ligature Marks
to be lowering due to multiple factors such
as tightening of the ligature knots (one in Authors have pointed out that knot analysis can
the origin and the other on the neck), the assist in the determination of manner of death
(Spitz, 1993; Busuttil, 2003). It should therefore be Victims are known to bind themselves by tying
ensured that any ligature is cut in a manner such that their wrists and/or legs so as to preempt attempts
the knot can be examined and the ligature recon- to escape during hanging. Such bindings are usu-
structed as it was on the decedent (Busuttil, 2003) ally loose and can be easily released (Shkrum and
(see case 4.14). Knots are to be examined both in Ramsay, 2007).
the origin and on the neck. Shkrum and Ramsay
(2007) indicate the predominance of slipknot (slid-
4.4.3 Cadaveric Spasm—Its Relevance in Crime
ing knots) (69.5%) over fixed knots (8.6%) and just
Scene Reconstruction
looping of the ligature (10.5%) in an Australian
study. The ligature knot on the neck is more often
In some cases of sudden and violent death, the gen-
found on the side (Figures 4.5, 4.28, 4.31, 4.38) but
eral rule of primary flaccidity of skeletal muscles
may also be located in front under the chin (Shkrum
immediately following death is broken, and instead,
and Ramsay, 2007) (Figures 4.45, 4.64) or more
the body, either as a whole or in part, goes into a
toward the back of the neck (Figure 4.13). When
state of rigidity termed cadaveric spasm. Glaister
the knot is in front and is located underneath the
(1915) notes that “Nothing can simulate instan-
chin, the head would be flexed backward, a situa-
taneous rigor or cadaveric spasm and it cannot
tion wherein saliva would not dribble out.
be produced by any method after death”. Mason
In the point of origin, a single circle of the
(1993) also concurs that cadaveric spasm cannot
ligature material with a sliding type of knot
be simulated after death and adds that it is, there-
(Figure 4.4) suggests that it has been made prior to
fore, of considerable value in the differential diag-
the suspension of the body. On the neck, it is usual
nosis between suicide and homicide. Recognizing
to find a single loop of the ligature (Figures 4.5, that cadaveric spasm has medicolegal importance
4.28, 4.38). Occasionally, the ligature may be because it records the last act of life, Camps (1968)
found looped more than once (Taylor, 1873; observed that cadaveric spasm is the characteristic
Shkrum and Ramsay, 2007) such as one horizon- which cannot be simulated by ordinary rigor even
tal and the other oblique (Figure 4.16) creating if the hand is bound round the weapon until rigor
corresponding looking ligature marks on the neck mortis is re-established. Evidently, cadaveric spasm
(Figure 4.18). Deriving the ligature material from is recognizable only in the crime scene, and, once
the clothing of the victim (Figures 4.38 and 4.39) the position of the dead body is altered, any fur-
supports suicidal act. ther examination such as during autopsy would
Typically, the ligature mark on the neck runs not enable the identification of cadaveric spasm.
horizontally on the side opposite to that where the Photographs of the dead body taken in situ in crime
knot is situated (Figure 4.52) and runs obliquely scene would form the only evidence to effectively
upwards on the side of the neck where the knot is portray the phenomenon of cadaveric spasm. An
situated (Figure 4.53). The oblique ligature mark acceptable instance of cadaveric spasm would be
would reveal an interruption on the neck as the invaluable as it demonstrates the posture of the vic-
noose is canted up in the region of the knot leading tim at the moment of death literally profiling the
to a gap between the ligature mark and the suspen- final act of the victim.
sion point viz. the knot on the neck (Payne-James In the opinion of this author, any observ-
et al., 2011). The prominence of ligature mark able evidence in a dead body in situ in the crime
depends on the ligature material and the length of scene supporting the onset of skeletal muscle rigid-
the time the body remains suspended. When the ity preceding primary flaccidity of muscles would
ligature material is narrow such as a rope and the be diagnostic of cadaveric spasm. Once cadaveric
length of time the body remained hanging is also spasm sets in, the skeletal muscle in the concerned
longer, the mark is narrow and deep (Figure 4.33), part of the body would not sag in consonance with
while a broad ligature material produces a wide and the forces of gravity—such as elevated posture of a
shallow appearing ligature mark (Figures 4.17, 4.18, hand holding a tree branch (Figure 4.32) or both the
4.52). The ligature mark may be faint even when hands clasping a tree branch (Figures 4.34 and 4.35)
a rope is used (Figure 4.80) or even be absent if a in bodies that are hanging. Obviously, in both the
person is promptly “cut down” from hanging pos- aforementioned cases, primary flaccidity had failed,
ture in an attempt to save life (Shkrum and Ramsay, and instead instant rigidity had set in freezing the
2007). In some instances, the neck can be protected final acts of the victims as shown by the position-
by padding underneath and interposed between the ing of the arms—observations that demonstrate the
ligature and the neck. manner of death as hanging.
Cadaveric spasm had been heavily debated— the circumstances will have to be considered sus-
the German forensic literature rejecting it and the picious. Studies on filmed hangings have shown
British literature supporting it (Pirch et al., 2013). that abrasions and bruises are possible in hanging
Those who accept cadaveric spasm include Dix victims. These studies demonstrated that asphyxia
and Graham (2000), DiMaio and DiMaio (2001), by hanging is associated with convulsions and
Shkrum and Ramsay (2007), and Fierro (2013). other body movements related to phases of decer-
Among those rejecting cadaveric spasm, some are ebrate and decorticate rigidity (Sauvageau et al.,
vociferous (Tsokos, 2005; Bedford and Tsokos, 2007). In this regard, Sauvageau et al. (2009) stud-
2013), while some others are moderate (Saukko ied 207 cases of death by hanging and found limb
and Knight, 2004; Gill, 2013). Saukko and Knight abrasions in 31.9% of cases and bruises in 19.8%.
(2004a) believe that in most cases, early normal Limb bruises were mostly seen in victims hanging in
rigor could have supervened leading to misreport- restrained areas such as staircases, and these lesions
ing as cadaveric spasm. Indicating the lack of patho- were less frequent when hanging occurred in open
physiological support for instant rigidity, Bedford areas such as a park. In hanging cases, the bruises,
and Tsokos (2013) suspect manipulation in cases when found, were mostly located on the posterior
where razor or soap had been found held in the part of upper limbs, especially on the right arm, and
hands of cadavers but concede that electrocution- on the anterior aspect of lower limbs. However, in
related deaths can have the hand-grasping electrical 52% of the total of 69 victims of homicidal stran-
cord in a typical grasp reflex response to the electri- gulation, bruises were seen on both the anterior and
cal stimulus. posterior aspects of both the upper and lower limbs.
In response to the aforementioned criticisms, Importantly, the location of bruises has to be inter-
this author’s views are that: i) it is impossible preted with reference to the objects in the accessible
to manipulate cadaver hands in a state elevated vicinity in the scene since bruises occur during the
against gravity, and yet grasping objects as seen in movement of the limbs in the phases of decerebrate
Figures 4.32, 4.34, and 4.35 since intervention of and decorticate rigidity. The SOCOs must observe
rigor mortis, even assuming it to be early as believed the external injuries immediately in the scene and
by Saukko and Knight (2004a), would not preclude record the circumstances that might explain the
sagging of arms in tune with gravitational force, injuries since such interpretations would not be pos-
a phenomenon that is fairly well recognized (Dix sible once the body is moved.
and Graham, 2000); ii) Bedford and Tsokos (2013)
have not considered body postures antithetical to
the influence of gravity when diagnosing cadav- 4.4.5 Significance of Ant Erosions in Skin During
eric spasm, and iii) interestingly, the criticism on Investigation
manipulating the scene (Bedford and Tsokos, 2013)
that may appear relevant in cases of death involv- In the absence of injuries on the bodies, evidence
ing injuries due to firearms would not sustain in the of bloodstains in dead bodies and crime scenes
cases of hanging such as those described here (Cases can cause confusion leading to speculations that
4–5 and 4–6) as such make-believe cadaveric spasm may mislead the investigation. Traditionally, stud-
has no known benefit in cases of death by hanging. ies on the postmortem artifacts on dead bodies due
At the end, the lack of pathophysiological support to insect activities have focused on necrophagous
for instant rigidity would not qualify to reject the insect activities relevant for estimating time since
observable fact that instant rigidity is still occurring death (Anderson, 1995; Rodriguez, 1997; Haskell,
on specific circumstances of death. et al., 1997; Byrd and Castner, 2001; Greenberg
As such, the SOCOs are advised to follow the and Kunich, 2002). While ants have been shown
gravity-based logic for diagnosing cadaveric spasm to erode the skin in dead bodies (Spitz and Fisher,
since missing the diagnosis of cadaveric spasm may 1980; Polson et al., 1985; Gordon et al., 1988; Mant,
mislead the investigation (see also Cases 9–1 and 1997; Byrd and Castner, 2001; Saukko and Knight,
9–3). 2004a), it has also been found that ant erosions on
the skin in dead bodies, when located in areas of
hypostasis, can lead to effusion of blood confusing
4.4.4 Lesions in Limbs in Hanging Cases investigation processes (Jayaprakash, 2006).
Ant erosions and subsequent bleeding in dead
Injuries in hanging bodies are likely to cause suspi- bodies have been found in cases of death by hang-
cion. Lacerated-type injuries seldom occur in vic- ing, poisoning, and other asphyxia modes such as
tims of hanging, and when such injuries are seen, throttling. When the ants erode the superficial skin
layer of cadavers, effusion of blood results from the dead bodies not evidencing patent cutaneous inju-
erosions, the predisposing factor being the presence ries. In such cases, the presence of crawling ants
of hypostasis in the area underlying the skin ero- in dead bodies may be particularly observed and
sion. In as much as livor is not readily recognizable recorded.
in heavily pigmented victims, it is suggested that rec-
ognizing the presence of bleeding from ant erosions
can be diagnostic of the presence of hypostasis, even 4.4.6 On the Utility of Fingermarks as Evidence
when it is otherwise inconspicuous. The absence of
Fingerprint is a classic example of a biological pat-
bleeding from ant erosions in the elevated regions of
tern illustrating uniqueness in the spatial relation-
the hanging dead bodies is indicative of the absence
ship between the points in prints derived from the
of hypostasis. For instance, in a vertically suspend-
same source (Evett and Williams, 1996; Lee and
ing dead body (Figure 4.43), ant erosions in the ele-
Gaensslen, 2001) that facilitates individual iden-
vated neck region appeared as pale irregular patches
tification. The conclusion reached on identifica-
without evidence of effusion of blood (Figure 4.45)
tion during fingerprint comparison is evaluational
while ant erosions in the gluteal region of the same
and thus fundamentally differs from the statisti-
dead body revealed extensive effusion of blood
cal result arrived when comparing DNA profiles,
(Figure 4.46) indicating the presence of hypostasis
earlier termed ‘DNA fingerprinting’ (Jayaprakash,
in the gluteal region.
2013). While human-failures-related mistakes are
Ants belong to the family Formicidae of the
known to have occurred in the evaluational pro-
class Hymenoptera under the super-class Pterygota
cess of matching a fingermark obtained from a
and have well-developed paired mandibles that can crime scene with a fingerprint on record, as recog-
chip off minute pieces of skin causing the charac- nized by Page et al., (2011), these mistakes are not
teristic etched erosions in dead bodies. The ant spe- made because someone has a fingerprint, identical
cies invading cadavers in south India include the to someone else in the world. In general, the terms
dark brown ant (Iridomymex anceps, Rog.), the ‘mark’ or ‘fingermark’ refer to those impressions
brown ant (Solenopsis germinata, Fabr.), the red left unwittingly and by chance at crime scenes,
ant (Monomorium gracillimum, Sm.), and the red while the terms ‘prints’ or ‘fingerprints’ describe
tree ant (Oecophylla smaragdina, Fabr.). inked impressions recorded by police from arrested
The ants usually invade areas of soft and moist persons (Leadbetter, 2005). Fingermarks in crime
skin such as in the gluteal region (Figure 4.46), scenes offer evidence which permits individualiza-
thigh (Figure 4.48), eyelids (Figure 4.51), the tion leading to conclusive attribution of origin to an
mouth, and genitalia. The skin erosions caused by individual who, in the circumstances of the case on
ants may appear as irregular patches of larger size hand, may turn out to be one among the suspects.
when the surface area of the skin is broader such as In cases of hanging, fingermarks of the deceased,
in the neck (Figure 4.45) or chest (Figure 4.42) or either latent or on dust residue, on objects used to
of smaller sizes when they are around areas such tie the ligature such as ceiling fan would support the
as eyelids (Figure 4.51). The shape of eroded areas hypothesis that the victim only made the ligature
may conform to the contour of the already existing knot.
superficial abrasions in the areas of ligature marks The fingermarks found in crime scenes may
or the tracks of discharged body fluids such as saliva be of three types: i) those that are visible to naked
or blood. When the skin erosions are located in eye evaluation termed ‘visible prints’ caused by say,
dependent regions of the dead body, bleeding from removal of dust due to contact by a finger or deposi-
ant erosions can be profuse (Jayaprakash, 2006). tion of such residues as bloodstains from the finger,
The extensive nature of such bleeding is attributed ii) those three-dimensional prints that are impressed
to the fact that blood continues to be in liquid state by the fingers on a soft medium such as wax or
postmortem, and, once gravity assists, there is a soap termed ‘plastic prints’, and iii) those termed
vast reservoir of blood to drain even through a small ‘latent prints’ that are generally not patent during
incision (Gordon et al., 1988). Eight cases illustrat- visual inspection but can be developed by special
ing effusion of blood due to skin erosions caused by techniques.
ants have been described reiterating the significance Latent prints are commonly left inadvertently
of such bleeding during crime scene reconstruction by burglars and thus have acquired popularity as
(Jayaprakash, 2006). It is indicated as being obliga- being evidence to connect with offenders known
tory for the SOCOs to consider skin erosions caused to commit burglaries, whose specimen fingerprints
by ants as possible source for effusion of blood in made in ink during earlier arrest are maintained
in Finger Print Bureau for ready comparison. Busuttil, A. Scene of crime—The pathologist and
Consequently, the application of fingerprint as evi- others, in Forensic Medicine: Clinical and
dence has become more popular in volume crimes Pathological Aspects, Payne-James, J. Busuttil,
such as house breaking burglaries, shoplifting, and A. and Smock, W. (Eds.) London: Greenwich
theft from cars. It would be seen that these are the Medical Media Ltd, 2003, 49–66.
crimes in which recidivism is very high—in India, Byrd, J. H. and Castner, J. L. Insects of forensic
about 75% of recidivists pertain to offenders relat- importance, in Forensic Entomology, Byrd, J.
ing to burglaries. Dictated by the growing demand H. and Castner, J. L. (Eds.) Boca Raton, FL:
for identifying fingermarks of recidivists from vol- CRC Press, 2001, 43–81.
ume crime scenes, the Finger Print Bureau in differ- Camps, F. E. Gradwohl’s Legal Medicine, Bristol:
John Wright & Sons, 1968.
ent parts of the world enhanced their digital ability
Champod, C. Lennard, C. Margot, P. and Stoilovic, M.
to store known fingerprints of offenders and to
Fingerprint and other Ridge Skin Impressions,
automatically identify the prints lifted from crime
Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2004.
scenes. The specialized vocational requirements to
Davis, J. H. Asphyxial deaths, in Modern Legal
develop latent prints from scenes and to compare Medicine Psychiatry and Forensic Science,
these prints to generate opinions on identifications William, J., Curran, A., McGarry, L. and Petty,
led to the developments of Finger Print Bureau in C. S. (Eds.) Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company,
parallel with the development of Forensic Science 1980, 249–268.
Laboratories. However, the qualification and train- De Forest, P. R., Gaensslen, R. E. and Lee, H.
ing for a Fingerprint Expert distinctly differ from C. Forensic Science: An Introduction to
those of a staff from Forensic Science Laboratories. Criminalistics, New York: McGraw- Hill,
The practice in India and in many other coun- 1983.
tries elsewhere is that Fingerprint Expert from DiMaio, V. J. and DiMaio, D. Forensic Pathology,
Fingerprint Bureau and scientific staff deployed as 2nd ed., Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2001.
SOCOs from Forensic Science Laboratories visit Dix, J. Colour Atlas of Forensic Pathology, Boca
crime scenes conjointly, an exercise that has been Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2000.
found to be very productive during scene investiga- Dix, J. and Graham, M. Time of Death,
tions. Throughout this field guide, situations that Decomposition and Identification: An Atlas,
potentially yield fingermarks, both latent and vis- Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2000.
ible, are indicated so that the SOCOs can recognize Eisenmenger, W. and Gilg, T. Asphyxia, in Forensic
the avenues for locating such prints and preserve Medicine: Clinical and Pathological Aspects,
the scene and the concerned objects for inspection Payne- James, J. Busuttil, A. and Smock, W.
(Eds.) London: Greenwich Medical Media Ltd,
by the Fingerprint Experts. While the expert work
2003, 259–274.
relating to developing fingerprints in crime scenes
Evett, I. W. and Williams, R. L. A Review of the
and identifying them subsequently categorically
Sixteen Point Fingerprint Standard in England
falls under the purview of professionally trained
and Wales, 1996. Available at: www.thefin-
Fingerprint Experts, readers interested in acquiring gerprintinquiryscotland.org.uk/inquiry/files/
in-
depth academic knowledge on fingerprint sci- DB_0769-02.pdf.
ence may refer to books such as Lee and Gaensslen Fierro, M. F. Cadaveric spasm, Forensic Sci Med
(2001) and Champod et al. (2004). Pathol., 9 (2013): 253.
Gilbert, J. D., Jensen, L. and Byard, R. W. Further
observations on the speed of death in hanging,
REFERENCES J For Sci,., 53 (5) (2008): 1204–1205.
Gill, J. R. Cadaveric spasm, Forensic Sci Med Pathol.,
Anderson, G. S. The use of insects in death investiga- 9 (2013): 251–252.
tions: An analysis of cases in British Columbia Glaister, J. A Text-book of Medical Jurisprudence
over a five year period. Can Soc For Sci J., 28 and Toxicology, New York: W. Wood and
(4) (1995): 277–292. Company, 1915.
Bedford, P. J. and Tsokos, M. The occurrence of Gordon, I., Shapiro, H. A. and Berson, S. D. Forensic
cadaveric spasm is a myth, Forensic Sci Med Medicine: A Guide to Principles, Edinburgh:
Pathol., 9 (2013): 244–248. Churchill Livingstone, 1988.
Gray, M. L. Physiology of voiding, in Urinary and Payne-James, J., Jones, R., Karch, S. B. and Manlove,
Fecal Incontinence—Current Management J. Simpson’s Forensic Medicine, London:
Concepts, Doughty, D. B. (Ed.) St. Louis, Hodder Arnold, 2011.
Missouri: Mosby Elsevier, 2006, 21–54. Pirch, J., Schulz, Y. and Klintschar, M. A case of
Greenberg, B. and Kunich, J. Entomology and the instantaneous rigor? Int J Legal Med., 127
Law: Flies as Forensic Indicators, Cambridge: (2013): 971–974.
Cambridge University Press, 2002. Polson, C. J., Gee, D. J. and Knight, B. The Essentials
Gunn, A. Essential Forensic Biology, West Sussex: of Forensic Medicine, 4th ed., Oxford:
Wiley-Blackwell, 2009. Pergamon Press, 1985.
Haskell, N. H., Hall, R. D., Cervenka, V. J. and Rodriguez, W. C. Decomposition of buried and sub-
Clark, M. A. On the body: Insects’ life stage merged bodies, in Forensic Taphonomy—The
presence, their postmortem artifacts, in Postmortem Fate of Human Remains, Haglund,
Forensic Taphonomy—The Postmortem Fate W. D. and Sorg, M. H. (Eds.) Boca Raton, FL:
of Human Remains, Haglund, W. D. and Sorg, CRC Press, 1997, 459–468.
M. H. (Eds.) Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1997, Saferstein, R. Forensic Science: From the Crime
415–448. Scene to the Crime Lab, 4th ed., New York:
Jayaprakash, P. T. Postmortem skin erosions caused Pearson Education, 2019.
by ants and their significance in crime recon- Saukko, P. and Knight, B. Kinght’s Forensic
struction, J Forensic Identif., 56 (6) (2006): Pathology, London: Hodder Arnold, 2004a.
972–999. Saukko, P. and Knight, B. Suffocation and asphyxia,
Jayaprakash, P. T. Practical relevance of pattern
in Knight’s Forensic Pathology, 3rd ed., London:
uniqueness in forensic science, Forensic Sci Int.,
Arnold Publishers, 2004b, 352–367.
231 (1–3) (2013): 403.e1–403.e16.
Sauvageau, A., Godin, A., Desnoyers, S. and Kremer,
Knight, B. Simpson’s Forensic Medicine, 11th ed.,
C. Six year retrospective study of suicidal
London: Arnold, 1997.
hangings: Determination of the pattern of limb
Leadbetter, M. J. Fingerprint evidence in England
lesions induced by body responses to asphyxia
and Wales—The revised standard, Med Sci
by hanging, J Forensic Sci., 54 (5) (2009):
Law, 45 (1) (2005): 1–6.
1089–1092.
Lee, H. C. and Gaensslen, R. E. (Eds.). Advances in
Sauvageau, A., LaHarpe, R., King, D., Dowling, G.,
Fingerprint Technology, Boca Raton, FL: CRC
Andrews, S., Kelly, S., Ambrosi, C., Guay, J. P.
Press, 2001.
and Geberth, V. J. Working group on human
Mant, A. K. Taylor’s Principles and Practice of
Medical Jurisprudence, 13th ed., Edinburgh: asphyxia, agonal sequences in 14 filmed hang-
Livingstone, 1986. ings with comments on the role of the type
Mant, A. K. Postmortem injuries, in Forensic of suspension, ischemic habituation, and
Medicine: A Study in Trauma and Environmental ethanol intoxication on the timing of ago-
Hazards, Tedeschi, C. G., Eckert, W. G. and nal responses, Am J For Med Pathol., 32 (2)
Tedeschi, L. G. (Eds.) Philadelphia: W. B. (2011): 104–107.
Saunders, 1997, 1061–1071. Sauvageau, A. and Racette, S. Agonal sequences in
Mason, J. K. Forensic Medicine: An Illustrated a filmed suicidal hanging: Analysis of respira-
Reference, London: Chapman and Hall tory and movement responses to asphyxia by
Medical, 1993. hanging, J Forensic Sci., 52 (4) (2007). doi:
Maxeiner, H. and Bockholdt, B. Homicidal and sui- 10.1111/j.1556-4029.2007.00459.x
cidal ligature strangulation—a comparison of Shepherd, R. Simpson’s Forensic Medicine, 12th ed.,
the post-mortem findings, Forensic Sci Int., 137 London: Arnold, 2003.
(2003): 60–66. Shkrum, J. M. and Ramsay, D. A. Forensic Pathology
O’Hara, C. E. Fundamentals of Criminal of Trauma Common Problems for the
Investigation, Springfield, IL: Charles C. Pathologist, Totowa: Humana Press, 2007.
Thomas, 1956. Spitz, W. U. and Fisher, R. S. Medicolegal Investigation
Page, M., Taylor, J. and Blenkin, M. Uniqueness in of Death: Guidelines for the Application of
the forensic identification sciences—fact or fic- Pathology to Crime Investigation, Springfield:
tion? Forensic Sci Int., 206 (2011): 12–18. Charles C Thomas, 1980.
Spitz, W. V. Asphyxia, in Medicolegal Investigation Tsokos, M. Postmortem changes and artifacts occur-
of Death: Guidelines for the Application of ring during the early postmortem interval, in
Pathology to Crime Investigation, Spitz, W. V. (Ed.) Forensic Pathology Reviews, Vol. 3, Tsokos,
Springfield: Charles C. Thomas, 1993, 444–497. M. (Ed.) Totowa, NJ: Humana Press, 2005,
Taylor, A. S. The Principles and Practice of Medical 183–238.
Jurisprudence, 2nd ed., Philadelphia: Henry C
Lea, 1873.
Chapter 5
Scheme for Investigating Cases
of Death due to Traumatic Injuries
5.1 INTRODUCTION Considering the significance of bloodstain patterns,

the more common patterns expected in traumatic
In the cases of death due to traumatic injuries, injuries are included in the discussion.
the mode of death as homicide may not be in dis- In view of the importance of hair as evidence,
pute except when the possibility of self-infliction the variations in the hair shaft caused by different
predominates. In planned homicides by inflicting weapons are considered relevant for crime scene
traumatic wounds, the assailants may tend to cre- investigation. It is also seen that damages caused on
ate alibi (Case 5–1) or remove the dead body to clothes play an important role during crime scene
hole-up and decompose leading to the destruction reconstruction. These aspects that need to be popu-
of evidence (Case 5–2). In such instances, crime larized have also been duly included in the discus-
scene investigation focuses on reconstructing the sion following this chapter.
sequestered events that formed part of the overall An issue related to premeditated homicides is
crime. Here, crime scene observations may enable the way of disposal of the dead body to decompose
the reconstruction of some of the dynamic events so that the identity is marred and much of the valu-
such as movements of the assailant (Case 5–1), able evidence get disappeared (Cases 5–2 and 5–3).
while physical clues from crime scenes may connect In this regard, the possible use of entomological
the suspect with the crime (Case 5–1) or connect the evidence that may enable estimating the time since
place of occurrence with the place of disposal of the death as well as the facilities available for suggesting
dead body (Case 5–2), etc. class-level identification using bones and individual
Obviously, it is impossible to group all cases of identification using the skull are also included in the
homicides due to trauma in one section. As a class, discussion.
traumatic injuries are caused predominantly by cut- The methodology prescribed in the flowchart
ting, stabbing, and bludgeoning, the former two (5.2 Flowchart) and the case illustrations (Cases 5–1
mostly characterized by profuse effusion of blood to 5–7) would provide examples for the scientific
leading to the formation of various types of blood- study of the injuries caused by the common types
stain patterns (Cases 5–1 and 5–2), evidence that of weapons and damages caused on clothes as well
may aid the crime scene investigator in reconstruct- as the patterns generated by the bloodstains in the
ing some of the dynamic events relating to the crime. crime scene.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003267096-5 81
82
5.2 FLOWCHART FOR

FOR TRAUMATIC
INVESTIGATING TRAUMATIC HOMICIDES
HOMICIDES
CRIME SCENE
OBSERVATIONS EXHUMATION SKETCH PHOTOGRAPHY

SOC SUSPECT - Ground plan
- Elevation view DEAD BODY SOC
POSTURE INJURIES
EVIDENCE OF TRACES IN - Isometric view
STRUGGLE/MOVEMENT FINGERNAILS OVERALL OVERALL
OVERALL - Struggle related drag - Deposits in nails - Include cardinal -Prone/supine/
- Incised/Cut
Prone/supine/others marks directions sideward/others - Dead body-Location
- Lacerated
Posture of head and limbs - Transport related -Bloodstain patterns & posture
- Abrasion BLOODSTAINS
- Contusion - Altered location? - On the exposed
EVIDENCE OF HIGHLIGHTS - Disturbances
- Defense Injuries skin EVIDENCE OF
- Cadaveric spasm BLOODSTAIN PATTERNS - On the clothing
- Rigor mortis - Blood spatter - Cadaveric spasm - Bloodstain
- Size, number & - Type and relation to - On footwear etc.
- Lividity activities patterns patterns–scaled
direction
- Cleansed? photos
INJURIES - Distribution of foot INJURIES
HANDS /FINGERS; - Accidental cuts & other imprint - Incised
IMPRINT EVIDENCE - Foot / fingerprints/
LEGS/TOES BITE/NAIL MARKS - Abrasions-linear evidence - lacerated
- Fingerprints/foot prints other imprint
Posture/Flexed/ others - Size & shape - Bite marks etc. – - Abraded
- Others evidence –scaled
- Foreign bodies-hairs Self-infliction? - Evidence of - Contused photos
- Deposits in nail disturbances - Bite/nail marks
BLOODSTAIN TRACE EVIDENCE - Ant erosion etc. - Defense cuts
BLOODSTAIN PATTERNS PATTERNS SOIL/HAIR/FIBERS FIBER/OTHER
- Foreign objects
- Location and type - Directionality - In the scene TRANFERRED
- Bite marks – scaled
- Conformity to posture - Relationship to - On other objects TRACES HANDS /FINGERS
- Others photo
injuries HAIR: Types and damages - As revealed - Defense injuries
Include - Hairs & foreign - Damages on clothes
DAMAGES IN CLOTHES WEAPONS bodies
ENTOMOLOGICAL CONTROL SAMPLES measurements – scaled photo
- Type - Bloodstains
EVIDENCE - Fingerprint wherever possible
- Size - Hairs, fibers etc.
MAGGOTS - Foot print - Weapon, if any
- Correspondence to - Damages indicating
injuries - Growth stage

physical match etc. - Control samples - Entry/exit damages
ANT EROSIONS
- With bleeding - for DNA analysis
BROKEN PIECES OF INDOORS using FTA card – to - Trace evidence
directionality
WEAPON - Entry – evidence be collected by
- Without bleeding
- To be looked for - Exit – evidence Medical Doctor - Imprint evidence –
during autopsy by X-ray scaled photos
etc.
CUES FOR RECONSTRUCTION
- Others
DECOMPOSITION AND
• Consider injury types, damages on clothes, bloodstain
IDENTIFICATION ISSUES
pattern for hypothesizing on victim’s posture.
- Anthropological
- Others • Consider bloodstain patterns and other imprint and
trace evidence when hypothesizing on movement.
Cases of Death due to Traumatic Injuries 83
CASE 5–1: DEATH DUE TO STAB WOUNDS
THE CASE (Figure 5.1). The victim was lying on the floor in
A married male, living alone in his house, was the supine posture in a pool of blood (Figures 5.2
found dead with stab wounds. There were multiple and 5.3), and multiple stab wounds were found on
bloodstained footprints in the scene with a trail of both the front and back sides of the body.
blood drops leading from the dead body through The observations in the crime scene were
the rear door toward the backyard of the house recorded, and the relevant clues were collected.
FIGURE 5.1 Aerial view sketch of the crime scene, highlighting the track of blood drops at the
backyard.
FIGURE 5.2 The victim lying on the floor in a pool of blood. A bloodstained footprint revealing iden-
tifiable characteristics is shown with a ruler alongside.
FIGURE 5.3 A diagrammatic aerial view sketch of the crime scene with the dead body and the varied
articles therein.
SEQUENTIAL HYPOTHESIS 1 Observed premises

The sequence of stabbing had progressed on the a) There was a pool of blood between the
floor, and there had been struggle resulting in dead body and iron cot with several
the transfer of traces from the assailant to the bloodstained footprints (Figure 5.2).
victim. Cast-off bloodstain patterns were found
on the floor on the eastern side of the and Gardner, 2002). The differences in
pool of blood indicating the movement the directions of cast-off bloodstain pat-
of blood in varying directions (arrows in terns indicate variations in the swinging
the enlarged Figure 5.4). of blood-laden weapon. The defense cuts
b) Cut injuries were found in the fingers of in fingers are indicative of struggle.
the victim with two hairs sticking to the b) The presence of hairs in hands point to
fingers. transfer during struggle.

a) Cast-off stain is the result of blood being Multiple cast-off bloodstain patterns in varying
flung from some secondary object (Bevel directions on the floor indicate swinging of the
blood-laden weapon in different directions when
inflicting the stab wounds when the victim was
on the floor. The hairs in the fingers are trans-
ferred evidence from the assailant.
The assailant had stepped out on the blood that
had collected in the form of a pool in between the
dead body and the cot and then had moved about
in that area.
Observed premises
a) Nine surface- type bloodstained foot-
prints (large font numerals in Figure 5.5)
of a right foot were found in the eastern
and northern vicinity of the blood pool,
FIGURE 5.4 Cast-off bloodstain patterns the trail on the west leading toward the
(arrows) found on the floor. northern door of the hall (Figures 5.5 and
5.6). Between the blood pool and the cot,
FIGURE 5.5 A diagrammatic sketch of the crime scene highlighting the serial nature of the blood-
stained footprints indicating that they all form a single trail.
FIGURE 5.6 The zigzag nature of the bloodstained footprints.
the footprints were of a zigzag shape with

inter-distances varying from 3” to 1’6”
(small font numerals in Figure 5.5). The
victim’s sole did not reveal bloodstains.
b) The sequence of the bloodstained foot
prints was serialized (1 to 9) on the basis
of the relative amount of blood residue
in each print. The initial footprint was
found smudged with too much blood.
The next bloodstained footprint that
revealed sufficient characteristics for
comparison was photographed with a
scale (Figure 5.7), and its outline was also
traced on a sheet of glass (Figure 5.8).

a) Collection of blood to form a pool takes
time after sustaining stab wounds and the
series of footprints with blood residue indi-
cate contact of the suspect’s foot with liq-
uid blood. Bloodstained zigzag footprints
indicate localized movement of the suspect
after contacting the blood on the foot.
b) The bloodstained foot print can be com-
pared with the specimen footprint of the
suspect.
Reconstruction FIGURE 5.7 The bloodstained footprint that

After the blood pool had collected on the floor, revealed sufficient characteristics for compari-
the assailant had stepped on the blood that was son, photographed with a scale.
still liquid and had moved about in a zigzag man- c) The shirt on the back revealed damages
ner on the eastern side of the dead body, leaving in the form of stab-cuts of about 1 inch
the series of blood residue footprints that finally in length (Figure 5.10).
were directed toward the doorway. d) The stab-cuts in the shirt revealed one
The aforementioned reconstruction proved narrower edge (arrows in Figure 5.10)
useful when verifying the confession statement indicating the possibility that the weapon
of the suspect. was a single-edged knife.
The type of injuries on the body of the victim
and the damages in the shirt support the use of a
penetrating-t ype weapon such as a knife.
Observed premises
a) There were eight penetrating-type inju-
ries and two lacerated injuries in the
front and nine penetrating- t ype inju-
ries on the back of the victim. The
stab wounds on the body were gapping
(arrows in Figure 5.9) with one end nar-
rower than the other.
FIGURE 5.9 Stab wounds on the back of the

deceased.
FIGURE 5.8 Tracing of the bloodstained foot- FIGURE 5.10 Stab-cuts on the back of the shirt.
print as shown in Figure 5.7 on a sheet of glass. Note one narrower edge (arrows) indicating the
Such traced prints enable ready superimposition possibility that the weapon was a single-edged
with the inked plantar footprints of suspects. knife.
Accepted (major) premises bloodstains in the form of smudges

a) A stab wound gapes across its width and similar to those produced when wiping
shortens in length due to skin elastic- bloodstains (Figure 5.11).
ity (Vanezis, 2003; Saukko and Knight, c) Drops of bloodstains leading into a trail
2004). were found starting from the threshold
b) The damages caused due to penetrating of the rear door step of the front hall
injuries on clothing are more realistic in toward the backyard (Figure 5.1).
indicating the width of the weapon.
c) Stab-cuts caused by single-edged knife Accepted (major) premises
reveal one narrower end (Vanezis, 2003). a) The bloodstain patterns due to soaking
and due to wiping are distinguishable
Reconstruction (Bevel and Gardner, 2002).
The weapon used could be a single-edged pen- b) Consistent dripping of blood in the pathway
etrating type such as a knife with a blade width indicates oozing of blood from an injury.
of about 1 inch.
Reconstruction
The dhoti improvised into an apron could have
been used to shield bloodstains from splash-
The victim could have sustained bleeding injuries. ing onto the clothes of the assailant. The pro-
fuse bloodstains soaked on one side could have
Observed premises been transferred directly from the injuries on the
a) There was an 8 cubit dhoti folded into 4 victim. The wipe patterns on the other side are
cubit size, forming a two-layered assem- likely to contain both the blood of the victim
bly, with the two folded ends knotted transferred to the hands of the suspect and blood
to form an apron- like structure. One from the assailant in case the assailant had sus-
side of this dhoti showed profuse blood- tained injuries. Dripping of blood to a distance
stains soaking from the outer layer to the of nearly 135 ft. along the pathway at the back-
inner layer, and the inner layer, in addi- yard of the scene house suggested that the assail-
tion to the limited soaked stain, revealed ant could have sustained bleeding injuries.
FIGURE 5.11 Sketches of the outer and inner views of the dhoti knotted to form an apron-like struc-
ture showing the types of bloodstains on it.
Conjoined reconstruction two crescent-shaped dried injuries, one each at

Multiple stab wounds have been inflicted after the base of left index and left middle fingers on
the victim had fallen on the floor as indicated by the dorsal aspect, both revealing characteris-
the cast-off bloodstain patterns in varying direc- tics of bite marks (close-up view in Figure 5.13).
tions on the floor, and the hairs on the fingers There were no corresponding injuries on the
of the victim indicate struggle. The assailant had palm region.
moved about in the vicinity of the cot after the
occurrence and had left his footprints in blood Reconstruction
residue. The weapon of assault could be a single- The injuries, especially the bite marks, supported
edged knife. The assailant could have sustained the confession of the suspect that there was a
bleeding injuries. struggle and that he was bitten by the victim.
In addition, oozing of blood from such injuries
Gist of the confession by the suspect accounted for the consistent bleeding and the
Investigation focused suspicion on the son of the series of blood drops on the backyard.
deceased who was secured after 5 days. The suspect
confessed to have admitted himself as in-patient in Reconstruction that was sustained
a hospital and, under that alibi, slipped out of the after securing the suspect—II
ward, entered the house at about mid-night, worn a Inked specimen surface type footprints of the right
dhoti as an apron, and stabbed his father to death. foot of the suspect were collected (Figure 5.14).
During the course of the struggle, the victim report-
edly bit the fingers of the suspect causing bleeding Reconstruction
injuries. After the occurrence, the suspect wiped off The specimen footprint of the suspect
the surface of the iron cot to clear the possible latent (Figure 5.14) indicated morphological match
fingerprints accidentally left by him on the cot (dur- with the bloodstained footprint photographed at
ing which course he had unwittingly stepped on the the crime scene (Figure 5.7).
pool of blood leaving the zigzag series of blood-
stained foot prints), discarded the apron, left the Reconstruction that sustained after
scene through the back door, threw the knife into a the arrest of the suspect—III
canal, and returned to the hospital.
The weapon reportedly used by the assailant,
a foldable knife, was recovered from a canal
Reconstruction that was sustained
(Figure 5.15). It was a single-edged knife with
after securing the suspect—I
a blade length of about 4 inches and a width of
There were dried injuries on the knees and hands about 1 inch. A hair was found sticking to the
of the suspect, some linear and some irregular blade near the handle (arrow in Figure 5.16).
(arrows in Figure 5.12). In addition, there were
FIGURE 5.13 Close-up view of the injuries on

FIGURE 5.12 The injuries on the knees and the fingers of the suspect revealing characteristics
hands of the suspect (arrows). of bite marks.
FIGURE 5.14 Inked specimen surface type foot- FIGURE 5.7 The bloodstained footprint that
print of the right foot of the suspect. revealed sufficient characteristics for compari-
son, photographed with a scale.
FIGURE 5.15 A sketch of the foldable knife, the FIGURE 5.16 A hair (arrow) that was found
weapon reportedly used by the assailant. sticking to the blade of the foldable knife.
Reconstruction enough, the piece of cloth that he had used to

The injuries on the body of the victim and the cover the foot had fallen in the entry point of the
damages on the clothes were consistent with scene house and was subsequently identified.
the type of the weapon reportedly used for the During the further course of enquiring the
assault. The hair sticking to the weapon formed suspect, the zigzag nature of the bloodstained
transferred trace evidence. footprints observed in the scene of crime turned
out to be the basis for questioning him what act
Postscript he was involved in near the cot after the murder.
The son of the deceased, the suspect, initially Reflecting for a while, he stated that he was wip-
denied involvement in the murder stating that ing the iron cot as he thought that he might have
he was in the hospital admitted as an in-patient. left his fingerprints during the struggle. Visibly
When examining him, his inked footprint was surprised that the fact only known to him, that
collected, and preliminary comparison of that he was near the cot after the murder, had been
print with the copy of the footprint traced in rightly inferred by the scene investigators, the
the scene of crime indicated similarity, a demon- suspect, then onwards, narrated the entire con-
strable evidence pointing to the presence of the fession without holding back any detail. This
suspect in the scene of crime. The foremost of case exemplifies the advantages in reconstruct-
his ‘confession’ was an impulsive blurting out ing the scene and then questioning suspects
that his footprint could not be in the scene as he using the findings of the reconstruction as strong
had wrapped his foot with a piece of cloth. True inferences.
CASE 5–2: DEATH DUE TO CUT WOUNDS
THE CASE
Decomposed remains of an unidentified male
individual were found in a sugarcane field. About
3 furlongs north of the dead body, a bridge across
a canal and the canal bund revealed bloodstains.
Subsequent confession by the suspects led to the
recovery of the murder weapon and a portion of
the gunny used for transporting the dead body
from among the shrubs along the bank of a river
about 3 furlongs east of the remains.
The place of occurrence, the canal bund near the
bridge, can be connected to the dead body and FIGURE 5.17 Area of darkly stained soil in the
the weapon using physical evidence. canal bund revealing broken human teeth.
Observed premises Accepted (major) premises

a) An area of darkly stained soil in the canal a) Broken and loose teeth can be matched
bund near the bridge revealed eight broken with their counterparts and the sockets
human teeth (two with roots) (Figure 5.17). in the jaw for establishing origin.
a) The soil in the canal bund as well as the b) The directionality in the bloodstains
dark downward stains with tails (black as evidenced by the tail indicates drip-
arrows in Figure 5.18) and horizontal ping of blood while the swipe-type pat-
swipe marks (white arrow in Figure 5.18) terns indicate transfer of blood onto
on the parapet wall of the bridge tested the target, the parapet wall, by moving
positively for preliminary test for blood. objects that are bloodstained (Bevel and
collected from the decomposed dead body can

establish common origin.
Multiple bloodstains with downward tails
on the parapet wall indicated emplacement of
objects effusing blood in that location while the
horizontal swipe marks suggested swiping of
blood-laden objects such as fingers on the para-
pet wall. Blood group analysis of the bloodstains
in the soil, bloodstains on the parapet wall, and
the bloodstains on the suspected weapon etc.,
can establish common origin.
Based on physical evidence, the decomposed
dead body found in the sugarcane field can be
connected with the place of occurrence, the canal
FIGURE 5.18 Dark downward stains with tails bund and the gunny reportedly used for the
(black arrows) and horizontal swipe marks transport and disposal of the body.
(white arrow) on the parapet wall of the bridge.
Observed premises
Gardner, 2002), possibly fingers. Blood a) In the decomposed dead body
group analysis establishes common ori- (Figure 5.19), the bones of the facial
gin between bloodstains from different region were found cut and disfigured
locations. with many of the soft parts missing
(Figure 5.20). Two pieces of facial bones
Reconstruction with teeth and a few loose teeth were
The presence of broken teeth and bloodstains found near the body. Soft parts in the
in the soil suggest the place of occurrence where abdomen and thighs were missing.
the victim sustained bleeding injuries. Physical b) Dark loose hairs about 2½ inches in
match between the broken teeth and those with length were seen on the right side of
the roots recovered from the canal bund with scalp, and the hairs were missing in the
the corresponding counterparts and the jaws left side of the scalp.
FIGURE 5.19 The decomposed dead body lying in the sugarcane field.
Reconstruction
The match between the broken teeth recovered
from the canal bund and those from the dead
body can establish common origin.
Comparison of hairs from near the dead
body and those from the gunny can establish
common origin.
The putative victim’s photograph and its
negative were secured and were sent along with
the recovered skull for skull-photo superimposi-
tion to suggest individual identity.
FIGURE 5.20 The mutilated and disfigured The weapon and the portion of gunny recovered
facial region in the dead body. along with the hairs and bloodstains can be con-
nected with the occurrence place and the decom-
Accepted (major) premises posed dead body using physical clues.
a) The broken jaws and portions of the
teeth available near the dead body can Observed premises
be matched with the root and portions a) The chopping-type weapon, a billhook
of teeth recovered from the canal bund. machete (Figure 5.21), revealed blood-
b) Comparison of hairs recovered from differ- stains on the blade. The sharp edge of the
ent locations can establish common origin. weapon revealed a series of indentations
FIGURE 5.21 A sketch of the suspected weapon, a chopping type billhook machete.
that could possibly have been caused due Comparison of the hairs from and near the
to contact with the rows of teeth. dead body and those from the portions of gunny
b) The partly burnt portions of a gunny can establish common origin.
recovered from the river bank revealed
dried bloodstains and a bunch of cut hairs. Conjoined reconstruction that
sustained after laboratory analyses
Accepted (major) premises The bloodstains on the soil in the canal bund,
a) Blood group analysis establishes com- the bridge wall, the weapon, and the gunny
mon origin between bloodstains from piece were of the same group. The fractured
and loose teeth recovered from the canal bund
different objects.
matched with the broken edges of the teeth,
b) Hair comparison establishes common origin.
and the sockets in the jaw bones recovered from
near the dead body indicated common origin.
Reconstruction
The hairs recovered from the dead body and
The blood group analysis of the bloodstain in the soil, the hairs recovered from the gunny were mor-
parapet wall of the bridge, on the weapon, and in the phologically similar indicating common origin
portions of gunny can indicate common origin. (Figure 5.22).
FIGURE 5.22 Diagrammatic representation of the evidence connecting the place of occurrence, the
dead body, the suspected weapon, and the gunny.
CASE 5–3: DEATH DUE TO BLUDGEONING: HAIR AND SOIL AS EVIDENCE
THE CASE was laid across two Casuarina posts, and, with
A married woman was reported missing, and help of an assistant, it was carried in a stretcher
her husband confessed to have murdered her by through the adjacent Casuarina grove to the sea
bludgeoning her head with a Casuarina pole and where it was drifted into the waters. The body
buried the body. On the fifth day, he reportedly could not be recovered.
disinterred the grave and removed the decom-
posed remains for further disposal. The place of SEQUENTIAL HYPOTHESIS 1
disinterment showed surface soil characteristics For establishing the identity of the victim, the
that were different from the surrounding area hairdo from the grave can be related with the
(arrow in Figure 5.23). The suspect confessed hairs of the victim as well as the hair oil that are
that the plaited hairdo of the deceased came off recoverable from her residence. Hair shaft anal-
when lifting the remains and that it was left in ysis can suggest blunt force damages, and the
the grave itself. Consequently, the hairdo was presence of roots in the scalp hair would indicate
exhumed and recovered (arrow in Figure 5.24). removal after decomposition.
According to the suspect, the decomposed body
Observed premises
a) Hairs of the victim that had naturally
fallen and preserved by her earlier for
making wiggery were recovered from
the victim’s parents’ house where she
was living prior to her marriage. Hair
oil used by the victim was also recovered
from her house.
b) An analysis of the plaited hairdo in the
laboratory indicated damages in the hair
shaft supporting damage due to blud-
geoning using a blunt weapon, and the
presence of roots in the distal ends of the
hairs in the hairdo supported removal
FIGURE 5.23 The place of disinterment show- after decomposition.
ing the difference in the shade of the soil (arrow).
a) Morphological comparison of hairs can
indicate similarity in origin. Similarity
in the composition of the oil traces in
the hair and in the oil from the victim’s
house can indicate origin from common
source.
b) The damages to hair shaft vary accord-
ing to the type of the weapon used. Hairs
that are pulled out of the scalp after
decomposition would reveal the roots in
the distal ends.
Reconstruction
Analysis of hair in the laboratory offered sci-
entific evidence corroborating victim’s iden-
FIGURE 5.24 The plaited hairdo (arrow) inside tity, blunt force damage on the hair shaft, and
the grave. removal of the hairdo after decomposition.
SEQUENTIAL HYPOTHESIS 2 Reconstruction

According to the confession by the suspect, the Establishing the presence of soil and tissue
decomposed dead body had been transported traces on the Casuarina plants at a height of
through the Casuarina grove toward the sea. about 25–32 inches during laboratory analy-
sis supported the transport of the sand-laden
Observed premises putrid body through the rows of Casuarina
The Casuarina plantation was examined, and, plants.
based on the soil stains on the stems of plants, the A discussion on the relevance of hair and
route of transport of the decomposed body was hair damages is included.
identified (dashed line in Figure 5.25). The stems
of the plants along this route indicated sand par- Conjoined reconstruction
ticles with black greasy deposits sticking to them Morphological similarity between the hairs in
at a height of about 25–32” from ground level the plaited hairdo and the sample hairs recovered
(arrow in Figure 5.26, diagrammatically shown from the house of the victim’s parents offered
in Figure 5.27). Samples of the plants with such scientific evidence corroborating victim’s iden-
stains were uprooted and collected. tity. Similarity in the oil traces in the hair and
the oil in the bottle supported the use of that oil
Accepted (major) premises for oiling the hair recovered from the grave. The
Transporting a decomposed dead body disin- evidence of blunt force damage on the hair shaft
terred from the grave through a Casuarina grove in the plaited hairdo supported the impact by a
with plants growing about 3ft. apart would lead blunt object on the scalp region. The presence
to contact of the body with the plants and to of roots in the plaited hairdo offered evidence
transfer of traces of soil and tissue matter from that the hairs had come off after decomposi-
the decomposed body on to the contacting sur- tion. The similarity between the soil traces on
faces of the plants such as the bark. the Casuarina plants and the soil from the grave
FIGURE 5.25 Aerial view sketch of the scene showing the nearby sea where the decomposed body was
disposed of. The direction of transport of the decomposed body that was deduced on the basis of the
soil stains on the Casuarina plants is shown in dashed lines.
TABLE 5.1 The Description of Physical Evidence Collected and the Relevant Analyses Suggested to the
Investigation Officer to be Required from the Forensic Science Laboratory.
Sl. No. Item Analysis Required
1. Plaited hairdo with a red ribbon (i) The unplaited part of the hairs and their roots are to be ex-
and an unplaited portion all amined for the presence of portions of hair damages flattened
measuring about 33”. due to bludgeoning with a blunt object with a rough surface
like a Casuarina pole.
(ii) The ends of the unplaited hairs are to be analyzed for the
presence of hair roots and decomposed tissue matter.
(iii) The nature of the oil traces in the hair is to be analyzed.
(iv) The red-colored nylon ribbon is to be analyzed for the pres-
ence of oil traces and the nature of it reported.
(v) The soil particles sticking to the hair are to be compared with
the soil in item 2 and the soil particles sticking to the item 4.
2. Sample of earth collected from (i) The soil particles of this earth are to be compared with the
the region beneath the hair in soil particles sticking to the item 1 and the similarity reported.
the grave. (ii) The soil particles of this earth are to be compared with the
soil particles sticking to the item 4 and the similarity reported.
(iii) The earth is to be analyzed for the presence of decomposed
human body tissues/fluids and fat.
3. Control earth. To serve as control for item 2.
4. 5 Casuarina plants with dark- (i) The soil particles are to be compared with the soil particles
stained portions to which soil sticking to the item 1 and their similarity reported.
particles are adhering. (ii) The soil particles are to be compared with the soil particles of
the earth in item 2 and their similarity reported.
(iii) The dark-stained portions of the Casuarina bark to be ana-
lyzed for the presence of decomposed body tissues/fluids of
human origin.
5. 2 Casuarina poles of about 10 (i) The bark of the poles is to be analyzed for the presence of
ft. in length. traces of fat or decomposed tissue matter.
6. Bunches of hair along with (i) The hairs in this bunch are to be compared with the hairs of
neatly coiled strands of hair the plaited hairdo in item 1 and their similarity reported.
around a wooden piece all in
a torn, polythene bag that was
recovered from the victim’s
parents’ house.
7. A brown bottle containing hair (i) The nature of the oil traces in item 1 is to be compared with
oil recovered from the victim’s the oil in the bottle and the similarity reported.
house.
supported the transport of the body through the situation in the current period would have enabled
Casuarina plantation. establishing the identity using DNA profiles
obtained from the same set of hairs. Additional
Postscript evidence that could be used in this case was the soil
This case exemplifies a situation where morpho- traces on the bark of the Casuarina saplings for
logical comparison of hair provided the basis for supporting the transport of the dead body. SOCOs
establishing the identity of the deceased when may explore situations for using soil as evidence as
the remains that were reportedly drifted into the the utility of soil as a potential clue during scene
sea were not recovered. Evidently, a similar case investigations continues to be infrequent.
FIGURE 5.26 The stem of a Casuarina plant FIGURE 5.27 Diagrammatic representation of
revealing sand particles with black greasy depos- the soil-stained areas in the Casuarina plants.
its sticking to it (arrow).
CASE 5–4: BLOODSTAIN PATTERN SUPPORTING SELF-I NFLICTED INJURY
THE CASE the stab wound in the interior corner of the shop
A shop owner was found dead with stab wounds near the stairs and then had moved toward the
near the cash counter in the front part of the front part of the shop.
shop, and a lone employee working at that time
claimed that he too was stabbed by the ‘unknown
Observed premises
assailant’. The employee had sustained a single
stab wound on his left cheek. A blood pool was a) A pool of clotted blood was found near
found near the cash counter where the deceased the cash counter in the front part of the
was lying. There were additional bloodstain pat- shop (Figure 5.28).
terns indicating dripping of blood near the stairs b) In another interior corner of the shop
in an interior corner of the shop. near the steps, there were bloodstains
characteristic of recurring drops of
HYPOTHESIS blood dripping in that location (arrow
While the shop owner had been stabbed in the in Figure 5.29) along with a trail of
front part of the shop, the employee had suffered blood drops (arrows in Figure 5.30).
FIGURE 5.28 The pool of clotted blood near the FIGURE 5.30 Trail of blood drops (arrows)
cash counter in the front part of the shop. leading from the recurring drops of bloodstains.
Evidence of drip-type pattern in an interior corner
of the shop suggested that the injured employee
sustained the injury in that location, remained
there letting the blood to form the drip pattern,
and then, as indicated by the trail of blood drops,
moved toward the front part of the shop.
Postscript
The injured employee being the only person in the
shop premises other than the owner of the shop,
the deceased individual, the employee’s claim that
he was also stabbed by the ‘unknown assailant’
could not be immediately verified. The drip-type
FIGURE 5.29 Bloodstains characteristic of bloodstain pattern in an interior location of the
recurring drops of blood (arrow) in a different same shop was the prime observable evidence
and interior corner of the shop. supporting that the injury on the employee had
occurred in another location in that shop and that,
after sustaining that injury, he had remained in that
Accepted (major) premises location for a while sufficient for the drip pattern
a) The pool of clotted blood indicates the to form there. When confronted with this recon-
location of bounteous bleeding from the struction, the injured employee confessed that the
deceased. injury on him was self-inflicted to stage the murder
b) Drip pattern indicates multiple drops as committed by someone other than himself.
falling on the same location (Bevel and
Gardner, 2002). The drip pattern and Note
trail of blood drops indicate the other A description of different types of bloodstain pat-
location where the employee sustained terns and their importance during crime recon-
the injury. struction is included in the Discussion section.
CASE 5–5: DEATH DUE TO PIERCING-T YPE WOUND
THE CASE b) The fibers sticking on to the spearhead

The victim was reportedly assaulted using a form transferred trace evidence and can
spearhead-type weapon which was also used to be connected with the fibers in the dam-
injure another individual during the same inci- ages on the clothes worn by the deceased
dent. Subsequently, the suspects were secured, and or the injured individuals.
the weapon of assault, a spearhead, was recovered.
HYPOTHESIS The injury in the chest region could have been
inflicted by the spearhead-t ype weapon that was
The injury on the victim in the superior region of
recovered and the fibers on the weapon form
the abdomen has been caused by a piercing-t ype
trace evidence connecting the damages on the
weapon such as a spearhead.
clothes worn by the injured persons.
Observed premises
a) The pierced injury in the superior region
of the abdomen was ovoid in shape
(Figure 5.31).
b) In addition to bloodstains, fibers were
found sticking to the spearhead (arrow
in Figure 5.32).

a) Piercing-
t ype injuries are caused by
weapons that are pointed such as a
spearhead.
FIGURE 5.31 Pierced injury in the abdomen of FIGURE 5.32 Spearhead revealing bloodstains
the deceased. and fibers (arrow).
CASE 5–6: DIRECTIONALITY IN SLASH WOUNDS
THE CASE
The victim sustained slash wounds during an
assault and was brought to the hospital where he
was declared dead.
HYPOTHESIS
The injuries on the back of the deceased had been
caused by a sharp-edged weapon with a hooked
end such as an aruval (machete with a billhook
end) and can suggest the direction of attack.
Observed premises
Multiple spindle-shaped slash-type wounds were FIGURE 5.34 Enlarged view of the spindle-
found on the back of the deceased predominantly shaped slash wound (white arrow) and the super-
on the right side (Figures 5.33–5.35). Some ficial ‘tail’ (black arrow).
of the spindle- shaped slashes (white arrow in
Figures 5.33 and 5.34) revealed superficial ‘tail’, a
shallow scratch running out of the termination of
the slash (black arrow in Figures 5.33 and 5.34).

Slashes terminating with ‘tails’ indicate the rising
and drawing out of the weapon across the skin
and are characteristic of the use of weapons like
machete (Saukko and Knight, 2004). The tails
FIGURE 5.35 Diagrammatic representation

of the consistency in the directionality of the
wounds on the back of the deceased.
in such injuries point toward the direction of the

assailant.
The spindle-shaped injuries on the back of the
deceased could have been caused by the hooked
end of a sharp-edged weapon such as an aruval
(machete with a billhook end). The tails follow-
ing the spindle-shaped injuries indicate superfi-
cial contact of the sharp edge of the weapon with
the skin when inflicting the injuries. The consis-
tency in the directionality of the tailing in mul-
tiple injuries on the back of the victim suggests
FIGURE 5.33 Spindle-shaped slash-t ype wounds that the assailant could have been on the right
on the back of the deceased (white arrow) along side when inflicting the injuries on the victim
with tailing (black arrow). who possibly was in the supine posture.
CASE 5–7: DECOMPOSITION EFFECTS: MAGGOT INFESTATION
THE CASE
A decomposed dead body of a female individual
was found inside her house that remained locked.
The maggots present in the dead body indicated
the possible time since death to be more than 4
days. The migrating maggots were seen obliterat-
ing many of the bloodstain patterns in the vicin-
ity. Death was due to homicidal cut-throat injury.
HYPOTHESIS
Necrophagous insects lay eggs on dead bodies imme-
diately following death especially when open inju-
ries are present. The developmental stages of these
insects provide scientific clue on time since death.
Observed premises FIGURE 5.37 Maggots on the lower part of the

Masses of maggots were seen moving away from decomposed dead body with a migrating mass
the decomposed body (arrows in Figures 5.36 (arrow).
and 5.37). These maggots were having body seg-
ments devoid of hairy structures. reach the migrating or prepupal stage in about 4
to 5 days during their development.
Maggots belonging to C. megacephala (F.)
(Diptera: Calliphoridae) do not have hairy struc- Based on the presence of masses of migrating-
tures on their body segments. These maggots type larvae, a behavior attributable to prepu-
pal stage in the maggot development, the time
since death can be estimated to be about 4 to 5
days prior to the examination of the dead body.
Pupae were absent. The fluid exudation from the
migrating maggots had obliterated other blood-
stain patterns in the vicinity near the dead body.
Postscript
An interesting anecdote in this crime scene was
the role of a juvenile who was volunteering mun-
dane errands during the crime scene examina-
tion by this author. Later, that juvenile turned
to be one of the suspects. When enquired what
prompted that juvenile to visit the crime scene
during the investigation, he answered that, by
mingling among the onlookers, he wanted to
know how the clues are gathered in the scene.
The SOCOs need to be conscious that the sus-
pects may be among the bystanders watching the
clues observed and recorded by them.
A brief description of the developmental
FIGURE 5.36 Maggots on the decomposed dead stages of necrophagous insects and their use
body. Arrow indicates the migrating mass of during death investigation is included in the
maggots. Discussion section.
5.4 DISCUSSION in medicolegal context (Simpson and Knight, 1985;

Polson et al., 1985; Gordon et al., 1988; Mason,
5.4.1 Myths and Facts Relating to Observations in 1993; Knight, 1997; Hanzlick and Graham, 2000;
Traumatic Homicides Busuttil, 2003) and in forensic science (De Forest
et al., 1983; Gilbert, 1993; O’Hara and O’Hara,
i. Myth: Cutting and stabbing deaths indicate 1994; Nickell and Fischer, 1999; Brun-Conti,
homicides. 2001; Inman and Rudin, 2001; Saferstein, 2014;
Fact: All manners of death are possible Nehse, 2004). Many authors have particularly dis-
when cutting and stabbing-t ype injuries are cussed bloodstain pattern analysis (James, 1999;
present (Shkrum and Ramsay, 2007). James and Eckert, 1999; Wonder, 2001; Bevel and
ii. Myth: Damages to clothing are common- Gardner, 2002). Nickell and Fischer (1999) caution
place when handling the dead bodies and that an unaccounted bloodstain pattern in a crime
are thus not forensically important. scene may render the crime reconstruction incom-
Fact: Damages to clothing may provide patible. Pertinently, the SOCOs have to remember
the only clue of tentative attempts at self- the observation by De Forest et al. (1983) that “in
infliction, particularly when there are few many cases, the blood pattern characteristics can be
skin injuries (Shkrum and Ramsay, 2007). more important in reconstructing the events and in
iii. Myth: When a dead body with traumatic solving the case than the use of blood grouping”.
injuries is lying in the scene, absence of The discussion that follows focuses on the funda-
bloodstains in the surrounding areas offers mental patterns in bloodstains following the vocab-
evidence indicating cleansing activities. ulary recommended by Bevel and Gardner (2002).
Fact: Inferring cleaning activities must be
based on such evidence as the presence of
skeletonized bloodstain patterns which indi- 5.4.2.1 Blood Drops
cate rubbing activities or presence of blood-
stains in crevices between tiles when the tile When a blood drop falls on a surface, it breaks into
surfaces appear devoid of bloodstains; infer- satellite droplets depending on the height of the fall.
ence relating to cleansing cannot be based Blood drops may fall passively in cases such as from
on a mere absence of bloodstains. a skin erosion caused by ants in a hanging dead body
iv. Myth: When a bloodstain pattern is seen or may be shed with a projected force as it happens
on a far-off location from a dead body in when blood drops from bleeding fingers are thrown
a crime scene but not recorded in the inter- out when shaking the hand. The extent to which
mediary objects, it indicates evidence of the astral rays form (arrows in Figure 7.14) depends
staging or dressing the scene. both on the height of fall and the force of impact of
Fact: Cast-off bloodstain patterns can reach the drop on the falling surface. Blood drops falling
far-off objects without contacting interme- on inclined planes such as a vertical parapet wall of
diary objects. bridge acquire elliptical appearance (black arrows
v. Myth: Bloodstain patterns can be simu- in Figure 5.18). Bevel and Gardner (2002) note that
lated in crime scenes. blood drops falling at an angle of incidence below
Fact: It is not possible to simulate blood- 45º tend to appear elliptical.
stain patterns in a crime scene.
vi. Myth: It is possible to identify a forcibly
5.4.2.2 Patterns Caused by Recurring Fall of
pulled hair at the crime scene itself.
Fact: Yes, the follicular sheath attached to Blood Drops
the root can be recognized by examining
the hair using a stereo microscope or a suit- In instances where blood drops fall on already
able hand magnifier. existing collection of drops or other types of blood-
stain such as a standing pool of blood, a pattern
evidencing multiple and superimposed patterns of
5.4.2 Bloodstain Patterns and Their Significance bloodstain is created (arrow in Figure 5.29). These
in Crime Reconstruction patterns would enable reconstructing an event that
the individual from whom the blood had issued had
The significance of bloodstain patterns on dead bod- remained in that location for a consistent period to
ies and in crime scenes has been well reiterated both allow the overlapping dripping pattern to be created.
5.4.2.3 Trail Patterns of Blood Drops the surface. The reader is informed that the pattern
illustrated was one of the many repeatedly created
Bloody trails (arrows in Figure 5.30) occur when on sheets of paper, which was considered nearly
an individual moves with a significantly bleeding similar to an arterial spurt and then cut out and
wound which is not bandaged. Trails of blood in used for the purpose of making a mock crime scene
a crime scene may aid in diagnosing the presence for Work-Based Learning (WBL) by students.
and movement of suspects (Cases 5–1 and 5–4) or
a victim (Case 7–1) when the individuals concerned
suffer bleeding injuries. 5.4.2.5 Arc or Cast-Off Patterns From Swinging
Weapons
5.4.2.4 Patterns From Artery Spurts Swinging a blood-covered knife, iron pipe, billhook,
or other similar weapon causes blood accumulated
Severance of an artery causes bounteous amount of on the weapon to be thrown off. These patterns are
blood to spurt out due to pulsating contractions of also known as cast-off patterns. The cast-off pat-
the artery. The pulsations push the blood to travel in terns can be used to define the plane of the arc of
the form of an arched ‘trail’ that create a character- the weapon swing. This information can be used in
istic pattern when hitting an obstructing surface— locating the position of the assailant in relation to
the droplets projected upwards showing upward the victim as well as in indicating how the weapon
spines and those projected downward evidencing was swung. Multiple arcs in different directions
spines that are directed downward. (Figure 5.4) indicate that the blood-laden weapon
Figure 5.38 shows a spurt pattern created by the had been swung several times in different angles.
author using a stained fluid similar to blood consis-
tency and ejecting it from a syringe to illustrate the
direction of the spine in relation to the travel direc- 5.4.2.6 Arc Patterns From Swinging Hands
tion of the liquid. Droplets evidencing upward spine
(black arrow in Figure 5.38) indicate upwardly Swinging or shaking a hand that has accumulated
directed travel direction, while the droplets show- blood will also lead to drops to be thrown off. Such
ing downward spines (gray arrow in Figure 5.38) cast-off patterns enable in reconstructing the posi-
suggest downward movement when the drops hit tion of the victim who was bleeding. When bleeding
injuries are observed in the fingers, differences in the
directions in the arc patterns especially from a com-
mon origin (white and black arrows in Figure 7.15
enlarged in Figure 7.16) suggest multiple swinging
of the hands.
Cast-off patterns are important in reconstruct-
ing the directionality in the swing of the weapon
or hand and in diagnosing the multiplicity in the
swinging actions. The general rule in diagnosing the
directionality in the travel of a blood droplet is that
in all instances, except satellite spatter, the tail in
the pattern points in the direction of travel of the
droplet (Bevel and Gardner, 2002).
5.4.2.7 Atomized Bloodstain Pattern
These are bloodstain patterns characterized by a

mist-
like pinhead appearance of blood droplets
(arrows in Figure 5.39). This pattern is generally
associated with blood escaping out with extreme
force in association with such objects as a high-
FIGURE 5.38 A spurt pattern created to illustrate velocity projectile or a bullet ejecting out from an
the direction of the spine (arrows) in relation to the exit wound. In the case relating to the illustration in
travel direction of the liquid. Figure 5.39, the victim was shot from in front, and
center of the stain. When the stain is undisturbed,

its shape is retained as such (arrow in Figure 5.41).
When the stain is rubbed out prior to completion
of the drying process, the inner wet portion would
be wiped out first while the perimeter that had
FIGURE 5.39 Atomized bloodstain pattern on a

cupboard door.
the atomized pattern shown was seen on the cup- FIGURE 5.40 A blood pool in the location where
board door located behind the victim. The blood the victim fell down after sustaining the bullet
pool in Figure 5.40 had collected in the location wound.
where the victim fell down after sustaining the fatal
bullet wound.
5.4.2.8 Clot
Clot is formed due to the collection of liquid blood

that stagnates for a considerable period of time.
Clot will usually be thick and gelatinous on non-
absorbent surfaces such as tiled floor (arrows in
Figure 5.40).
5.4.2.9 Skeletonized Bloodstains
These are bloodstain patterns that still retain the

original shape and size although they had been
subjected to disturbances such as wiping due to
mechanical forces. Once deposited, blood will
usually begin to dry, commencing from the outer FIGURE 5.41 An undisturbed stain of blood drop
perimeter and then proceeding inward toward the (arrow).
already dried would form a characteristically pat- caused due to dragging the victim’s body over the
terned stain (arrows in Figure 5.42). This process is blood drops that had dried partially.
termed skeletonization, and the resulting stains are Skeletonized stains form the reliable patterned
referred to as skeletonized stains. The blood drops evidence to infer attempts to rub out and clean
illustrated were found in the vicinity of the clot in bloodstain evidence in crime scenes where the sur-
Figure 5.40, and the skeletonized patterns had been faces are nonabsorbent and polished. The SOCOs
are cautioned not to infer the possibility of rubbing
out or cleansing bloodstain evidence by the mere
absence of bloodstains during visual inspection.
Visually evaluable absence of stains may only indi-
cate failure of blood to reach and stain the target
objects in the scene; it does not constitute evidence
of rubbing out or cleansing bloodstains.
5.4.2.10 Swipe Patterns
The transfer of liquid blood from one object to

another due to contact causes swipe patterns. Such
transfer is usually accompanied by the movement
of one bloodstained object with another that is
ordinary as it happens when bloodstained fingers
are moved along a wall (see Figure 5.18) or when
bloodstained scalp hairs with a moving force come
into contact with a wall. In such swipe patterns the
examiner may be able to infer the directionality
of the moving object. Figure 5.43 is a swipe pat-
tern generated by the author making mock crime
scenes using a bunch of cotton waste stained with a
fluid similar to blood consistency and then swiped
FIGURE 5.42 Skeletonized pattern of the blood
downward on a sheet of paper pasted on a wall, and
drops (arrows) after the partially dried drops have
Figure 5.44 is a pattern caused by the contact of
been rubbed.
FIGURE 5.43 A swipe pattern generated, while

making a mock crime scene, by moving stained cot- FIGURE 5.44 A contact pattern created using
ton waste in contact with a sheet of paper pasted on stained cotton waste on a sheet of paper pasted on a
a wall. wall without significant lateral movement.
same cotton waste on the wall without any signifi-

cant lateral movement.
Swipe patterns may manifest in the form of
smudges when blood from fingers is transferred to
articles such as an almirah (Figure 5.45) or a door
(Figure 5.46). Smudges caused by bleeding sources
usually reveal excess blood draining and accumu-
lating in the lower border due to gravity (arrow in
Figure 5.45) or speck of clotted blood in certain
areas (arrow in Figure 5.46). Recognizing smudges
in crime scenes is important due to the distinct pos-
sibility that the source of blood in smudged stains
can be from a bleeding injury sustained by the sus-
pect and can thus be useful in relating the suspect
with the crime scene. FIGURE 5.46 Swipe pattern on a door in a homi-
cide scene. Arrow indicates a speck of excess blood
5.4.3 Relevance of Hairs and Hair Damages in the smudge.
During Crime Investigation
5.4.3.1 Significance of Hair as Evidence from the scene of the crime (Cases 5–3, 12–1, and
12–2) serve as valuable physical evidence. However,
Hairs found sticking to a murder weapon or caught it is stressed that morphological comparison of hairs
in the fingers of the victim (Case 5–1) or recovered cannot lead to individual identification. It has been
recognized that hair comparisons do not constitute
a basis for absolute personal identification (Deedrick
and Koch, 2004), and a finding that the compared
questioned hairs and sample hairs are morphologi-
cally similar can provide evidence indicating pos-
sible association (Gaudette, 2000a; Bisbing, 2001a,
2001b, 2007). However, morphological comparison
of hair can lead to valuable exclusionary evidence
(Bisbing, 2007), and thus its potential application
as to the case under investigation must never be
underestimated. On the other hand, DNA analysis
of the hairs, especially those with follicular sheath,
can enhance the certainty in hair identification by
enabling conclusive attribution of origin (Yoshino
et al., 2000). Hair has two properties that make it
a frequently occurring type of physical evidence:
first, it is remarkably stable to most environmen-
tal conditions and will not easily break down like
other biological evidence; second, as hair is fairly
unnoticeable to the untrained eye, a criminal is not
likely to make a special effort to destroy it. Hairs
are transferred during sexual intercourse, and hair
transfers from females to males were found to be
about twice as prevalent as transfers from males to
females (Gaudette, 2000-b). Failure to find hairs in
crimes involving struggle may be due to failure to
locate hairs rather than the due to the absence of
hairs in the scene as it has been shown that approxi-
FIGURE 5.45 Swipe pattern in a homicide scene mately 100 head hairs fall each day and during the
manifesting in the form a smudge. Note the excess course of a ravaging struggle, many more hairs
blood accumulating in the lower boundary (arrow). would be normally expected.
5.4.3.2 Possible Findings in Hair Analysis 5.4.3.4 Cross-sectional Appearance of Hair
a) Nonidentity of sources: Establishing A microscopic examination of a hair cross section

that the evidence sample and the stan- reveals an outer layer of cuticular scales which sur-
dard sample did not come from the same rounds the shaft, an inner darker portion called the
source, a finding that serves the purpose of cortex, and in the center of the cortex—a canal-like
elimination. structure called the medulla (Figure 5.47—inset).
b) Possible sources: Establishing that the evi- The color of hair is due to presence of pigment
dence sample is morphologically similar to granules (melanin) which are found principally in
the standard sample may only indicate that the cortex, and due to air bubbles in the medulla.
a hypothetical event is possible or probable.
In the presence of other evidence, this may
5.4.3.5 Descriptions of Morphological Variations
form corroboratory evidence.
in Hair
c) Certainty in sources: Establishing that the
evidence sample is certainly derived from
Morphological variations in human hair are indeed
the same individual using DNA analysis numerous. A detailed description of all such varia-
when cellular materials are available in the tions is beyond the scope of this field guide, and
hair roots. readers may refer to authors like Ogle and Fox
(1999) for greater details. The descriptions provided
here are considered those that are fundamental for
5.4.3.3 Morphology of Human Head Hair crime scene examination. The texture of human
scalp hair may vary from fine to coarse depending
The human head hair is a cylindrical structure on hair diameter, an important characteristic dur-
composed of a medulla (a central cellular canal), ing examination. It is noted that diameter variations
a cortex (the body of the hair), and a cuticle also occur along the shaft of each hair.
(a scaly outer layer). Straight hair is normally Hair form: Hair form refers to the general
approximately circular in cross section, while a appearance of the hair with regard to curl. The
wavy hair is elliptical. Considering human head basic descriptive terms are Straight, Curved, Wavy,
hair as an example, structurally there is a long and Curly. Straight hair is the one with no curvature
cylindrical shaft anchored to the scalp by bul- or with a curvature less than that of a circle hav-
bous root in the proximal end with a free distal ing a diameter of greater than 80 cm (Figure 5.48).
end that is tapering when uncut (Figure 5.47). Curved hair has a curvature but does not exhibit
In the scalp tissue, the root lies in the follicle waviness or does not curl back upon itself to form
and is surrounded by a mass of connective tis- a circle when the hair is placed on a flat surface.
sue termed follicular sheath, the bottom region Wavy hair is that with curvature that changes its
of which has the dermal papilla. The outer cover, direction to produce a sinuous wavy form but does
the cuticle is a multilayered scaly structure pro- not curve back upon itself to form circle-like figures.
tecting the hair. Curly hair is the one that curls back upon itself to
FIGURE 5.48 Parameters useful for describing hair

FIGURE 5.47 Morphology of human head hair. form.
form circles or circle-like forms when placed on a while Figure 5.52 is an enlarged view of the root
flat surface. end of that pubic hair. All the figures illustrate pho-
Hair color: Depending on the color, hair may tographs taken using iphone6s. The presence of
be differentiated into black and gray hairs. A com- adherent follicular sheath on the root depends on
plete head of gray hair is comparatively rare; hair the root growth stage.
color is usually mixed with shades of brown or
black fading into white. Dyed part of the hair shaft
can be identified by the gray, unpigmented portion
of the shaft that lies toward the proximal (growing)
end of that hair.
5.4.3.6 Detection of Forcible Removal of Hair
An examination of the hair root, if present, may

provide an answer to the question if the hair had
been forcibly removed. If a hair pulled from the
body forcefully was securely attached to the fol-
licle (anagen stage), follicular tissue may still
remain attached to the base of the hair. However,
the absence of follicular tissue on a hair root is
not necessarily a proof that the hair has naturally
fallen out of the head. The presence of follicular
sheath in a hair recovered at the crime scene can be FIGURE 5.50 An enlarged view of the area boxed
ascertained by visualizing the proximal ends under in Figure 5.49 showing the translucent follicular
suitable magnification for which stereomicroscope sheath (arrow).
offers the best results. Examination using a good
hand magnifier or close-up photography of the hair
end using suitable lens or using the cameras in any
of the modern cell phones would also enable recog-
nizing the follicular sheath. Figure 5.49 illustrates a
forcibly plucked scalp hair with the root end shown
within a box, and Figure 5.50 is an enlargement of
the root end with the arrow indicating the trans-
lucent follicular sheath. Figure 5.51 shows a fallen
pubic hair with the root end shown within a box,
FIGURE 5.49 A forcibly plucked scalp hair with FIGURE 5.51 A fallen pubic hair with the root end
the root end shown within a box. shown within a box.
FIGURE 5.52 Enlarged view of the area boxed in

Figure 5.51 showing the root.
FIGURE 5.53 Diagrammatic representation of the
5.4.3.7 Follicular Sheath in Different Stages of roots of forcibly removed hairs and naturally fallen
Root Growth hairs in different growth stages.
may be possible to identify the type of instrument
The characteristic variation of the hair root growth
used and estimate the length of time since the last
stages represents the growth stage of the hair at
cutting.
the time of its removal or loss from the body. The
The uncut hair tip will be finely tapered and
morphology of the root as well as the presence of
usually unpigmented (Figure 5.54A). If the distal
epithelial tissues adhering to the root enables distin-
ends are cut, the tips normally begin to take on a
guishing those hairs that could have been forcibly
rounded form within 2 to 3 weeks after cutting
pulled out. A hair pulled from the scalp or pubic
region during the anagen phase (active growth (Figure 5.54B), and the rounded tips continue to
stage) will have a glistening follicular (epithelial) elongate becoming thinner as the hair grows further.
sheath adhering to a distorted and elongated, pig- If the uncut or cut hair is badly damaged, the tip will
mented root. A hair pulled during the catagen phase be split or frayed (Figure 5.54C and D).
(past the active growth stage) may have a slightly When the distal end of scalp hairs have been
enlarged root and may have some bits of epithelial freshly cut, the cut ends can offer clue to identify
tissue adhering to it. A hair pulled or fallen from the instrument used for cutting. Cutting the hair
the scalp or pubic region during the telogen phase using a razor blade leaves tailing in the cut edges
(post-growth stage) typically has an enlarged root that extend beyond the point of cut (Figure 5.55A).
bulb that lacks pigment and has little or no adherent Cutting the hairs using a chopper knife leaves a
epithelial tissue. The diagrammatic representations prominent mark of compression due to the heavy
of these stages are shown in Figure 5.53.
The presence of epithelial tissue on a root plays
an important role in hair examination, owing to
the ability to analyze the DNA present in the nuclei
of the adherent epithelial cells from the follicular
tissue.
5.4.3.8 Distal Tip Morphology of Human Scalp

Hair
The morphology of the distal tips of hairs varies

depending on the care taken for maintaining the FIGURE 5.54 Diagrammatic representation of the
hair and the instrument used for cutting or trim- variations in the distal tip morphology of human
ming the hair. If sufficient sample is available, it scalp hair.
FIGURE 5.55 Diagrammatic representation of the morphological changes during damages in the human
scalp hair subjected to different instruments.
blade operating on one side (Figure 5.55B). If the using xylene. Vacuuming can be used for collecting
hair was cut by a pair of scissors, a tip would appear hairs from larger areas of floor such as in a room.
almost clean cut with edges revealing minor evi- It must be borne in mind that vacuuming destroys
dence of compression (Figure 5.55C). Use of blunt chronology in the collection of hair evidence and
weapons such as an iron rod or a log of wood gener- precludes relevant testimony concerning the hairs’
ates flattening of the hair shafts that are subjected exact location.
to that force (Figure 5.55D). Hairs subjected to heat Instead of relying on day light during visual
damage reveal an expansion of the cortex with gas- examination of the scene, additional use of strong
eous bubbles (Figure 5.55E). The appearance of the oblique light has been found to ensure better effi-
distal tip of the hair acquires forensic significance ciency in locating hairs lying on the floor or other
when the exemplar hair specimens from suspects objects. Whichever method is used, it should be
are obtained contemporaneously or immediately done in a location specifically recognized for that
following the recovery of the questioned samples of purpose to avoid the possibility of contamination
hair from the crime scene. and cross-transfer.
When collecting hairs, whether by handpicking
or using the aid of tape, their particular location
5.4.3.9 On the Methods Available for Collection should be noted in chronological order. The exact
of Hair location of the questioned hairs serves as a valuable
aid to the investigation and will have a probative
Hairs treated as questioned samples may be found value far greater than a general location. For exam-
as loose hairs in the crime scene, sticking onto other ple, among the evidential hairs collected in a scene
biological stains or weapons or clothing or on dif- of rape, those found lying in the scene and those
ferent locations in the dead body itself or on the live found sticking on to the garment of the victim will
victims or on the suspects. Usually, control hairs carry varying probative value.
that serve as exemplar samples are collected from The known (control) hairs should be complete
the victims and suspects, while, on occasions, such hairs including the root. The hairs should be pulled
hairs may also be collected from the house where a out from the skin. Cut hairs should be avoided as
victim lived (Case 5–3). the total length of the hair and the morphology
Among the methods of hair recovery, hand of the base and the root are important to a com-
picking has the advantages of collecting each hair prehensive comparison. Regarding the quantity
sample separately. Here, bare fingers are used for of control hairs, Bisbing (2001b) recommends 50,
collecting the hairs. Tape lifting is a method of while Deedrick and Koch (2004) suggest at least 25
choice when specific areas are to be covered for col- full-length hairs to be sufficient. Some laboratories
lecting hairs. This method serves as an easy and recommend 10 pieces of hairs as the minimum (See
fast way for obtaining hairs from clothing, carpets, Appendix) and as such, the minimum can be 10,
upholstery, and other surfaces where the hairs are and the maximum that can be collected need not
either difficult to see. The foreign hairs sticking be restricted as when a bunch of control hairs is
to the tape can be stored and can be removed by available for collection, it is desirable to send the
entire bunch for analysis (Case 5–3). An excellent maternal relatives have the same mtDNA type, and,
method of obtaining a random sample of hair from in addition, some individuals who are not closely
suspects or victims is by vigorous combing or brush- related or apparently unrelated may also exhibit the
ing. The combed or brushed sample provides fallen same mtDNA type. In this context, a microscopical
hairs, pulled hairs, hair fragments, and other trace comparison of the hairs can differentiate between
evidence representative of the sampled body region. the hairs from various family members and also
Exemplars must be collected from both victim reveal contextual information useful for the investi-
and suspect in cases of assault, and from all other gation. Thus, it is particularly important to realize
inmates who may have deposited questioned hairs that microscopical examination and DNA analysis
at the crime scene. With the exclusion of hairs of are complementary techniques; the strongest pos-
inmates, the similarity of questioned and known sible association is made by first comparing the
hairs gains far greater probative value. physical aspects of the hair through microscopy,
then by comparing the genetic aspects of the hair
through DNA analysis. SOCOs must remember the
5.4.3.10 DNA Analysis Using Hair Evidence comment by Bisbimg (2007) that “Eliminating the
microscopical examination of hairs is, in my opin-
It is well established that hairs are often trans- ion, irresponsible because hairs can be so valuable
ferred during sexual intercourse, they are persistent in some of the most heinous crimes; therefore, hairs
and stable as trace evidence, and, being unnotice- should not be ignored.”
able, they are not easily destroyed by the offenders
(Gaudette, 2000-b). Among healthy human head
hairs, about 80–90% is at anagen phase, while 5.4.4 Evidentiary Value of Cloth and Damages on
10–18% is at telogen phase with about 2% at cata- Clothes
gen phase. The anagen phase hairs are likely to be
forcibly removed during any struggle, and, when Since early days, the evidentiary importance of dam-
ages and tears in clothes has been stressed (Jones,
forcibly pulled out, these hairs contain many cells in
the root sheath that comes along with the root. It is1959), and current authors have indicated the unique
easy to extract DNA from such plucked hairs. When importance of tears in clothes in such circumstances
the cellular sheath is not available, DNA would have as diagnosing self- infliction of injuries (Shkrum
to be extracted from the nuclear remnant of the club and Ramsay, 2007). Recent authors have discussed
of the hair shaft (Yoshino et al., 2000). When DNA the relevance of cloth damages in forensic science
is extracted from the hairs recovered in a crime (Robertson and Grieve, 1999; Saferstein, 2005;
scene or from the clothing or person of the victim, Taupin and Cwiklik, 2011), and some have recog-
its source can be established with certainty by com- nized the relevance of identifying deliberate damages
paring with the DNA samples from the suspects. to clothes (Taupin, 2000; Daly et al., 2009). Damage
to clothing is likely to be encountered as evidence in
many of the crimes involving violence such as homi-
5.4.3.11 DNA Versus Morphological Analysis of cide, rape, vehicular accidents, instances of death due
Hair to fall from height. Damages to clothing deserve to
be treated as a special category of evidence in view
Bisbing (2007) examined some of the post- of their twofold utility; in providing valuable infor-
conviction exonerations using DNA which have mation about the possible manner and/or implement
revealed a problem with hair evidence and found that caused the damages as well as in relating those
in many cases failure to follow certain basic tenets damages with cutaneous bruises and lacerations in
proffered as being important in the field of hair the body. Consequently, the information obtained
examination such as relating to the examiners’ from damages on clothes may prove to be useful in
experience, time allowed to reach a decision, right corroborating or refuting a particular crime scenario.
to report inconclusive results, access to background It has been noted that the examination of clothing
information, and right to consult with a colleague. may not only provide associative evidence with per-
By comparison, nDNA analysis of hair yields a sons or locations, but also tell the examiner a “story”
virtual positive association with an individual. as to what happened during the crime event (Taupin
Unfortunately, most hairs found at crime scenes do and Cwiklik, 2011). However, fabric damages have
not possess sufficient root tissue to demonstrate an remained underutilized as evidence.
nDNA profile. Although mtDNA can be extracted A major reason for overlooking damages to
from the hair shaft, being maternally inherited, all clothes is the obvious importance given to the bodily
injuries during the inquest and also during the post- yarns in a tighter construction than the
mortem examination. Consequently, clothes receive body of the fabric.
very little attention when moving the dead body Weave pattern: The pattern made by the warp
from crime scene or when removing the clothes and weft set of yarns in the woven state in
prior to autopsy; it is indeed commonplace to find a fabric.
the clothes undergoing additional damages during Crown: The raised portion of the strands in
the aforementioned processes. It would be prudent twisted cordage or a set of yarn. This is
for the SOCOs to examine the clothes for damages seen when the cordage is removed from the
in the crime scene itself before the body is moved. fabric.
With the exception of gunshot- injury-related Pitch: The number of crowns per inch of the
damages on clothes, there has been only a limited same strand. The texture in a fabric is
interest in damages in clothes, and few forensic sci- attributable to the height of the crowns and
ence laboratories undertake analysis on damage to the pitch in the yarns. Thinner strands such
clothes as a separate, specialized field. In the research as those in a fine-textured cloth like mus-
front, many of the publications relate to fiber frac- lin have greater pitch number, while thicker
ture and fiber recovery studies, and there have been strands in the coarse-textured cloth such as
very few publications on the evidentiary value of denim have lesser pitch number. It has to
damages on clothes. Instances are there wherein the be noted that the weave pattern is directly
controversies in the examination and interpretation influenced by the pitch number as well as
of cloth damage evidence led to a confusion during the manner in which the warp and weft
criminal trials—a popular example being the case fibers are woven.
of Lindy Chaberlain in Australia in which, accord-
ing to one expert, the ‘tufts’ in the torn edges of The SOCOs are suggested to study different
the clothes were characteristic of cut injuries, while types of cloth samples to observe the variations in
another expert ascertained that similar ‘tufts’ could warp and weft yarns and weave patterns. A portion
be found in the edges of tears caused by the canine of the size 1 × 1 inch of the fabric can be cut after
too. The mother of the missing baby was found identifying and marking the warp and weft fibers
guilty for murdering the baby during 1982, and the based on the selvage. The warp and weft cordages
conviction was quashed in 1988 with a final inquest can then be teased out with tweezers to study the
held in 2012 confirming the initial conviction as pitch details using a stereoscopic microscope. The
wrongful (The Guardian, 2012). same piece of cloth can be pressed on to a self-inking
In forensic science, fabrics acquire relevance in stamp pad for recording its impression on a sheet of
multiple aspects; they may leave an impression of white paper and for comparing the characteristics
with the pitch details.
the pattern in a medium such as blood or may suf-
fer damages that are characteristic of the manner
that caused them or may leave one or two strands of 5.4.4.1 Weave Patterns as Cloth Impression
the woven fibers as transferred trace evidence. In the Evidence
field dealing with the comparison of weave patterns
imprinted on a surface with the weave pattern in a The weave patterns are often left as cloth impres-
fabric or with the damages on the fabric itself, the sions when the fabric comes in contact with a
definitions of the following terminologies acquire suitable soft or fluid medium. Morphological varia-
relevance. tions attributable to weave patterns caused by dif-
ferent fabrics can be useful in determining if the
Woven fabric: It is a fabric formed by weaving particular pattern observed in the circumstances
two sets of yarns, warp, and weft (filling). of the crime scene could have been caused by a
Warp: The set of yarn in woven fabrics that specific fabric that had contacted the patterned
runs lengthwise and parallel to the selvage. surface. In the case of self-infliction of superficial
It is interwoven with the weft (filling). incised injury followed by hanging (Case 4–10), the
Weft (filling): In a woven fabric, this set of weave pattern of the shirt was seen imprinted on
yarn runs from selvage to selvage at right the bloodstained razor blade that was found inside
angles to the warp. It is interwoven with the the shirt pocket of the victim (Figure 4.57). As wet
warp. blood residue retains the contacting patterns due
Selvage: The narrow edge of woven fabric that to transfer, it could be hypothesized that the razor
runs parallel to the warp. It is of stronger blade had been placed inside the shirt pocket while
the bloodstain was still wet. In the same case, the the circumstances of the case. Stab wounds are
absence of damage in the cloth material of the inner invariably correlated with damages to the cloth-
wear covering the location of the superficial injury ing, a factor facilitating reconstruction of crime.
in the abdomen supported self- infliction of that Aligning cut and stab holes in the layers of cloth-
injury after uplifting the inner wear (Figures 4.55 ing may help determine clothing position and
and 4.56). body position at the time of stabbing. Some stabs
or cuts to clothing may not penetrate to produce
wounds, or there may be multiple holes in the
5.4.4.2 Torn Cloth as Evidence clothing reflecting a single stab through folds.
Some wounds may not be associated with damage
When two pieces of fabric or cordage are encoun-
to the clothing; such as the self-inflicted one on
tered as evidence, physical matching should always
the body after adjusting the cloth as described in
be considered. When the piece is cut or torn, a phys-
Case 4–10. The more common damages caused on
ical match may be possible when the surface char-
clothes due to mechanical effects are described in
acteristics reveal a match (Case 4–15; Figure 4.84).
the subsequent section.
Such matching characteristics must be documented
by photography and with a detailed corroborative
5.4.4.3.1 Damages Caused by High-Velocity Projectiles
description. De Forest et al. (1983) consider that
such as Bullets Entry holes caused by bullets on
both direct physical matching wherein the two torn
clothes are characterized, in typical instances,
edges physically fit with each other and the indirect
by somewhat regular and circular damages (see
physical match where the torn edges in juxtaposi-
Figure 13.37). In close-range shots, the cloth mate-
tion reveal surface characteristics lead to a virtual
rial surrounding entry holes may reveal depositions
certainty. Authors have considered physical match-
of components of gunshot residue (GSR) and frag-
ing as providing the best evidence in indicating the
ments of the projectile embedded in the clothes
source and in reaching the most conclusive or abso-
(DiMaio, 1999).
lute individualizations (Kirk, 1974; Roux et al.,
2000; James and Nordby, 2003; Jayaprakash,
5.4.4.3.2 Tears Caused due to High- Velocity Blunt
2013). Physical fitting has been recognized as lead-
Forces High- velocity blunt forces such as those
ing to individualization by the National Research
caused during railway accidents or during the
Council (NAS Report, 2009). Among the unique-
explosions due to high explosives result in shatter-
ness based individualizations in forensic science
ing of the clothes.
physical matching, as the most cardinal type
(Jayaprakash, 2013), has been shown as occupying
5.4.4.3.3 Tears Caused due to Normal Usage (Normal
the inner most annulus in the midst of all the other
Wear and Tear) A tear in a fabric is severance
types of identifications that are represented as con-
caused by the pulling apart of the material leaving
centric circles (Jayaprakash, 2013) See Figure 2.1
ragged or irregular edges. During forensic analy-
sis, the clothing has to be examined for identifying
from Elsevier).
those damages that can be attributed to prolonged
usage—such as unraveling of the hems and seams,
5.4.4.3 Damages on the Clothes snags, pilling, and thinning of the fabric prior to the
formation of holes.
Textile damages are likely to be caused by vari-
ous effects that are broadly of three types, viz. 5.4.4.3.4 Tears Caused by Overstretching of Cloth The
mechanical, chemical, and thermal. The following tears caused due to overstretching indicate irregular
discussion is focused on the damages caused due to snapping of the fibers of the cloth. These damages
mechanical effects as forensic casework predomi- occur when a portion of the clothes is pulled as it
nantly relates with mechanical-effect-related dam- happens in a struggle and thus acquire significance
ages. The subtypes of damages are differentiated, during crime reconstruction. In a case of murder
based on certain morphological characteristics that where it was alleged that the paramour stabbed a
depend partly on the nature of the agency caus- girl to death, tears caused due to overstretching were
ing the damage although these characteristics may found in the freely hanging pallu part of the victim’s
reveal some overlap. saree (Figures 5.56–5.58). Examination of the dead
The relationship between the damages on the body revealed wounds indicating evidence of two
clothes and the wounds on the body depends on weapons having been used on the deceased. Due
to overstretching beyond its threshold, the fibers the saree, and further investigation revealed that the
of the yarns in the cloth in the pallu of the saree girl was murdered by her father and brother, the lat-
had snapped unevenly (shown by the sets of arrows ter holding her saree preventing her from running
in Figure 5.58) suggesting that the stretching force away. The presence of injuries caused by two dif-
was not regularly distributed. This finding enabled ferent types of weapons on the victim’s body and
a reconstruction indicating the probability that the the tears due to overstretching seen on the victim’s
girl could have been held fast by a person holding saree, when viewed in conjunction, supported the
FIGURE 5.56 Locations of the three tears on the saree worn by the victim.
FIGURE 5.57 Diagrammatic representation of the damages on the saree caused due to overstretching the
cloth.
Stab-cut: These are commonplace in stab

wounds produced by knives. Cuts caused
on clothes by knives during stab may reflect
the width of the knife blade in a more real-
istic manner than the size of the injuries as
the injury size is influenced by the elasticity
of the skin (see Figures 5.9 and 5.10 in Case
5–1). Directionality may be determined
if the back of the blade produces differ-
ent characteristics to the cutting edge (see
arrows in Figure 5.10 in Case 5–1).
Slash-cut: These are generally produced by
sharp- edged tools such as knife, razor
blade, and scalpel, when they are used in a
slashing motion evidencing a starting and
finishing ‘point’. Some of these damages
may penetrate the fabric completely or may
penetrate intermittently.
Scissor-cut: These are damages character-
ized by the presence of ‘stoppages’ or small
‘steps’ produced in the opening and closing
action of scissors as they cut along the cloth.
Punctured damages: These are damages evi-
dencing the penetration of the implement
through the cloth producing an irregular
FIGURE 5.58 Close-up photograph of one of the hole.
tears showing the uneven snapping of the fibers of Abrasive damage: These are damages caused
the yarns in the cloth. The series of arrows indicates by the fabric material rubbing against
the course of snapping of the yarns. another surface either due to the direct
impact or impact with a sliding force. Such
impacts may result in uneven thinning of
the fabric material, fraying of fibers, and
even formation of hole. The extent of the
involvement of more than one individual in assault- damages would correspond to the degree
ing that girl. of the roughness of the impacting object
and the impacting force. These tears are
5.4.4.3.5 Tears Caused by Sharp-Ended Objects The
sharp ends of objects such as a sharp steel wire in
barbed wire fence or the sharp tip of a sickle-like
beaky weapon that clasp on to cloth cause tears
due to the dragging force consequent to clasp-
ing. Typically, these tears manifest as damages at
right angles beginning from the point of initia-
tion of tear viz. the point of clasping (large arrow
in Figure 5.59) and also indicate the direction
of progress of the tear by the angle in which the
fibers swerve (series of smaller arrows in the two
directions in Figure 5.59). The snapped tips of the
swerved fibers also reveal uneven ends without evi-
dence of sharp cuts, an indication characteristic of
damage due to overstretching. FIGURE 5.59 A tear caused by the sharp end of a
billhook. The initiation of the tear is shown by the
5.4.4.3.6 Cuts A ‘cut’ is severance of fibers with large arrow, and the direction of progress of the tear
neat edges produced by a sharp-edged instrument. is indicated by the swerved ends of fibers shown by
Types of cut include the following. the series of smaller arrows.
characteristic in cases of fall from height, scalp hairs of the victim that originated from the
including falling into a well where the soil in the place of struggle described in Case 4–12,
clothed surface of the victim comes in con- soil retrieved from inside the nails that had possi-
tact with rough objects like concrete or bly transferred from the soil inside the well during
stone leading to tattering of the fibers (see the flailing activities of the victim described in Case
Figures 8.21–8.24 in Case 8–2). During 10–3, and soil in the mud flakes that had fallen at
crime reconstruction, it may be possible to the point of impact (POI) from the soil deposited on
suggest the liveliness of a victim by relat- the mudguard of the vehicle involved in the collision
ing tattered damages on clothes with cor- described in Case 16–1. Evidently, the soil samples
responding cutaneous injuries on the body that occurred as evidence in all the aforementioned
parts since injuries such as bruises and cases were limited to locations that are likely to
lacerations on the victim offer evidence retain sets of characteristics that remain more spe-
on cardiac activities when sustaining such cific or peculiar and thus enable better attribution
injuries. of source. SOCOs are reminded that there is greater
Animal damage: Bite marks and other sev- scope for increased utility of soil evidence during
erances may be produced on clothes due crime scene investigation.
to the actions of the jaws and feet of an
animal (canine, dog, mouse, rat, etc.).
Insects such as moths and carpet beetles 5.4.6 Entomological Evidence in Assessing Time
may ingest the fibers, producing small Since Death in Decomposed Dead Bodies
puncture-l ike holes.
Heat: These damages may range from minor Recognizing the lack of uniformity in describing
burns such as slight scorching to complete decomposition changes in human bodies, Goff
combustion. The significance of smoke pat- (2009) suggested five stages of decomposition viz.
terns caused on the surrounding objects fresh decay, bloated, decay or black putrefaction,
during combustion of cloth is discussed in post-decay or butyric fermentation, and dry decay.
the chapter on death due to burns. However, the number of days taken for each stage
Microbial damage: These are irregular dam- differed depending on the ambient temperature
ages oftentimes seen in the clothes in bur- and oftentimes overlapped (Galloway, 2001) ren-
ied remains that are exhumed. Microbes dering it difficult to judge the time since death
destroy the fibers, more often the natural based on the visual assessment of the decomposi-
fibers than the synthetic ones. Thus, due to tion stages.
preferential damage, the fabric may reveal The destruction of the soft tissues in dead
‘pseudo-cuts’ or tear-like damages. bodies is by the infestation of the maggots of
necrophagous Dipteran flies among which the com-
mon species found in Asian countries like India
5.4.5 Evidentiary Value of Soil and Malaysia include Chrysomya megacephala
(Fabricius) (Oriental Latrine fly) and Chrysomya
Soil is potential physical evidence that can relate rufifacies (Macquart) (Hairy Maggot Blow Fly)
persons and objects with crime scenes, and there is (Byrd and Castner, 2001). Metallic blue and green
greater scope for utilizing soil evidence. The value in body color, respectively, these flies are popularly
of soil evidence is generally underestimated due to called blow flies due to the blowing noise they make
statements that soil samples even from nearby areas while flying. Belonging to the family Calliphoridae,
vary in organic and other constituents making it these Dipterans are synanthropic. They are diur-
difficult to reach source attribution during forensic nal although limited nocturnal activity including
analysis. While this may appear correct as a gen- oviposition has also been noted in C. megacephala
eral statement, it is also true that soil from fairly (Pritam and Jayaprakash, 2009).
restricted sources are oftentimes encountered to be Being active during the daytime, the
evidence in case work, and the characteristics of such Calliphorid flies oviposit on dead bodies almost
soil samples, from both the scene and the control, immediately after death unless physical barriers
are not prone to local changes that deter analysis prevent their access to the dead body. The time
when attributing source. Such examples include soil taken for the different stages in their life cycle
sticking to the Casuarina saplings that were derived remains constant for a given ambient temperature,
from the soil inside the grave described in Case 5–3 and thus is considered a reliable indicator when
discussed earlier, soil particles found sticking to the assessing the time since death in decomposed dead
bodies. During less rainy seasons, C. megaceph- have two slits while that of the third instar larvae
ala are seen ovipositing on animal models on the have three slits (PS2 and PS3 in Figure 5.60). The
first day; the first instar larvae hatching out on the SOCOs may note that the differences in spiracle
second day; and the larvae of the second instar, morphology can be observed using a stereo micro-
third instar, and the prepupal (migrating larvae) scope and thus can be used for inferring the larval
being noted on the third, fourth, and fifth days, growth stages in the crime scene itself. Similarly,
respectively. Pupae were noticed on the sixth day the migrating stage can be recognized by the lar-
(during April–June at mean ambient temperature val mass moving away from the dead body seeking
28.25 ± 0.89ºC in Malaysia) (Mahat et al., 2009). to pupate.
Diagrammatic representation of the life cycle of C. The larvae of C. rufifacies can be differentiated
megacephala until reaching the pupae stage indi- by the presence of hairy processes in the body seg-
cating the minimal duration observed in Malaysia ments (‘A’ in Figure 5.61) which are absent in the
is shown in Figure 5.60. The eggs of both these body segments C. megacephala (‘B’ in Figure 5.61).
species are seen in batches, and the first instar lar- The pupal cases also reveal similar differences as
vae do not exhibit particular spiracle morphology. shown by the empty pupal cases in Figure 5.62 ‘A’
The posterior spiracle of the second instar larvae and ‘B’) (Najwa, 2015–2016).
Day 6 Day 1
Pupa Eggs
Day 5 Day 2
Prepupa Instar 1
Day 4 instar 3 Day 3 instar 2
FIGURE 5.60 Diagrammatic representation of the life cycle of C. megacephala. Note the morphology of the
posterior spiracles (PS-2 and PS-3), which enables assessing the larval instar.
5.4.7 Identification of Skeletal Remains
5.4.7.1 Forensic Anthropology and the Types of

Identification Problems
Forensic assessment of human skeletonized remains

and their environment falls under forensic anthro-
pology (Krogman and İşcan, 1986), and the major
focus is on establishing the identification of more or
less skeletonized remains, either human or animal,
recovered in a legal context. Recovery of human
remains, whether partial or complete, necessar-
ily follows the next stage of identification of the
remains. Brues (1957/1958) recognized two basic
types of identification problems: one, the “directed
type” where the investigator has a strong presump-
FIGURE 5.61 Morphological difference between the tion of identity and the other the “open type” where
larvae of C. rufifacies (A) and C. megacephala (B). no prior presumption of identification is available.
Many of the unidentified dead bodies recovered
during routine investigation where some circum-
stantial evidence indicates possible identity belong
to the directed types. Those decomposed or skel-
etonized dead bodies which continue to remain as
unidentified without any clue toward possible iden-
tity belong to the open types and would require
processes such as facial reconstruction for identifi-
cation (Figure 5.63).
When identifying decomposed remains, the
most desirable peripheral evidence or antemortem
exemplar evidence are those which depict skeletal
traits that are specific for a particular individual
and thus would enable the laboratory analyst in
reaching conclusive opinion on identity. One such
popular peripheral evidence type is any antemor-
tem X-ray of the suspected dead individual which
FIGURE 5.62 Morphological difference between would reveal stable bony details that can be com-
the pupal cases of C. rufifacies (A) and C. mega- pared with the postmortem radiographic records
cephala (B). from the skeletal remains. Following such evidence,
the SOCOs can obtain the commonplace evidence,
Recognizing the oldest developmental stage face photographs of the suspected dead individual
of the larva at the crime scene can aid the SOCOs for conducting skull–photograph superimposition,
in suggesting the time since death in dead bod- a method that can suggest possible identification
ies that are decomposed provided the time taken which, although not conclusive by itself, is still use-
for the particular species in that temperature is ful as corroborative evidence. Facial reconstruc-
known. Erzinçlioglu (2003) recommends that tion, the process applicable for skull identification
maggots found in crime scenes must be collected when peripheral evidence like face photographs are
and immersed in very hot (almost boiling) water, unavailable, is yet to acquire popularity in countries
then transferred to a solution of acetic alcohol like India. The stages in the sequence of skeletal
(3 parts 70% alcohol: 1 part glacial acetic acid) remain identification are: general trait assessments
and that a few live maggots be kept on some meat such as whether the remains are of human origin,
or liver for culturing. The killed and live speci- assessing the sex and age of the remains where
mens of the larvae are to be preserved for fur- possible, and suggesting individual identification
ther taxonomic examination and confirmation in wherein the remains are attributed to a particular
laboratory. individual.
Available
peripheral Comparative
ed
ect methods
Dir se evidence
ca
Skull – photo
Antemortem Face superimposition
Biological photograph Dental morphology
evidence superimposition
(Skull-
unidentified) Sinus pattern
Antemortem X-
ray (Specific comparison
trait) Suture pattern
comparison
en Reconstructive
Op e
cas methods
Biological No peripheral Facial

evidence evidence reconstruction
(Skull-
unidentified)
FIGURE 5.63 Types of identification problems in forensic anthropology.
5.4.7.1.1 General Trait Identification—Placing the in Figure 5.67) collected from a pond and a hay-
Remains Within a Class During the recovery of stack, respectively, were found to physically match
major parts of a skeleton such as the skull and pel- with each other (‘3E’ and ‘3D’ in Figure 5.68)
vis, the human origin would be obvious. In such
remains, assessment of the other general traits
relating to sex, age, etc., is routinely carried out in
a forensic science laboratory. General trait identifi-
cation aids in either including or excluding a large
group and can still be helpful especially when frag-
mented bones are recovered in scenes where dead
bodies are reported to have been incinerated for
destroying identification. A part of burnt mandible
revealing an inverted ‘T’- shaped mental triangle
(arrow in Figure 5.64) can indicate the sex as male,
or a portion of burnt auricular part of ilium reveal-
ing the preauricular sulcus (arrow in Figure 5.65)
can be useful in suggesting the sex as female.
Sieving the ash may yield a broken piece of root
of tooth (Figure 5.66) which can aid in assessing
human origin.
In furtherance to incinerating the remains, the
burnt bones may also be disposed of in more than
one location. In one such instance where charred FIGURE 5.64 Inverted ‘T’-shaped mental triangle
fragments of bones were recovered from two loca- (arrow) in a burnt mandible as an indicator support-
tions, the broken edges of two bones (‘3E’ and ‘3D’ ing sex assessment as male.
indicating the origin of both fragments from a sin-

gle individual. This example illustrates the need for
preserving the bone fragments preventing damages
to their edges for enabling possible physical match-
ing and reconstruction during laboratory analysis.
Commingling of bones from more than human
being or from animal sources may also occur—
turtle bones (Figure 5.69) were found along with
the charred bones recovered from the pond in the
aforementioned instance.
When encountering fragmented remains, the
SOCO must strive to collect every fragment of bone
as many of the fragmented bones that reveal sig-
nificant information on identification are usually
FIGURE 5.65 A preauricular sulcus (arrow) in a

portion of burnt ilium as an indicator supporting
sex assessment as female.
FIGURE 5.68 Physical matching between the bro-

ken edges of the two pieces of bones 3E and 3D
establishing the origin of these pieces of bones from
the same source.
FIGURE 5.66 A broken piece of root of tooth

(arrow) aiding in assessing human origin.
FIGURE 5.67 Broken edges of two pieces of

charred bones (3E and 3D) recovered from two dif- FIGURE 5.69 Turtle bones found commingled
ferent locations. with human bones.
smaller in size such as parts of the mandible, por- vascular structures remain relatively unchanged for
tions of pelvic bone, and bones of the nasal region. a ‘normal’ life. The slow changes of aging and wear
Teeth may be loosely held in their sockets, and dur- and tear will gradually alter the configuration of a
ing fragmentation the teeth are likely to be lost. given bone, but not to the extent of confusing iden-
Teeth are vital for general trait identification as well tification. However, trauma, destructive disease,
as for individual identification when dental records and surgery would modify the bone substantially.
are available. It should be always ensured that the Dental Arches: Dental X-rays offer details of
entire complement of the teeth which is in conso- the dentition, most productive anatomic areas for
nance with the number of roots evident in the man- individual identification, whether by direct com-
dible and maxilla are collected from the scene and parison with dental records or by radiological com-
ensured to continue the effort to collect the missing parison. In an instance of a skeletonized remains
teeth by sieving the soil/debris. recovered from a valley in a hill station, the skull
revealed bilateral impaction of the maxillary
5.4.7.1.2 Individual Identification—Attributing the canines (Figure 5.70). During skull–photograph
Remains to a Particular Individual A crucial require- superimposition, acceptable match between the face
ment for any criminal investigation relating to and skull images (Figure 5.71) indicated the iden-
decomposed/skeletonized remains is establishing tity of the skull as that of the victim on a probable
the individual identification. Antemortem radio- basis. However, in a comparison of the antemortem
graphic records revealing bony details considered dental X- ray that revealed the impacted canines,
specific for an individual can be compared with the details of the inter-maxillary suture and the tra-
corresponding radiographic details in a skull or beculae (Figure 5.72) with the corresponding fea-
other bones leading to suggesting conclusive iden- tures in the X-ray of the skull taken postmortem
tity of the remains thereby providing a definite (Figure 5.73) offered conclusive proof on individual
lead during investigation. In the absence of such identification.
radiographic records, routine face photographs of Direct comparison of the dental arch revealed in
the putative victim that are commonplace, a mini- a smiling face photograph with the morphology of
mum of two photographs preferably in varying
angles, must be secured for causing skull–photo-
graph superimposition and for suggesting prob-
able identification.
5.4.7.1.3 Use of Specific Bony Traits Recorded in

Radiographs and Conclusive Identification Specific
traits are those that are considered unique to the
individual and thus enable gaining a sure or definite
identification. Historic examples of specific skel-
etal traits used for conclusive identification include
patterns of frontal sinus seen in roentgenogram
(Culbert and Law, 1927), details of healed fractures
in X-rays (Beddoe, 1956), patterns of hand and wrist
in X-rays (Greulich, 1960a, 1960b), and patterns
of lambdoid suture in X-ray (Ferris and Stockdale,
1972). Murphy et al. (1980) describe an assortment
of X- ray-based identifications. Regarding dental
radiographs, Bernstein (1998) note that unlike sub-
jective [written] dental records, radiographs sup-
ply objective data through the precise recording of
the unique morphology of dental restorations and
dento-osseous anatomy.
The principle underlying radiograph-based iden-
tification is that upon cessation of skeletal growth,
the general configuration of a bone, the shape and
direction of its various processes and protuber- FIGURE 5.70 Unidentified skull revealing impacted
ances, and the pattern of its major trabeculae and canine.
FIGURE 5.73 Postmortem dental X-

ray obtained
from the skull revealing details of the impacted
canines, patterns of the inter-maxillary suture, and
the trabeculae that correspond with those seen in
Figure 5.72.
FIGURE 5.71 Acceptable match of the skull-image

with the face-image of a suspected dead individual
during superimposition.
FIGURE 5.74 Anterior dentition in the skull ori-

ented to correspond the posture of the male in the
face photograph in Figure 5.75
(adapted from Jayaprakash, 2013 with permission from
Elsevier).
FIGURE 5.72 Antemortem dental X- ray of the
suspected dead individual revealing details of the
impacted canines, patterns of the inter-maxillary dental arch contour in both horizontal wipe mode
suture, and the trabeculae. (Figure 5.76) and vertical wipe mode (Figure 5.77)
superimpositions. The SOCOs must make it a point
to guide the investigation officers when identify-
the dental arch seen in the skull can lead to conclu- ing suitable antemortem face photographs for such
sive identification. In addition to matching acquired purposes.
features such as fracture and attrition (Figures 5.74 Sinus patterns: The frontal sinuses are as
and 5.75) using the real-time video superimposition unique to the individual as fingerprints. Even identi-
technique, it is possible to superimpose the entire cal twins will have different frontal sinus patterns.
dental arch morphology seen in the face image Comparison of frontal sinus configuration is usu-
with the one revealed in the skull for demonstrat- ally carried out in frontal view radiographs of the
ing point- to-
point match all along the available skull. Side-by-
side comparison is recommended
FIGURE 5.75 Anterior dentition revealed in the FIGURE 5.77 Superimposed vertical wipe mode
face photograph of the missing male. The pit in image demonstrates point-to-point match between
the left lateral incisor in the skull in Figure 5.74 is the patterns of the dentition along the entire vertical
faintly revealed in the corresponding tooth in the line of wipe.
male’s face photograph
Elsevier).
FIGURE 5.76 Superimposed horizontal wipe mode

image illustrates the point-to-point match along the
entire horizontal line of wipe.
as the effective method for frontal sinus compari-

son (Hashim et al., 2015). Surpassing the prob-
able identification reached via skull–photograph FIGURE 5.78 Sinus patterns in an antemortem
superimposition, comparison of the sinus patterns X-ray of a missing individual.
in the antemortem X-ray (Figure 5.78) with those
in the post-mortem X-ray of the skull (Figure 5.79) of a juvenile victim exhumed after about 40 days
enabled conclusive identification of the skull. (Figure 5.80) was established by comparing the
Suture patterns: Proposing that the skull sutural contour similarity of a Wormian bone in
sutures have unique patterns, Chandra Sekharan addition to similarities in sutural configuration in
(1985) demonstrated similarities in the suture pat- an antemortem radiograph (Figure 5.81) with the
terns seen in the antemortem and postmortem skull features revealed in a radiograph of the skull taken
radiographs of a murder victim and established defi- postmortem (Figure 5.82) (Jayaprakash, 1997).
nite identification. Definite identity of the remains The possibilities for morphological changes in skull
FIGURE 5.81 Antemortem X- ray of the missing

individual revealing the contour of Wormian bone
Elsevier).
FIGURE 5.79 Sinus patterns in a postmortem

X-ray of the skull.
FIGURE 5.82 Postmortem X-ray of the exhumed

skull taken in the laboratory revealing a contour of
Wormian bone similar to that seen in Figure 5.81
Elsevier).
sutures during preadolescent growth stages and its

implications in forensic identification have also been
noted (Jayaprakash and Srinivasan, 2013).
Vascular foramina and grooves and the pat-
tern of bony trabeculae have also been found to
be critical to the radiographic matching of some
antemortem and postmortem images. Antemortem
radiographic record revealing iatrogenic inclusions
and metal implants in bones can also be compared
FIGURE 5.80 Remains of a victim exhumed after with radiographs taken postmortem for establish-
about 40 days. ing conclusive identity (Pushparani et al., 2012).
5.4.7.1.4 Skull–Photograph Superimposition Leading advancements that are likely to continue to be impor-
to Probable Identification Ever since the premier tant in cranio-facial superimposition.
identification of the two skulls in Ruxton case was The practical relevance of skull–photograph
done by Glaister and Brash (1937), skull–photo- superimposition method is that the face photo-
graph superimposition gained global popularity, graphs that are commonplace for many of the miss-
and refinements in the process are being contin- ing individuals can be compared with the skulls
ued—the recent effort being by a consortium of from unidentified dead bodies enabling possible
international laboratories under a project termed identifications that can provide lead for investiga-
MEPROCS (Damas et al., 2020). Skull–photograph tion when homicide is suspected. Because of the
superimposition, also termed cranio-facial super- unavailability of control DNA samples of missing
imposition, is an image overlay process wherein individuals, DNA technology cannot be applied
the image of a skull recovered in forensic context to identify unidentified dead bodies encountered
is superimposed on the face image of a once-living in criminal cases, and, under such contingencies,
person to whom the skull might have belonged to. skull-photo superimposition is the only viable
Evidently, the skull, a bony object with a defined method to identify such remains. This method con-
outline, is compared with a face-image that is cov- tinues to be popular in some laboratories such as
ered with tissues of varying thicknesses, and thus the Forensic Sciences Department, Tamil Nadu,
there have been cautions on the reliability of iden- India, where this technique has been employed in
tification by this method. Stewart (1979) highlights 1,134 cases leading to 200 court testimonies (Misra
the laudable caution by Glaister and Brash in their and Damodaran, 2010). On occasions, skulls and
court testimony which stated that the ‘Skull No.1 other bones may be recovered in a shattered state.
could not possibly be the skull of Mrs. Ruxton . . . SOCOs may remember that standard procedures
Skull No.2 might be the skull of Mrs. Ruxton’. In have been described (Jayaprakash et al., 2017)
an experimental study, Austin-Smith and Maples for reconstructing the skull when the bones are in
(1994) found failures to exclude to be about 9% pieces (Figure 5.83).
Figure 5.83 series illustrates the major stages
when a single face photograph was used and about
in the reconstruction of skull when the bones are
less than 1% when more than one photograph was
recovered in pieces (A). The reconstructed maxil-
used, a finding indicating the use of multiple face
lary component (B) can be matched with the man-
photographs as desirable. Researchers and practi-
dibular component (C) which can be matched with
tioners are of the consensus that the superimposi-
the fronto-orbital component (D) followed by the
tion method cannot generate confirmatory evidence
vault component (E) to obtain the skull suitable for
on individual identification. It can be of value for
use during skull-photo superimposition. The pieces
exclusion while inclusion would have to be quali-
are stabilized using copper-braces, and the loca-
fied as ‘the skull could have’ belonged to the person tions of physical match are shown in black arrows
seen in the photograph. while the bone-missing areas are shown by white
Technological advancements in the image over- arrows.
lay process include the introduction of video tech- The problem of unidentified dead bodies has
nique (Helmer and Gruner, 1977; Brown, 1982) been well documented in forensic science, and
which enabled real-time size adjustment and image anthropological methods including skull- photo
mixing, a major advantage over the photographic superimposition have been indicated to be pos-
process. Computerization of the superimposition sible solutions (Anderson, 2008; Anderson and
process is under active research (Nickerson et al., Parks, 2008; Hinkes, 2008; Fenton et al., 2008;
1991; Ubelaker et al., 1992; Ghosh and Sinha, Jayaprakash et al., 2010; Gaudio et al., 2016).
2001; Ibanez et al., 2009; Tan et al., 2016; Tan Lusiardo et al. (2020) describe the application of
et al., 2020). Refinements in the process of superim- skull-photo superimposition in identifying human
position include those by Chandra Sekharan (1971, remains in Uruguay. Categorical instances of dead
1973, 1993), Maat (1989), Helmer and Gruner bodies pertaining to homicides being disposed
(1977), Iten (1987), Seta and Yoshino (1993), Cai of as unidentified has been noted in South Africa
and Lan (1993), Austin-Smith and Maples (1994), (Evert, 2011), India (Chattopadhyay et al., 2013),
Jayaprakash et al. (2001), and Jayaprakash (2015). and Malaysia (Jayaprakash et al., 2010). It is a mat-
Ubelaker (2015) recognizes the need for experi- ter of serious concern that dead bodies known to
ence in assessing the uniqueness of features during belong to victims of homicide are also finally dis-
superimposition and indicates the technological posed of as unidentified bodies resulting in a dead
need for a shift in research focus in forensic anthro-

pology from class-level identification to individual
identification in universities has been indicated to
be relevant for countries like India (Jayaprakash
et al., 2020).
5.4.7.1.5 Summary on Skeletal IdentificationThe

SOCOs and investigation officers are suggested
to consider the following when dealing with
unidentifiably decomposed or skeletonized human
remains:
a) Collect and preserve the skull as such fol-

lowing the procedure described in the
Appendix. Here, special care must be
taken to collect all the fallen teeth and
to affirm their identity in consultation
with the medical doctor conducting the
autopsy. Following this, initiate efforts
to collect peripheral evidence relating to
the missing individual for carrying skull-
photo superimposition or radiographic
comparison.
b) All the shattered pieces of bones of skull
must be collected as procedures are avail-
able to reconstitute broken pieces to form
the skull and to carry out superimposi-
tion with the available face photographs
(Jayaprakash et al., 2017).
c) Because specific skeletal traits enable reach-
ing conclusive identification, the SOCOs
and IOs must endure to collect antemor-
FIGURE 5.83 Series of the major stages in the tem X-rays of the head (showing sinus or
reconstruction of skull when the skull bones are skull suture patterns) or metallic implants
recovered in pieces that can be compared with correspond-
ing patterns in the X- rays recorded
JFI). postmortem.
d) The SOCOs and IOs must also endure to
obtain smiling face photographs of the
end for the investigation of all such cases of murder. putative victims revealing the anterior
In the aforementioned context, every investigator is dentition which would enable superim-
reiterated that skull–photograph superimposition, position with the dental pattern in the
though not an official method of identification for skull enabling identification on conclusive
reaching conclusive identity of human remains, is basis.
the only available method offering the scope for sug-
gesting possible identity of unidentified dead bodies
of such murder victims since photographs of miss- REFERENCES
ing individuals are commonly available. Once a lead
is provided on the possible identity, further investi- Anderson, B. E. Identifying the dead: Methods utilized
gation usually leads to discovering the motive. The by the Pima county (Arizona) office of the medi-
identity revealed by the superimposition method cal examiner for undocumented border crossers:
would open up the scope for identifying the relatives 2001–2006, J Forensic Sci., 53 (2008): 8–15.
of the putative dead individual, and the biological Anderson, B. E. and Parks, B. O. Symposium on bor-
samples from such relatives can be used for DNA der crossing deaths: Introduction. J Forensic
analysis to affirm the identity. In this context, the Sci., 53 (1) (2008): 6–7.
Austin-Smith, D. and Maples, W. R. The reliability of Chandra Sekharan, P. A revised superimposition

skull/photograph superimposition in individual technique for identification of the individual
identification, J Forensic Sci., 39 (2) (1994): from the skull and photograph, J Crim Law
446–455. Crimin Pol Sci., 62 (1971): 107–113.
Beddoe, H. L. Methods of investigation in the iden- Chandra Sekharan, P. A scientific method for posi-
tification of human remains, J Forensic Sci., 1 tioning of the skull for photography in super-
(1956): 47–60. imposition studies, Pol Sci Admin., 1 (2) (1973):
Bernstein, M. L. Radiologic applications in forensic 232–240.
dentistry, in Forensic Radiology, Brogdon, B. G. Chandra Sekharan, P. Identification of skull from
(Ed.) Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1998. its suture pattern, Forensic Sci Int., 27 (1985):
Bevel, T. and Gardner, R. M. Bloodstain Pattern 205–214.
Analysis with an Introduction to Crime Scene Chandra Sekharan, P. Positioning the skull for
Reconstruction, Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, superimposition, in Forensic Analysis of the
2002. Skull—Craniofacial Analysis, Reconstruction
Bisbing, R. E. Finding trace evidence, in Mute and Identification, İşcan, M. Y. and Helmer,
Witnesses: Trace Evidence Analysis, Houck, M. R. P. (Eds.) New York: Wiley Liss Inc., 1993,
M. (Ed.) San Diego: Academic Press, 2001a, 105–118.
87–115. Chattopadhyay, S., Shee, B. and Sukal, B. Unidentified
Bisbing, R. E. The forensic identification and asso- bodies in autopsy—a disaster in disguise,
ciation of human hair, in Forensic Science Egypt J Forensic Sci., 30 (2013): 112–115.
Handbook, Vol. I, Saferstein, R. (Ed.) NJ: Culbert, W. L. and Law, F. M. Identification by
Prentice-Hall, 2001b. comparison of roentgenograms of nasal acces-
Bisbing, R. E. Forensic hair comparisons: Guidelines, sory sinuses and mastoid processes, J Am Med
standards, protocols, quality assurance and Assoc., 88 (21) (1927): 1634–1636.
enforcement. Presentation to The National Daly, D., Lee- Gorman, M. A. and Ryan, J.
Academies Committee on Identifying the Distinguishing between damage to clothing as
Needs of the Forensic Sciences Community, a result of normal wear and tear or as a result
Westmont, IL, 2007. Available at: https://sites. of deliberate damage: A sexual assault case
nationalacademies.org/cs/groups/pgasite/docu- study, J Forensic Sci., 54 (2) (2009): 400–403.
ments/webpage/pga_049907.pdf Damas, S., Cordón, O. and Ibáñez, O. MEPROCS
Brown, K. A. The identification of Linda Agostini, Am craniofacial superimposition framework, in
J Forensic Med Pathol., 3 (2) (1982): 131–141. Handbook on Craniofacial Superimposition,
Brues, A. M. Identification of skeletal remains, Cham: Springer, 2020, 139–152.
J Crim. Law Police Sci., 48 (1957–1958): Deedrick, D. W. and Koch, S. L. Microscopy of
551–563. hair part 1: A practical guide and man-
Brun-Conti, L. Feathers, in Mute Witnesses: Trace ual for human hairs, Forensic Science
Evidence Analysis, Houck, M. M. (Ed.) San Communications, 6 (1), 2004. Available at:
Diego, CA: Academic Press, 2001, 157–173. https://archives.fbi.gov/archives/about-us/lab/
Busuttil, A. Scenes of crime: The pathologist and forensic-science-communications/fsc/jan2004/
others, in Forensic Medicine: Clinical and research/2004_01_research01b.htm
Pathological Aspects, Payne-James, J., Busuttil, De Forest, P. R., Gaensslen, R. E. and Lee, H.
A. and Smock, W. (Eds.) London: Greenwich C. Forensic Science: An Introduction to
Medical Media Ltd., 2003, 49–66. Criminalistics, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1983.
Byrd, J. H. and Castner, J. L. Insects of foren- DiMaio, V. J. M. Gunshot Wounds Practical Aspects
sic importance, in Byrd, J. H. and Castner, J. of Firearms, Ballistics, and Forensic Techniques,
L. (Eds.) Forensic Entomology: The Utility Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1999.
of Arthropods in Legal Investigations, Boca Erzinçlioglu, Z. Role of and techniques in forensic
Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2001, 43–80. entomology, in Forensic Medicine: Clinical and
Cai, D. and Lan, Y. Standards for skull to photo Pathological Aspects, Payne-James, J., Busuttil,
superimposition, in Forensic Analysis of the A. and Smock, W. (Eds.) London: Greenwich
Skull—Craniofacial Analysis, Reconstruction Medical Media Ltd., 2003, 747–753
and Identification, İşcan, M. Y. and Helmer, Evert, L. Unidentified Bodies in Forensic Pathology
R. P. (Eds.) New York: Wiley Liss Inc., 1993, Practice in South Africa, Demographic and
171–181. Medicolegal Perspectives, thesis submitted in
fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Hashim, N., Hemalatha, N., Thangaraj, K.,
Magister Scientiae in Medical Criminalistics in Kareem, A., Ahmed, A., Hassan, N. F. N. and
the Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Jayaprakash, P. T. Practical relevance of pre-
Pretoria, 2011. scribing superimposition for determining a
Fenton, T. W., Heard, A. N. and Sauer, N. J. Skull- frontal sinus pattern match, Forensic Sci Int.,
photo superimposition and border deaths: 253 (2015): 137.e1–137.e7.
Identification through exclusion and the failure Helmer, R. and Gruner, O. Vereinfachite schadeli-
to exclude, J Forensic Sci., 53 (1) (2008): 34–40. dentifizierung nach dem superprojektions-
Ferris, J. A. J. and Stockdale, R. E. The Bluebell ver fahren mit hilfe einer video anlage, Z
woods case: A problem of identification, J Rechtsmedizin, 80 (1977): 183–187.
Forensic Sci Soc., 12 (1972): 339–345. Hinkes, M. J. Migrant deaths along the California—
Galloway, A. The process of decomposition: A model Mexico border: An anthropological perspec-
from the Arizona- Sonaran desert, in Forensic tive, J Forensic Sci., 53 (1) (2008): 16–20.
Entomology: The Utility of Arthropods in Legal Ibáñez, O., Ballerini, L., Cordón, O., Damas, S.
Investigations, Byrd, J. H. and Castner, J. L. (Eds.) and Santamaría, J. An experimental study on
Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2001, 139–150 the applicability of evolutionary algorithms
Gaudette, B. D. Comparison: Significance of hair to craniofacial superimposition in forensic
evidence, in Encyclopedia of Forensic Sciences, identification, Information Sci., 179 (2009):
Siegel, J., Knupfer, G. and Saukko, P. (Eds.) 3998–4028.
London: Academic Press, 2000a, 1018–1024. Inman, K. and Rudin, N. Principles and Practice
Gaudette, B. D. Hair transfer, persistence and recov- of Criminalistics: The Profession of Forensic
ery, in Encyclopedia of Forensic Sciences, Siegel, Science, Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2001.
J., Knupfer, G. and Saukko, P. (Eds.) London: Iten, P. X. Identification of skulls by video superimpo-
Academic Press, 2000b, 1032–1034. sition, J Forensic Sci., 32 (1) (1987): 173–188.
Gaudio, D., Olivieri, L., De Angelis, D., Poppa, P., James, S. H. Scientific and Legal Applications of
Galassi, A. and Cattaneo, C. Reliability of cra- Bloodstain Pattern Interpretation, Boca Raton,
niofacial superimposition using three-dimension FL: CRC Press, 1999.
skull model, J Forensic Sci., (61) 2016: 5–11. James, S. H. and Eckert, W. G. Interpretation of
Ghosh, A. K. and Sinha, P. An economised craniofa- Bloodstain Evidence at Crime Scenes, 2nd ed.,
cial identification system, Forensic Sci Int., 117 Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1999.
(1–2) (2001): 109–119. James, S. J. and Nordby, J. J. Forensic Science: An
Gilbert, J. Criminal Investigation, 3rd ed., New Introduction to Scientific and Investigative
York: Christine Cardone Macmillan Publishing Techniques, Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2003.
Company, 1993. Jayaprakash, P. T. Skull sutures: Radiographic con-
Glaister, J. and Brash, J. C. Medico-legal Aspects of tour of Wormian bone as an individualizing
the Ruxton Case, Edinburgh: E & S Livingstone epigenetic marker, Can Soc Forensic Sci J., 30
Ltd., 1937. (2) (1997): 39–47.
Goff, M. L. Early post-mortem changes and stages of Jayaprakash, P. T. Practical relevance of pattern
decomposition in exposed cadavers, Exp Appl uniqueness in forensic science, Forensic Sci Int.,
Acarol., 49 (2009): 21–36. 231 (1–3) (2013): 403.e1–403.e16.
Gordon, I., Shapiro, H. A. and Berson, S. D. Forensic Jayaprakash, P. T. Conceptual transitions in methods
Medicine: A Guide to Principles, Edinburgh: of skull-photo superimposition that impact the
Churchill Livingstone, 1988. reliability of identification: A review, Forensic
Greulich, W. W. Value of X-ray films of hand and Sci Int., 246 (2015): 110–121.
wrist in human identification, Science, 131 Jayaprakash, P. T., Alarmelmangai, S. and Pushparani,
(1960a): 155–156. C. Past progress and future needs of forensic
Greulich, W. W. Skeletal features visible on the roent- anthropology in India, Med Sci Law, 61 (2) (2021):
genogram of the hand and wrist which can be 163–164. doi: 10.1177/0025802420971604.
used for establishing individual identification, Epub 2020 Nov 11.
Am J Roentgenol Radium Ther Nucl Med., 83 Jayaprakash, P. T., Alarmelmangai, S., Pushparani,
(4) (1960b): 756–764. C. and Pritam, H. H. Copper brace method:
Hanzlick, R. and Graham, M. A. Forensic Pathology A new technique for reconstructing broken
in Criminal Cases, 2nd ed., Carlsbad, CA: Lexis bone fragments, J Forensic Identif., 67 (2)
Publishing, 2000. (2017): 180–189.
Jayaprakash, P. T., Singh, B., Ridzuan, A. A. M. Y. Najwa, N. B. A Study on the Species Composition
and Hetty, S. A. Skull-photo superimposition: of Necrophagous Dipteran Flies Infesting
A remedy to the problem of unidentified dead Beef Meat in Urban and Rural Location in
in Malaysia, MJOFS, 1 (2010): 35–42. Kota Bahru, dissertation submitted in par-
Jayaprakash, P. T. and Srinivasan, G. J. Skull sutures: tial fulfilment of the requirements for the
Changing morphology during preadolescent degree of Bachelor of Science (Honour) in
growth and its implications in forensic iden- Forensic Science, School of Health Science,
tification, Forensic Sci Int., 229 (2013): 166. UniversitiSains Malaysia, 2015–2016.
e1–166.e13. NAS Report. Strengthening Forensic Science in the
Jayaprakash, P. T., Srinivasan, G. J. and United States: A Path Forward, Report of the
Amravaneswaran, M. G. Cranio- facial mor- National Academy of Sciences (NAS), (the
phanalysis: A new method for enhancing NAS Report), Washington, DC: The National
reliability while identifying skulls by photo Academy Press, 2009.
superimposition, Forensic Sci Int., 117 (1–2) Nehse, K. Using 1:1 taping to reconstruct a source, in
(2001): 121–143. Trace Evidence Analysis: More Cases in Mute
Jones, L. V. Scientific Investigation and Physical Witnesses, Houck, M. M. (Ed.) Amsterdam:
Evidence, Springfield: Charles C. Thomas, 1959. Elsevier-Academic Press, 2004, 191–210.
Kirk, P. L. Crime Investigation, New York: John Nickell, J. and Fischer, J. F. Crime Science: Methods of
Willey & Sons, 1974. Forensic Detection, Kentucky: The University
Knight, B. Simpson’s Forensic Medicine, 11th ed., Press of Kentucky, 1999.
London: Arnold, 1997. Nickerson, B. A., Fitzhom, P. A., Koch, S. K. and
Krogman, W. M. and İşcan, M. Y. The Human Chamey, M. A methodology for near-optimal
Skeleton in Forensic Medicine, Springfield, IL: computational superimposition of two dimen-
Charles C. Thomas, 1986. sional digital facial photographs and three-
Lusiardo, A., Eulacio, X. S., Casanova, A. G., Azziz. dimensional cranial surface meshes, J Forensic
N, Bongiovanni, R., López, M. and Rodriguez, Sci., 36 (2) (1991): 480–500.
S. Forensic identification of human remains in Ogle, R. R. and Fox, M. J. Atlas of Human Hair
Uruguay in Forensic Science and Humanitarian Microscopic Characteristics, Boca Raton, FL:
Action: Interacting with the Dead and the CRC Press, 1999.
Living, Parra, R. C., Zapico, S. C. and Ubelaker, O’Hara, C. E. and O’Hara, G. L. Fundamentals of
D. H. (Eds.) John Wiley & Sons, 2020, 653– Criminal Investigation, 6th ed., Springfield, IL:
661. doi: 10.1002/9781119482062.ch42 Charles C. Thomas, 1994.
Maat, G. J. R. The positioning and magnification of Polson, C. J., Gee, D. J. and Knight, B. The Essentials
faces and skulls for photographic superimposi- of Forensic Medicine, 4th ed., Oxford:
tion, Forensic Sci. Int., 41 (1989): 225–235. Pergamon Press, 1985.
Mahat, N. A., Zafarina, Z. and Jayaprakash, P. T. Pritam, H. H. and Jayaprakash, P. T. Nocturnal ovi-
Influence of rain and malathion on the ovipo- position behavior of necrophagous Dipterans
sition and development of blowflies (Diptera: in Kelantan, Malaysia, J Forensic Sci., 54 (5)
Calliphoridae) infesting rabbit carcasses in (2009): 1135–1140.
Kelantan, Malaysia, Forensic Sci Int., 192 Pushparani, C., Ravichandran, C. P. and Sivakumari,
(2009): 19–28. K. Radiography superimposition in personal
Mason, J. K. Forensic Medicine: An Illustrated identification—a case study involving surgical
Reference, London: Chapman and Hall implants, J Forensic Res., 3 (01) (2012). doi:
Medical, 1993. 10.4172/2157-7145.1000140.
Misra, G. J. and Damodaran, C. Perspective Robertson, J. and Grieve, M. Forensic Examination
Plan for Indian Forensics, Final Report presented of Fibers, London: Taylor and Francis, 1999.
to the Ministry of Home Affairs, Government Roux, C., Bull, S. and Olinder, S. Pattern evidence:
of India by the Consultants, New Delhi, 2010. Plastic bag striations, in Encyclopedia of
Available at: https://mha.gov.in/sites/default/ Forensic Science, Siegel, J. A., Knuper, G. and
files/IFS%282010%29-FinalRpt_3.pdf Saukko, P. (Eds.) London: Academic Press,
Murphy, W. A., Spruill, F. G. and Gantner, G. E. 2000, 1181–1189.
Radiographic identification of unknown human Saferstein, R. Forensic Science Handbook, Vol. II,
remains, J Forensic Sci., 5 (1980): 725–735. NJ: Prentice-Hall, 2005.
Saferstein, R. Criminalistics: An Introduction to Taupin, J. M. Clothing damage analysis and the phe-
Forensic Science, Upper Saddle River, NJ: nomenon of the false sexual assault, J Forensic
Prentice Hall, 2014. Sci., 45 (3) (2000): 568–572.
Saukko, P. and Knight, B. Kinght’s Forensic Pathology, Taupin, J. M. and Cwiklik, C. Scientific Protocols
Euston Road, London: Hodder Arnold, 2004. for Forensic Examination of Clothing, Boca
Seta, S. and Yoshino, M. A. Combined apparatus Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2011.
for photographic and video superimposition, The Guardian. Dingo baby ruling ends 32 years of
in Forensic Analysis of the Skull—Craniofacial torment for Lindy Chamberlain, 12 June, 2012.
Analysis, Reconstruction and Identification, Available at: www.theguardian.com/world/
İşcan, M. Y. and Helmer, R. P. (Eds.) New York: 2012/jun/12/dingo-baby-azaria-lindy-chamberlain
Wiley Liss Inc., 1993, 161–169. Ubelaker, D. H. Craniofacial superimposition:
Shkrum, M. J. and Ramsay, D. A. Forensic Pathology Historical review and current issues, J Forensic
of Trauma Common Problems for the Sci., 60 (6) (2015): 1412–1419.
Pathologist, Totowa: Humana Press, 2007. Ubelaker, D. H., Bubniak, E. and O’Donnel, G.
Simpson, K. and Knight, B. Simpson’s Forensic Computer-assisted photographic superimposi-
Medicine, 9th ed., London: Arnold, 1985. tion, J Forensic Sci., 37 (1992): 750–762.
Stewart, T. D. Essentials of Forensic Anthropology, Vanezis, P. Sharp force trauma, in Forensic Medicine:
Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1979. Clinical and Pathological Aspects, Payne-
Tan, J. S., Liao, I. Y., Venkat, I., Belaton, B. and James, J., Busuttil, A. and Smock, W. (Eds.)
Jayaprakash, P. T. Computer-aided superimpo- London: Greenwich Medical Media Ltd., 2003,
sition via reconstructing and matching 3D faces 307–319.
to 3D skulls for forensic craniofacial identifica- Wonder, A. Y. Blood Dynamics, San Diego, CA:
tions, The Visual Computer., 36 (2020): 1739– Academic Press, 2001.
1753. doi: 10.1007/s00371-019-01767-7 Yoshino, M., Sato, H. and Seta, S. Hair-
Tan, J. S, Liao, I. Y., Venkat, I. and Jayaprakash, P. T. Deoxyribonucleic acid typing, in Encyclopedia
Computer- aided craniofacial superimposition of Forensic Science, Siegel, J. A., Knuper, G.
using a quasi- Newton iterative closest point and Saukko, P. (Eds.) London: Academic Press,
approach, ScienceAsia, 42 (2016): 136–145. 2000, 1025–1032.
Chapter 6
Scheme for Exhuming Buried
Human Remains
6.1 INTRODUCTION endorsed sequence similar to the one followed dur-

ing archeological excavations thereby leading to a
Exhumation has long been recognized as a pro- possible loss of evidence. Evidence lost during an
cess involving collective effort of people of multiple exhumation are, without exception, to be reckoned
enterprises that can be of priceless advantage for as forfeited once and for all. As a result, it is not
an investigation when carried out carefully (Gross, uncommon to find investigation officers becoming
1906). In India, Criminal Procedure Code (CrPC) complacent believing that the evidence collected
prescribes that the Magistrate may cause a buried during an exhumation was all that was really avail-
dead body to be disinterred when the need arises. It able in the burial site. One such scenario during
is customary that the investigation officers request exhumations is the complacence when failing to
the Executive Magistrates to carry out exhumations locate the loosened teeth that are lost with the exca-
in the presence of the medical doctors authorized vated soil. Although sieving the soil has been gener-
to conduct the postmortem examination. Unlike ally recommended during exhumations, it has been
a streamlined procedure available for crime scene found that particular search for teeth by sieving
search with the responsibility to execute them the excavated soil proves effective in recovering the
bestowed on the investigation officer, the proce- fallen teeth that get mixed-up in the soil.
dure for exhumation is rather pliant and customary Exhumations oftentimes relate to complex situ-
as well. Furthermore, the involvement of multiple ations which may range from intentional disposal
authorities like magistrate, medical doctor, SOCO, of a dead body after murder or suspicious death to
investigation officer, and other assisting staff mem- disinterring a body for a second postmortem exami-
bers during an exhumation oftentimes creates nation to clarify allegations relating to the cause of
a scenario where everyone feels connected, and death. The procedure for exhumation is described
nobody is in-charge. By virtue of its relative rarity by many authors, and the stages of exhumation
in occurrence, carrying out an exhumation is likely prescribed in this chapter follow the one suggested
to be viewed as an out of the ordinary responsibil- by Dupras et al. (2012). The items of implements
ity thereby challenging the participating officials that have been found to be more relevant and the
in reaching unanimous operating decisions. Some procedures that are of crucial importance are boxed
authors recommend the presence of an anthropolo- in bold outlines in the flowchart. The phases illus-
gist during an exhumation (Busuttil, 2003) although trated in this chapter are those that are considered
it may not be possible to obtain such assistance in basic and include the stages recorded when exhum-
all cases. The procedure recommended in this chap- ing donated human remains that had been interred
ter would be useful as being optimal for the routine in Universiti Sains Malaysia as part of Work-Based
types of exhumations encountered during investiga- Learning for the students designed by the author.
tions. The flowchart prescribes the important steps Conventionally, the object of exhumations
in the process of exhumation with the steps consid- focuses on establishing the cause of death. It has
ered essential shown in bold boxes. to be remembered that all possible evidence useful
Contrasting the qualified personnel involved for establishing the identity of the deceased are also
hands-on in crime scene investigations, the physi- to be collected when exhuming human remains.
cal process of digging out a dead body is usually In some countries, it may be customary for inves-
left in the hands of grave diggers. Consequently, the tigation officers to preserve the skull for ascer-
exhumation process may not follow a scientifically taining the identity by seeking skull–photograph
DOI: 10.4324/9781003267096-6 133

superimposition. In this regard, it must be borne is a superior indicator of sex. Particular importance
in mind that all the loosened or fallen teeth must must be given to the recovery of bones capable of
be collected from the burial site since these would evidencing specific skeletal trait characteristics such
enable comparison with the available antemor- as the dental arches, sutural or sinus configura-
tem dental records or with the dental morphology tions in skull, implants, and acquired deformities
revealed in antemortem face photographs in smil- in bones which can lead to conclusive individual
ing postures. When preserving the skull, it is also identification when comparable antemortem radio-
desirable to preserve the pelvic bone since the latter graphic records are recovered.
6.1. FLOW CHART FOR EXHUMATION

6.2 FLOWCHART FOR EXHUMATION
EXHUMATION SCENE
BURIAL SITE CHRONOLOGICAL SEQUENCES IN THE EXHUMATION PROCESS—WITH PHOTOGRAPHY AND SKETCHES
Recording the 1 2 3 4 5
Exhumation Area
SURFACE SOIL REMOVING SOIL EXPOSING THE REMOVING THE RECORDING THE
DEPOSITS IN GRAVE REMAINS REMAINS REMAINS
SKETCH PHOTOGRAPHY SEQUENCES SEQUENCES SEQUENCES SEQUENCES SEQUENCES

(TOPOGRAPHY) (TOPOGRAPHY)
- CONTEXT DETAILS - INITIAL SOIL - DEPTH OF REMAINS - PATELLA, LEGS - WASH OFF
COLOR TISSUES
HIGHLIGHTS - EXTENT OF AREA - HAND BONES
HIGHLIGHTS - SKETCH OF REMAINS - DISPLAY IN
- COLOUR CHANGE
- PERMANENT - LOOSE SOIL IN SOIL—SAMPLING - PELVIS, SACRUM ANATOMICAL
- PERMANENT - PHOTOGRAPH THE POSITION
LANDMARK
LANDMARK - LOSS OF REMAINS
RELATIONSHIP -WRAPPING - VERTEBRAE. RIBS,
VEGETATION MATERIAL STERNUM - EXTRA CARE FOR
- MEASURE USING - SKULL LOCATION FRACTURED/
COORDINATE - RECENT GROWTH SMALL BONES,
- OTHER - CRANIUM, TEETH
METHOD OF VEGETATION - FEET LOCATION TEETH, ETC.
COVERINGS—
(COMPASS
COFFIN - LOOSE HAIRS
DIRECTION BASED) - INSECT ACTIVITIES - ENTOMOLOGICAL
- EXPOSE THE EVIDENCE EQUIPMENT
- PROCEED WITH REMAINS - SCRAPE THE SOIL SOIL BELOW THE
CLEANING AROUND THE BODY BODY—FOR - BRUSHES
TOXICOLOGICAL
EQUIPMENTS EQUIPMENTS EQUIPMENT ANALYSIS - WOODEN/
PLASTIC SPOONS
- FAN-SHAPED RAKE - MECHANISED - BRUSHES
DEVICES (IF DEPTH EQUIPMENT - DENTAL PICKS,
- BRUSHES IS KNOWN) - WOODEN/ BAMBOO SKEWERS
PLASTIC SPOONS - BRUSHES
- FLAT BLADE - HAND TROWELS - WOODEN/ PLASTIC - TOOTH BRUSHES
- BROAD TWEEZERS
SHOVEL SPOONS
- BRUSHES OF HARD - MAKE-UP
AND SOFT TYPES - WATER BOTTLES BRUSHES
- LARGE SEIVE
WITH NOZZLES - DENTAL PICKS,
- FLAT BLADE BAMBOO SKEWERS - WATER BOTTLES
- METAL BASKETS
SHOVEL - SOIL SAMPLES - WATER BOTTLES WITH NOZZLES
FROM ABOVE WITH NOZZLES
- LARGE SEIVE
- TOOTHBRUSHES
6.3 BASIC STAGES IN THE coordinate method (compass direction based)

PROCESS OF EXHUMATION (Figure 6.1). Once the remains are exposed, another
sketch illustrating the burial pit with its dimensions
6.3.1 Making the Sketches During Exhumations can be drawn (Figure 6.2).
In as much as the sites where the bodies are bur-

ied are oftentimes in areas that are open, the SOCO 6.3.2 Describing the Surface Soil Characteristics
must take especial measures to offer the precise
location of the grave in the sketches that are pre- Surface soil characteristics may reveal marked
pared. Initially, an aerial view sketch needs to be color differences when the burial or disinterment
drawn showing the location of the burial site using is recent (arrow in Figure 5.23). In an area lacking
Scheme for Exhuming Buried Human Remains 135
FIGURE 6.2 Isometric view of the burial pit drawn

after exposing the remains.
vegetation, the surface may simply reveal a mound

(arrow in Figure 6.3). Note the considerable number
of individuals gathering from different agencies dur-
ing an exhumation. This photograph (Figure 6.3)
was taken when the witnesses identified the location
of the burial site.
6.3.3 Choosing the Method for Digging
Use of a mechanized device (Figure 6.4) can be

resorted to during the initial stages of digging the
soil, provided constant caution is exercised not
to disturb the remains during the progress of the
FIGURE 6.1 Aerial view sketch of the burial site digging process. Once there is visible evidence of
made applying the coordinate method. wetness in soil or any wrapping of the remains
FIGURE 6.3 Photograph illustrating the identification of the burial site.

(Figure 6.5), digging has to be done using shovels or 6.3.4 Recording the Entomological Findings
plastic spoons (Figure 6.6).
The finding of larval specimens such as the white
grub in Figure 6.7 may provide clue on the duration
for which the burial site had remained undisturbed.
White grubs are known to live under soil for months
before completing their growth.
6.3.5 Exposing the Remains
The remains that are exposed may have a cloth cover

(Figure 6.8) or may be found kept inside a coffin
FIGURE 6.4 Use of mechanized device for the ini-

tial digging of the grave.
FIGURE 6.6 Further progression of the digging

process using plastic spoons after the exposure of
the wrapping material.
FIGURE 6.7 A grub, entomological evidence

FIGURE 6.5 Visible evidence of the remains indi- observed during exhumation. Such evidence are to
cated by the wrapping material. recorded and collected.
FIGURE 6.8 Cloth covered remains exposed during exhumation.
FIGURE 6.9 Remains kept inside a coffin filled with salt found in an exhumation.
(Figure 6.9). Occasionally, only a part of the body carefully clearing the soil surrounding the remains.
such as the plaited hairdo (arrow in Figure 5.24) may When the dead body is relatively less decomposed,
be recovered during exhumation. Once the remains the body itself has to be disinterred for postmortem
are exposed, the digging process has to focus on examination by the medical doctors. In case the
remains are in skeletonized state, the bones are to be and tibia and fibula (Figure 6.12). This can be fol-
removed sequentially for examination by the medical lowed by the hand bones and followed by the femur
doctors. and pelvis (Figure 6.13).
6.3.6 Sequence Recommended for Collection of 6.3.6.2 Collection of the Other Bones

Bones
In the torso, the collection should be started with
6.3.6.1 Bones of the Limbs and Pelvis the sternum (Figure 6.14) and proceeded through
the ribs and vertebrae (Figure 6.15) ending with the
In the lower limb, the collection of the bones should mandible and cranium (Figure 6.16). Hairs adhering
be started beginning with the patella (Figure 6.10) to the cranium must be separately collected (arrow
and progressing through the foot bones (Figure 6.11) in Figure 6.17), and the cranium must be held firmly
supported by the hands (Figure 6.18) since it would
be heavy due to sand filling the cranial space. It is
cautioned that the skull should never be held or
FIGURE 6.10 When gathering the bones, the col-

lection starts with the patella. FIGURE 6.11 Collection of foot bones.
FIGURE 6.12 Collection of tibia and fibula.

FIGURE 6.15 Collection of ribs and vertebrae.

FIGURE 6.13 Collection of femurs.
FIGURE 6.16 Collection of the cranium.
manipulated by inserting fingers inside the foramen

magnum, a typical slipup that may cause damage to
the skull due to the weight of the soil inside the vault
or because of preexisting fractures. The soil must be
sieved for collecting loosened teeth especially when
loss of teeth is indicated. In the aforementioned
exhumation, there was no evidence of loss of teeth.
FIGURE 6.14 Collection of sternum.
FIGURE 6.17 The hairs adhering to the skull (arrow) must be collected separately.
FIGURE 6.18 When handling the cranium, it should always be supported with both the hands.
6.3.7 Anatomical Display of the Bones Collected 6.3.8 Final Preparation of the Skull
Displaying the collected bones according to their After the examination, the skull and mandible or
anatomical relationships (Figure 6.19) enables the pelvic bones may be subjected to processes of
verifying the completeness in the recovery of the cleaning by maceration and bleaching that are usu-
bones in addition to recognizing bones that can be ally done by trained anthropologists in forensic
used for specific skeletal trait identification such as science laboratories. The cranium and mandible
those exhibiting extra calcification and evidence of exhumed (Figure 6.16) were similarly cleaned and
implants. prepared in the university laboratory. The skull
FIGURE 6.19 Display of the collected bones accord- FIGURE 6.20 View of the skull after maceration and
ing to their anatomical relationships. bleaching. The skull articulated with the mandible is
shown mounted for establishing individual identifi-
cation using skull–photo superimposition method.
and mandible can then be articulated and mounted bone injuries, metal implants, etc., that may aid in
appropriately (Figure 6.20) and used for skull–pho- individual identification.
tograph superimposition for suggesting individual
identity when the face photographs of the suspected
dead individual are available. REFERENCES
Busuttil, A. Scene of crime—The pathologist and

6.3.8.1 Postscript others, in Forensic Medicine: Clinical and
Pathological Aspects, Payne-James, J. Busuttil,
It is noted that recovering and examining the A. and Smock, W. (Eds.) London: Greenwich
entire skeleton are essential processes during Medical Media Ltd, 2003.
any exhumation since the entire remains are to Dupras, T. L., Schutz, J. J., Wheeler, S. M. and
be examined for injuries, etc. However, the skull Williams, L. J. Forensic Recovery of Human
and pelvic bones are to be preserved for anthro- Remains: Archaeological Approaches, Boca
pological analysis for establishing identity. The Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2012.
collection of other bones can be decided on a Gross, H. Criminal Investigation: A Practical
case-specific basis depending on the analyses that Handbook for Magistrates, Police Officers and
may be conceived on the autopsy findings and the Lawyers, Adam, J. and Adam, J. C. (Trans)
relevance of additional analysis based on healed Madras: Krishnamachari, 1906.
Chapter 7
of Death due to Burns
7.1 INTRODUCTION in this chapter would also make it evident for the
readers that crime scene observations by themselves
In India, suicide by burning is common among do stand alone as evidence offering support for
Indian females (Subrahmanyam, 1999). Allegations reconstructing the movement of the victim while
that victims had been burnt do crop up, and, on still ablaze—an inference sufficient to repudiate
some occasions, such allegations have been upheld the hypothesis that the burning was post-mortem.
as cases that came to be termed as ‘wife burning’ Recognizing such evidence during the initial exami-
or ‘bride burning’. However, there has been an nation of the crime scenes would negate many of
eyebrow-raising increase in the incidences of ‘wife the theories that are likely to confuse the course of
burning’ from 670 in 1975 to 1,676 in 1979 (cited investigation. The flowchart prescribed has been
by Palriwala, 2010). In one case of ‘wife burning’, designed to enable the SOCOs in exploring the mul-
the Supreme Court of India noted that the plea of tifarious forensic aspects relating to scene investi-
suicide was not ‘pressed into service’ by the defense gation involving death due to fire on a step-by-step
(State Delhi (Administration) vs. Laxman Kumar & basis.
Ors on 23 September 1985, Supreme Court of India, The discussion incorporates some myths and
1986 AIR 250, 1985 SCR Supl. (2) 898). Among facts relating to crime scene observations in deaths
the remaining possibilities, viz. ‘accidental fire’ and due to fire and then focuses on some of the major
‘being put on fire’, the latter was held to be sup- observable manifestations in crime scenes that are
ported by the statements of witnesses and by the relevant for those SOCOs desiring to make recon-
dying declaration of the victim leading to convict- structions in cases of death due to burns. These
ing the mother-in-law and another male individual include the contextual facts relating to death due
for life imprisonment for putting the victim on fire. to burns in India, importance of those observa-
In this case, ‘suicide’ as another alternative manner tions that indicate mobility of victim while aflame,
of death was, by choice, not hypothesized, and, in relevance of crime scene findings when deciding
addition, there was no mention of the presence of the manner of death, burn patterns as being the
any scientific evidence at the crime scene to either universal indicators of localized burning, lack of
preclude suicide or distinguish between ‘being put commensurability in burn patterns as indicator of
on fire’ and ‘accidental fire’. Including suicide also movement, and the predicaments attributable to
as another alternative hypothesis and then evaluat- lapses in observing and reconstructing scenes of
ing scientific evidence from the scene of occurrence death due to burns and possible remedial measures.
are considered desirable to support concluding any An aspect that deserves particular mention is the
manner of death, inclusive of the victim being put discussion relating to the scientific evidence sup-
on fire, as scientifically sustainable. porting the fire victim’s irrational and disoriented
The importance of crime scene investigation in behavior when moving about while aflame which
concluding the manner of death in cases of deaths acquires relevance when interpreting possible peri-
due to burns has been well recognized both by mortem injuries on the deceased. It is hoped that
pathologists (Benz, 1980; Shkrum and Ramsay, these information would enable the crime scene
2007) and by forensic investigators dealing with fire investigators to explore for observable evidence that
investigations (DeHaan, 2002). Apart from rein- would be relevant for reconstructing scenes of death
forcing such recommendations, the cases described due to burns.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003267096-7 143

7.1. FLOW CHART
7.2 FLOWCHART FORFOR INVESTIGATING DEATH
INVESTIGATING DEATH TO BURNS
DUE DUE TO BURNS
144
CRIME SCENE
DEAD BODY SOC OVER-ALL SOC

DEAD BODY SOC
FIRE SOURCE - Ground plan
POSTURE INJURIES
- Matches - Elevation view
- Match box – parts POSTURE OVER ALL
- Isometric view
OVERALL EXTENT OF BURNS - Burnt or unburnt
- Others PERIPHERAL FIRE SOURCE
- Pugilistic - Relatively protected - Include cardinal
- Absence – if so SMOKE PATTERNS - Matches
- Reclining areas directions - Extent - Match box – parts
- Supine - Entirely protected
ACCELERANT - Direction - Burnt or unburnt
- Others areas
- Container - remnant - Others
HIGHLIGHTS CHAR/SMOKE
Contact and free areas - Burned tracks
PERIPHERAL SMOKE PATTERN ACCELERANT
in body - Drained stains-pattern
PATTERNS - Location of fire - Relatively and - Container - remnant
- Front / Back - Others
- Extent initiation entirely protected - Burned tracks
- Direction - Side
areas - Unburned stains
- Limbs SMOKE PATTERNS - Protected areas – - Contact/free areas
- Dense/sparse their distribution
CHAR/SMOKE PATTERN – ABRASIONS - Front PROTECTED AREAS
- Localized ‘V’ shaped
IN BODY - If any - Back Protected areas in
- Others - Distribution of
- Relatively and entirely - Size and direction - Side - clothing
protected areas burnt clothing - Limbs - other objects
- Contact/free areas CHAR EVIDENCE
CONTUSIONS
- Front/ Back /Sides - screens - Latch and bolts SMOKE PATTERNS
- If any
- Limbs - wall hangings
CHAR IN CLOTHING - Dense/sparse
- clotheslines Include
LACERATIONS - Contact/free areas - Localized ‘V’ shaped
CHAR IN CLOTHING measurements - Front - Others
- If any wherever possible
- Relatively and entirely PROTECTED AREAS - Back
protected areas Protected areas in heat - Others CHAR EVIDENCE
- Contact/free areas OTHER INJURIES disfigured objects - screens
- Front/ Back/Sides - Bleeding - floor, walls etc. Record the - wall hangings
- Others - Loss of tissues - clothing, body etc. commensurability
- other objects between the char BLOODSTAIN

Relate with fire origin, pattern in the body PATTERNS
localized burn and/or with burn pattern
CUES FOR RECONSTRUCTION movement in the clothes and LATCHES OF DOORS /
scene wherever / WINDOWS
possible Showing smoke
• Consider the fire/accelerant source, and localized burn evidence BLOODSTAIN PATTERNS
patterns
in SOC when hypothesizing on the movement of the victim.
• Study the burn patterns in the body, the clothes and SOC for STATUS OF LATCHES
TRACE EVIDENCES
commensurability when hypothesizing on antemortem or - Doors
postmortem nature of burns. - Windows
IMPRINT EVIDENCES –
SCALED PHOTOS
OTHERS
Investigating Cases of Death due to Burns 145
7.3 CASE STUDIES—CASES 7–1 AND 7–2
CASE 7–1: DEATH IS DUE TO BURNS—MANNER REMAINED EQUIVOCAL
THE CASE house (Figure 7.1). On the floor of the terrace, a

A female aged 25 years was found dead with burn charred area was found in the location marked
injuries in the open terrace on the upstairs of her ‘A’ in Figure 7.1, and the dead body was found
FIGURE 7.1 Isometric view of the scene made during the course of reexamination incorporating the
various observable evidence.
FIGURE 7.2 Photograph of the charred area on the floor taken during the initial investigation and
shown marked as ‘A’ in Figure 7.1.
lying about 9 m north-east of that area at the Observed premises
locations marked ‘D’, ‘F’, and ‘I’ in Figure 7.1. a) The floor surface of the terrace in the
Bloodstains and smoke depositions were found location marked ‘A’ in Figure 7.1 revealed
on the parapet wall in locations marked ‘G’, ‘E1’, blackened and burnt residue covering an
and ‘E2’ in Figure 7.1. The parents of the victim area of about 3.1 m × 1.4 m (Figure 7.2).
averred that the victim was killed, and the dead b) A heat- disfigured kerosene can (black
body was burnt to simulate suicide. On a request arrows in Figures 7.2, 7.3, and 7.4) was
for reexamination of the crime scene, this author found in the eastern side of the area
examined the scene about 5 days after the occur- marked ‘A’ in Figure 7.1. On removing the
rence. The photographs taken of the scene imme- can with residual kerosene, a protected
diately showing the dead body and the physical area corresponding to its base was seen
evidence collected during the initial investigation on the floor (marked ‘C’ in Figure 7.4).
were also studied. A can of wood polish of ‘Sheenlac’ brand,
The observations made in the scene during partly filled with the polish, was also seen
the reexamination are described following the nearby (blue arrow in Figures 7.2 and 7.3).
markings in the rough sketch of the open terrace
in Figure 7.1. Accepted (major) premises
a) Burnt residue on the floor indicates the
PRIMARY HYPOTHESIS
area of spread of the liquid accelerant on
The victim was killed or immobilized and then the floor followed by burning.
burnt—supports homicide. b) Heat disfiguring of plastic items and pro-
tected area corresponding to their base
ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS indicate localized burning (DeHaan,
The victim was alive and moved about while 2002; DeHaan and Icove, 2014).
burning—supports suicide.
Reconstruction
SEQUENTIAL HYPOTHESIS 1 The location ‘A’ was the site of active burning
The location of charred area (Figure 7.2 and also of accelerant, and the kerosene container was in
marked as ‘A’ in Figure 7.1) indicates the location the location ‘C’ within the zone ‘A’ in Figure 7.1
of accelerant residue and active burning. during the phase of active burning.
FIGURE 7.3 Heat-disfigured kerosene can (black arrows) in the eastern side of the area marked ‘A’ in
Figure 7.1 photographed during the initial investigation.
FIGURE 7.4 Protected area (marked ‘C’) cov- FIGURE 7.5 A charred bit of paper remnant
ered by the base of the heat-disfigured kerosene recovered from the zone marked ‘A’ in Figure 7.1.
can (bold arrow)—observable evidence recorded
during the reexamination of the scene. of a size similar to the size of a match
box (corners of the protected area indi-
SEQUENTIAL-H YPOTHESIS 2
cated by the white arrows in Figure 7.6).
The fire had initiated in the zone marked ‘A’ in Within the aforementioned protected
Figure 7.1. area was another protected area (black
arrow in Figure 7.6) which revealed a
Observed premises contour similar to that of the charred
a) An irregular charred bit of glossy paper paper shown in Figure 7.5.
revealing colored printed impression b) The printed design in the charred bit of
similar to a match box label (Figure 7.5) paper remnant (Figure 7.5) was similar
had been recovered during the initial to the design in the label of the box of
investigation from the location marked matches (brand: Sugandhi) available
‘B’ in the zone ‘A’ in Figure 7.1. During in the victim’s house (Figure 7.7) and
the reexamination, the floor surface in obtained during the reexamination. The
that location revealed a protected area enlargement in Figure 7.8 illustrates the
FIGURE 7.8 Enlarged view of the similarity dis-

played in Figure 7.7.
FIGURE 7.6 Protected area covered by the
charred paper remnant (black arrow) along with phase of active burning (DeHaan, 2002;
the rectangular protected area (white arrows) DeHaan and Icove, 2014).
observed in zone marked ‘A’ in Figure 7.1 during b) Matching between printed designs from
the reexamination of the scene. two different sources supports common
origin.
Reconstruction
The location of the impression of partly protected
area corresponding to the size of match box with
the paper remnant revealing part of the printed
design that corresponds to the design in label of
match box within zone ‘A’ supports the use of a
match box to initiate the fire in that locality. The
possible origin of that match box from the scene
house is supported by the availability of match
boxes with similar label designs in that house.
FIGURE 7.7 Similarity between the printed The victim continued to burn in the vicinity of the
designs on the charred paper remnant and location marked ‘D’, ‘F’, ‘I’, ‘J’, ‘E1’, and ‘E2’ where
the label of the box of matches available in the the dead body had been found, i.e., about 9- m
scene house that was brought out during the northeast of the zone ‘A’ as shown in Figure 7.1.
reexamination.
Observed premises
similarities between the printed designs a) A photograph taken during the initial
of the intact match box label and the investigation (Figure 7.9) showed the
charred bit of the label, one correspon- dead body lying at a location about 9-m
dence shown using a white arrow and northeast of zone ‘A’ shown in Figure 7.1.
another using a black arrow. During the reexamination, the surface
of the parapet wall near the dead body
Accepted (major) premises revealed areas of ‘V’-shaped smoke depo-
a) Protected areas in a fire scene are defi- sition (‘E1’ and ‘E2’ in Figure 7.9 and ‘E1’
nite indications of locations occupied by in Figure 7.10). These burn patterns evi-
objects of similar structures during the denced active localized upward burning
FIGURE 7.9 Victim’s burnt body lying at a location about 9-m northeast of zone ‘A’ shown in Figure 7.1
photographed during the initial investigation. Note the evidence of localized smoke depositions ‘E1’
and ‘E2’ marked on the photograph during the reexamination of the scene.
of combustible materials which stayed
stuck to the wall surface in locations now
seen as protected areas devoid of smoke
stains in the midst of smoke stained ‘V’
shaped patterns (‘E1’ in Figure 7.10).
b) Bloodstain patterns found on the para-
pet wall (‘H’ and ‘G’ in Figure 7.10) were
also studied during the reexamination.
Bloodstain patterns found on the floor
also corresponded to the posture of the
arm of the dead body (marking ‘D’ in
Figures 7.11 and 7.12). Charred remains
of cloth indicating localized burning
were found in that region (white arrows
in Figure 7.12).

a) Burn patterns of ‘V’ shape with pro-
tected areas in the inner region indicate
FIGURE 7.10 Close-up photograph of the burn localized burning of combustible materi-
pattern recorded during the reexamination of the als (such as pieces of cloth) stuck to the
scene. Note the observable evidence indicating surface of the parapet wall (DeHaan,
active localized upward burning (E1) of combus- 2002; Koussiafes, 2004; DeHaan and
tible materials stuck to the wall with correspond- Icove, 2014).
ing protected areas devoid of smoke stains in the b) Bloodstain patterns corresponding to the
midst of smoke-stained ‘V’ patterns. Bloodstains body posture indicate localized bleeding
on the wall are marked ‘G’ and ‘H’. corresponding to body posture.
FIGURE 7.11 Bloodstain patterns found on the floor (marked ‘D’) that corresponded to the position of
the arm of the deceased seen in the photograph taken during the initial investigation.
The victim had been physically active in the loca-
tion where the dead body had been found lying as
shown in Figures 7.9 and 7.11.
Observed premises
a) The upper surface of the parapet wall
(indicated as ‘H’ in the sketch) revealed
smudged areas of bloodstains (Figures 7.10
and 7.13). The drops of bloodstains on the
floor below the parapet wall revealed con-
spicuous astral rays (Figure 7.14).
b) The pattern of bloodstains on the ver-
tical surface of the parapet wall indi-
FIGURE 7.12 Bloodstain patterns on the floor cated downward flight of cast-off blood
(marked ‘D’) and the evidence of localized burn- (Figure 7.15). Importantly, the cast- off
ing of cloth remnants (white arrows) observed bloodstains, with tailing toward the
during the reexamination. floor, indicated differences in direc-
tionality (white and black arrows in
Reconstruction Figure 7.15, enlarged in Figure 7.16).
The victim had been ablaze in the location near
‘E1’ and ‘E2’ in Figure 7.1 which is about 9 m Accepted (major) premises
away from the initial place of burning marked a) Blood smudges indicate the transfer of
‘A’ in Figure 7.1. The victim had been bleed- accumulated blood due to contact (Bevel
ing corresponding to the posture of the arm and Gardner, 2002). Conspicuous astral
after attaining the prone posture seen in rays are produced when blood drops
Figure 7.11. drip from height.
FIGURE 7.13 Bloodstain patterns on the upper

surface of the parapet wall (indicated as ‘H’ in
the sketch in Figure 7.1) observed during the
reexamination.
FIGURE 7.15 Downwardly directed cast-off pat-

terns of bloodstains on the vertical surface of the
parapet wall observed during the reexamination.
FIGURE 7.14 Drops of bloodstains with astral

rays observed on the floor below the parapet wall
during the reexamination.
b) Arc or cast- off patterns of blood par-
ticularly indicate swinging action dur-
ing active bleeding (Bevel and Gardner,
2002). Multiplicity in the directionality FIGURE 7.16 Enlarged view of the cast-off pat-
indicates more than one physical activ- terns of bloodstains shown in Figure 7.15 high-
ity, viz. swinging. lighting variations in directionalities.
Reconstruction found lying (marked ‘D’, ‘F’, ‘I’ and ‘J’

The locations of the bloodstains in the same in Figure 7.1), an irregular pattern of
vicinity as the location of the burn patterns sup- protected area with peripheral blacken-
port the inference that the blood had been oozing ing (‘M’ in Figure 7.17) was observed on
from the victim who was ablaze. the floor in the location marked as ‘M
The presence of arc patterns suggesting mul- ‘in the sketch in Figure 7.1. The contour
tiple swinging actions when viewed along with of an irregular charred flake of synthetic
the finding of bleeding in the fingers of the victim cloth material (arrow in Figure 7.17)
(recorded during autopsy) lead to the reconstruc- found nearby precisely superimposed
tion that the victim was physically active near with the contour of the protected space
the parapet wall where the dead body was found. in the location ‘M’ (Figure 7.18). This
charred synthetic cloth flake was similar
to the charred flakes of synthetic cloth
seen near the location of the dead body
The victim was moving while still ablaze. (white arrows in Figure 7.12). The loca-
tion marked ‘M’ in Figure 7.1 was about
Observed premises 4.5-m west of the location where the vic-
a) While the location ‘A’ in Figure 7.1 indi- tim’s body was lying and about 5.8-m
cated the point of initial burning, the loca- north of the zone of blackening marked
tions revealing charred remnants on the ‘A’ in Figure 7.1.
floor near the parapet wall marked ‘D’,
‘F’, ‘I’ and ‘J’ (Figure 7.1) corresponded Accepted (major) premises
to the location where the victim was lying a) Charred remains with smoke deposition
dead as seen in the photograph taken in on the floor indicate localized burning
the scene of crime (Figures 7.9 and 7.11). near the parapet wall.
b) During the reexamination, in between b) Protected space on the floor and the
the location ‘A’ in Figure 7.1 and the presence of burnt remains matching the
location where the victim was finally contour of that protected space offer
evidence of localized burning (DeHaan,
2002; DeHaan and Icove, 2014).
FIGURE 7.17 Pattern of protected area (marked

‘M’) and a charred flake of cloth (white arrow)
observed during the reexamination in a location FIGURE 7.18 Superimposition of the charred
marked ‘M’ in the sketch in Figure 7.1 well away flake of cloth with the pattern of protected area
from the location of initial burning as well as the (marked ‘M’) offering observable evidence sub-
dead body. This observable evidence supported stantiating localized burning of the cloth in the
burning of the victim at the location ‘M’. location ‘M’.
Reconstruction immediately and the clues in the scene; and yet,

Smoke pattern revealing protected space with these observations were not made forthwith in the
corresponding superimposable charred remnant scene during the initial investigation. Although
indicates active burning of that charred remnant made subsequently, the aforementioned recon-
in that location (‘M’ in Figure 7.1). Presence of struction indicating that the victim was moving
similar burnt cloth remnants in the location while ablaze was duly included in the investiga-
where the dead body was found (Figure 7.12) tion. This author was examined as a court wit-
supports that the charred cloth piece in the loca- ness, and the evidence indicating movement of
tion marked ‘M’ also originated from the victim’s the victim while ablaze was also placed before
clothing. Thus, the finding of the charred piece the trial court.
at the location ‘M’ in Figure 7.1, which is about The medical doctor who conducted the
4.5-m west of the location of the dead body and autopsy found ‘subscalpular extra cranial hema-
about 5.8-m north of the location ‘A’, offers evi- toma over the vault of the skull’ and, internally,
dence supporting the movement of the victim the presence of a ‘thin film of subdural hemor-
along the location ‘M’ when she was still ablaze. rhage over the brain’ and was of the opinion that
the ‘head injuries could have been caused by a
Conjoined reconstruction blunt weapon and that these would not cause
death but would have caused unconsciousness’.
Sequential hypotheses 1 to 3 lead to the recon- The doctor opined that the death was a result of
struction that burning initiated at location ‘A’ shock due to burns. In addition, the doctor stated
and then continued in the location about 9 m that the head injury is not possible if the head
away where the dead body was found; these comes in contact on its own with another object.
hypotheses negate the proposition that the loca- In essence, the doctor was of the opinion that the
tion of the victim while burning was restricted victim sustained the head injury due to impact by
merely to one locality in the terrace. a blunt weapon when she was alive after which
Sequential hypothesis 4 leads to the recon- she became unconscious, and then she died of
struction that the victim, with bleeding injuries burn injuries implying that the deceased could
in her fingers (recorded during autopsy), was not have moved about while burning—altogether
physically active near the location where she connoting the manner of death to be homicidal.
was found lying dead causing the arc patterns of During the trial, there was a proposition that
bloodstains on the parapet wall and negates the planning to make the case appear as a suicidal
proposition that the victim was static in the loca- burning, the accused persons might have poured
tion where the dead body had been found. inflammable materials over the victim and would
Sequential hypothesis 5 leads to the recon- have burnt the victim while she was in an uncon-
struction that the victim was moving while scious state. However, the evidence during crime
ablaze leaving traces of burning cloth at the scene reconstruction indicating that the burning
intermediary location marked ‘M’ and negates victim was moving precluded the aforementioned
the proposition that the burning was restricted proposition. The Hon’ble Judges of the High
to a single locality. Court observed that
Thus, the sequential hypotheses 1 to 5 sup-
port the alternative hypothesis that the victim It is right that scientific expert’s report and the
plan show that the victim was moving at least
was ablaze while being alive and was moving
from one place to another before she ultimately
about leaving burnt traces in different localities died due to burn injuries . . . The doctor, who
on the terrace (possible manner of death being did postmortem, had categorically ruled out
suicide) and negate the primary hypothesis that the possibility of the victim suffering internal
the victim was immobilized or killed and then head injuries by coming into contact on her own
was burnt in a particular location (homicide). with any other object.
Sanjay Dalmia and others vs. State in CRL.
Postscript R.C. No. 1588 of 2004, The High Court of
Judicature at Madras dated 10.08.2006
The observations described in the foregoing
sequential hypotheses were based on the photo- This case exemplifies a situation where the
graphs which included those taken of the scene crime scene reconstruction that the victim moved
about while ablaze and the opinion of the doc- behavior in the movements of burning vic-
tor who performed the autopsy that the victim tims, and their implications during crime scene
had died of burns but could not have moved reconstruction appear relevant to interpret peri-
after the head injury remained unreconciled. In mortem injuries and hence are included in the
this regard, the disorientation associated strange discussion.
CASE 7–2: DEATH AS DUE TO STRANGULATION—MANNER REMAINS EQUIVOCAL
THE CASE petrol, kerosene, or other inflammable materi-

On the day of occurrence at about 3 pm, the als. The prosecution case was that the mother-
mother-in-law of the deceased informed the first in-law of the deceased found her daughter-in-law
informant that smoke was coming out of the hall sleeping with diazepam tablets around her, and
of the scene house, the witnesses found that it being infuriated by the earlier rebukes of the
was not possible to enter the hall through the two daughter-in-law, the mother-in-law strangulated
available doors that were locked from inside and the daughter- in-
law, dragged the dead body
the dead body could be seen through the venti- to the pillar, and slid it on the pillar and then
lator, the door on the western side of the room poured kerosene on the body and set it ablaze.
was kicked open by one of the witnesses, and the Also, the accused person, the mother-in-law, had
body with burn injuries was found reclining on confessed before a magistrate although about 7
the pillar. The case was investigated as an unnat- months after the occurrence.
ural death. The medical doctor who conducted During the course of further investigation,
autopsy described about 9 months after the occurrence, this author
was requested to reexamine the scene. The obser-
horizontal dark red bruising 22 × 4 × 10.5 cm vations described here were made on the basis of
at the level of lower part of thyroid cartilage
the photographs of the scene taken immediately
with diffuse upper and lower margins, in the
front and sides of the neck, the outer ends of
with the dead body in situ in the scene as well as
the bruising ends at the level of angle of man- the findings during the reexamination of the scene.
dible on the right side of the neck and at the level The dead body had been found in a 5.6 ×
of mastoid process on the left side of the neck; 4.9- m size hall (recently color washed) with
dark red diffuse bruising on the lower part of two doors (Figure 7.19). The items like the sofa-
the thyroid gland. cumbed shown as line drawing in the sketch
Figure 7.19 were still in their relative locations
The doctor opined that the deceased would
as seen in the scene photographs. However,
appear to have died of asphyxia due to strangula-
the grinder and the refrigerator were no longer
tion and that the burns on the body were post-
available, and their locations with reference to
mortem in nature. The case was then treated as a
the pillar in the hall (shown in dotted lines in
homicide. The skin bits collected by the autopsy
Figure 7.19) were worked out on the basis of the
doctor from the scalp, both forearms, and both
scene photographs as well as the impression of
thighs of the dead body had been sent for his-
the legs of the grinder still visible on the floor
topathological analysis, and the result revealed
during the reexamination.
that the skin bits were ‘viable’, ‘normal’, and ‘nil
remarkable’ with ‘no vital reaction’; the stomach
PRIMARY HYPOTHESIS
content and visceral organs had also been sent
for toxicological analysis, and the result was that The victim was strangulated to death and then
4 mg of diazepam was detected in the stomach burnt—and this was a case of homicide.
with traces in other organs; and the skin bits
from the scalp, arms, and legs (unburnt) had been ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS
sent for chemical analysis, and the result was that The victim was burning and moving about while
none of the items examined revealed evidence of alive— and this was, possibly, a case of suicide.
FIGURE 7.19 Sketch of the scene made during the reexamination.
SEQUENTIAL HYPOTHESIS 1 areas that have formed on the pillar con-

The victim was burning in the reclining posture sequent to the contacting spaces occu-
as seen in Figures 7.20–7.22, which were taken pied by the head and shoulder during the
immediately in the scene and were studied during process of burning.
c) The matchsticks that are found strewn
the reexamination.
on the dead body in (Figure 7.22) were
examined under magnification, and the
Observed premises
match heads and the sticks were unburnt
a) The black arrows pointing to the head, and intact. The match box had not burnt
right arm, and right upper thigh in although it was seen lying on charred
Figure 7.20; the neck in Figure 7.21; and pieces of cloth—findings that indicate
the shoulder in Figure 7.22 illustrate that the match sticks and match box
burn and smoke patterns that are com- were not subjected to burn effects.
mensurate between the concerned body
parts and the corresponding contacting Accepted (major) premises
surfaces such as the pillar. The yellow a) The burn patterns in the dead body must
arrows in Figure 7.22 indicate burnt be commensurate with the burn patterns
remnants of clothing in close proximity on the clothing and other surfaces at the
with the reclining posture. scene (DeHaan, 2002).
b) The arrows labeled ‘Head’ and ‘Shoulder’ b) Protected areas are definite indications of
in Figure 7.23 indicate the protected the location of objects that were burning
FIGURE 7.20 Observable evidence brought out during the reexamination using the photograph taken
during the initial investigation: black arrows indicate commensurate areas of burns in the body and the
surrounding including the cloth; and the blue, green, and bold white arrows indicate incommensurate
burn patterns in the body and the cloth. Note the similarity between the piece of unburnt cloth below
the vaginal region (bold white arrow) and the pieces of cloth away from it (small white arrows).
in contact with those spaces (DeHaan, SEQUENTIAL HYPOTHESIS 2

2002). The victim was also burning in postures other
c) The unburnt match sticks and match than the one seen as reclining in the photographs
box indicate that these items would not in Figures 7.20–7.22, which were taken imme-
have been on the victim’s body when
diately in the scene and were studied during the
the clothes were aflame. This inference
reexamination.
was corroborated by witness account
that the matchsticks accidentally spilled
Observed premises
out when trying to initially explore the
smoke-filled room. a) The char pattern seen in the vaginal
region on the victim’s body (blue arrow
Reconstruction in Figures 7.20 and 7.21) is not com-
The commensurate burn patterns between the mensurate with the unburned cloth seen
dead body and the contacting surfaces particu- underneath the burned vaginal region
larly indicated by black arrows in Figures 7.20– (bold white arrow in Figures 7.20 and
7.22 support burning of the victim in the reclined 7.21). The burn patterns in the inner
posture that is seen in the photographs. The pro- aspect of the left thigh (green arrow in
tected areas on the pillar in Figure 7.23 indicate Figures 7.20 and 7.21) do not indicate
the location occupied by the head and shoulder commensurate evidence of burning of
during burning. cloth on the floor.
FIGURE 7.21 Similar observable evidence as shown in Figure 7.20 in a photograph taken from another
angle: black arrows indicate commensurate areas of burns in the body and the surrounding including
the cloth; and, the blue, green, and bold white arrows indicate incommensurate burn patterns in the
body and the cloth. Note the unburnt piece of cloth beneath the charred vaginal region in Figure 7.20
and this image—observable evidence incommensurate with the proposition that the victim was burn-
ing only in the aforementioned posture and location.
b) The sides of the left hand fingers do not Figures 7.20 and 7.21) and the unburned
reveal evidence of charring (blue arrow pieces of cloth on the floor nearby (small
in Figure 7.22). This observation is not white arrows in Figures 7.20 and 7.21)
commensurate with the evidence of reveal similar designs.
charring seen on the left gluteal and hip
region on which those fingers are seen Accepted (major) premises
resting. a) The burn patterns in the dead body must
c) The unburned cloth on the floor below be commensurate with the burn patterns
the vaginal region (bold white arrow in seen on the clothing (DeHaan, 2002).
FIGURE 7.22 Observable evidence in a photo- FIGURE 7.23 Protected areas (arrows) on the
graph taken from yet another angle: black arrows pillar consequent to the contacting spaces occu-
indicate commensurate areas of burns in the body pied by the head and shoulder during the process
and the surrounding including the cloth, and blue of burning.
arrow indicates incommensurate burn patterns in
had acquired these burns while in postures other
the body and the fingers. The matchsticks found
than the reclining posture seen in the photo-
on the body and the box of matches had not been
graphs in Figures 7.20–7.22. The presence of
subjected to burn effects.
unburned cloth underneath the charred vaginal
b) The burn patterns in the dead body must region reinforces the inference that the char in the
be commensurate with the burn patterns vaginal region has occurred when the victim was
seen on the other surfaces at the scene in postures that were different from the reclined
(DeHaan, 2002). posture seen in the photograph. The presence of
c) During the forward movement of a vic- similar unburned pieces of cloth in other loca-
tim on fire, the clothes on the rear are tions (small white arrows in Figures 7.20 and
likely to be flung backward and thus less 7.21) indicate that the victim traversed those
likely to burn. Such unburned pieces of locations.
cloth are likely to fall on the floor along
the localities traversed by the victim or SEQUENTIAL HYPOTHESIS 3
where the victim ultimately falls down. The victim was moving inside the hall while still
ablaze.
Reconstruction
The burn patterns pointed with blue arrows Observed premises
in Figures 7.20–7.22 and green arrows in a) Photograph in Figure 7.24 showing
Figures 7.20 and 7.21 indicate that the victim the refrigerator (boxed green) and the
FIGURE 7.24 Photograph of the scene taken during the initial investigation. The boxes indicate the
relative locations of the refrigerator (green) and the dead body and the doorway (blue).
passage leading to the door with the dead

body in the foreground (boxed blue) had
been taken when the dead body was in
situ in the scene. On enlarging the area
boxed green in Figure 7.24 during the
course of reexamination, the refrigerator
door reveals two areas with ‘V’-shaped
upward smoke depositions in two differ-
ent levels (white arrows in Figure 7.25).
The aforementioned refrigerator was
about 2 m away from the pillar on which
the dead body was reclining.
b) On enlarging the area boxed blue in
Figure 7.24 during the reexamination,
burnt pieces of cloth were seen near the
dead body (yellow arrows in Figure 7.26
and also in Figure 7.22). Similar pieces
of cloth could also be recognized on mul-
tiple locations near the door (blue arrows
in the enlargement in Figure 7.26)
that were away from the dead body. FIGURE 7.25 Enlargement of the refrigerator
Comparable pieces of cloth were also (boxed green in Figure 7.24) revealing two areas
seen near the right leg of the victim (blue of ‘V’-shaped upward smoke depositions (white
arrows in Figure 7.27) although the leg arrows)—observable evidence indicating local-
itself did not reveal char evidence. ized burning in those locations.
body supports movement of the burning

victim along the localities where burnt
pieces of cloth are seen.
Reconstruction
The victim had been moving about inside the
hall covering the localities indicated by the ‘V’-
shaped smoke patterns in the refrigerator and the
areas where pieces of burnt cloth are seen near
the door and the right leg.
The inner latch-bar in the door on the western
side of the hall would enable an individual to feed
it into the catch from outside and to close the
door creating the latched state on the inner side.
Observed premises
a) At the time of reexamination of the
scene, the double door on the eastern side
did not reveal any evidence of damage in
its latches and bolts. The inner catch in
FIGURE 7.26 Enlargement of the doorway the door on the western side was found
(boxed blue in Figure 7.24) revealing pieces of deformed with only one screw secur-
cloth (blue arrows) near the doorway which ing the catch with the door (Figure 7.28
appear comparable to the pieces of cloth near the and arrow in Figure 7.29). The bar of
dead body (yellow arrows).
FIGURE 7.28 Sketches of the catch and latch on

the door in the western side.
FIGURE 7.27 Pieces of cloth near the leg

although the leg itself did not reveal evidence of
burn. Note the linear abrasion on the unburnt
leg.

a) Among burn patterns, ‘V’-shaped smoke
patterns that are upward indicate local-
ized burning in that region (DeHaan,
2002; Koussiafes, 2004).
b) The presence of pieces of cloth in locali- FIGURE 7.29 Deformed state of the catch with
ties away from the location of the dead a single screw (arrow) securing it with the door.
positions the obstruction due to the bend

in the bar prevented free passage even in
the holder of the catch.
b) In the bent condition, the bar of the latch
was fed into the catch, and the feasibility
to close the door by pulling it from out-
side was tested (Figure 7.32).

a) Metal objects bend or be pulled out
when strained beyond their tolerance.
b) The door could not be closed from
outside when an attempt was made by
FIGURE 7.30 The bar of the latch slid inward inserting the latch into the catch and
revealing evidence of bending (arrow). pulling the door since the already dam-
aged catch was further separating from
the door.
Reconstruction
The loss of two screws in the catch observable
during the reexamination (Figure 7.29) is sec-
ondary to the damage which also manifested as a
bend in the latch-bar. Attempts to close the door
from outside after feeding the latch-bar into the
catch resulted in further separation of the catch
from the door.
Sequential hypotheses 1 and 2 lead to the recon-
FIGURE 7.31 The bar of the latch with the han- struction that the victim who continued to
dle held horizontal revealing evidence of bending burn in the reclining posture was also burning
(arrow). in postures other than the one seen as reclining
on the pillar in the photographs and negate the
proposition that victim had remained merely in
the reclining posture throughout the process of
burning.
Sequential hypothesis 3 leads to the recon-
struction that the victim was moving inside the
hall while still ablaze leaving smoke stains and
cloth pieces in localities that were about 2 m
away from the location of the pillar where the
dead body was finally found and negates the
proposition that the victim was burning only in
the posture as seen reclining on the pillar.
Sequential hypothesis 4 indicates that the
latch, in the deformed state it was seen, could
FIGURE 7.32 Assessment of the feasibility to not be secured into the catch from outside.
slide the bar of the latch into the catch from out- Thus, the sequential hypotheses 1 to 3 effec-
side the door. tually negate the primary hypothesis that the vic-
tim was done to death and then the dead body
the latch revealed the evidence of bend- was burnt (homicide). Instead, the aforemen-
ing (arrows in Figures 7.30 and 7.31), tioned sequential hypotheses support the alter-
and the bar could be slid into the catch native hypothesis that the victim was burning
only in a specific position, while in other while still being alive (possible suicide).
Postscript on the skin in areas of contact. Clothed bod-

The incommensurability between the burn patterns ies are destroyed more quickly than naked
on the dead body and the clothing illustrated ear- ones (Shkrum and Ramsay, 2007), and
lier, although based on the photographs taken of more burns are seen in areas where there are
the scene immediately, has not been observed and more clothes (Subrahmanyam, 1999).
recorded during the initial investigation conducted ii. Myth: Less of burns in the skin on the back
in the scene. On the basis of a ‘bruising 22 × 4 × of the dead body indicate that the body was
10.5 cm’ on the front and sides of the neck observed laid down and then burnt.
during the autopsy, the medical doctor had opined Fact: Totally unburned clothes between the
that the victim died due to strangulation and that areas of the body in contact with the floor
the burns on the body were caused post-mortem. such as the back would indicate that the body
The suspect, the mother- in-law of the deceased, had been laid and then burnt. Evidence of ‘par-
had made a confession statement although that tial burns’ or ‘burns to a lesser degree’ in the
statement did not clarify the method employed for clothes between areas of the body in contact
causing the bruise on the front aspect of the neck of with the floor would only support the proposi-
the deceased. The incommensurability between the tion that the victim had been moving aflame
burn patterns on the dead body and the clothing exposing those clothes to damage by flame
described before using the photographs taken of the before falling down and continuing to burn.
scene and the reconstruction that the victim could iii. Myth: The clothes of an individual moving
have moved while ablaze, even though brought to around would burn all around causing uni-
light belatedly, remained unreconciled with the form burn injuries around the body.
autopsy finding or the confession of the suspect. Fact: Individuals moving around would
In the trial court, the mother- in-
law of the reveal more burn injuries in the front region
deceased was convicted to undergo life imprison- of the body due to the close-packed contact
ment. When confirming the life imprisonment dur- of the clothes brought about by the forward
ing appeal, the Hon’ble Judges of the High Court movement. Consequently, the clothes on
noted the three circumstances relied on by the pros- the rear part of the victim would be flung
ecution as follow: ‘(1) motive; (2) medical opinion away from the body depending on the
that was canvassed and (3) confessional statement baggy nature of the apparel and hence may
given by the accused/appellant . . .’ (Shyamala VC vs be partially burnt.
State in CRL.A.No.178 of 2007, The High Court of iv. Myth: In suicides, the victim tends to pour
Judicature at Madras dated 21.01.2009). accelerants on the head before setting fire.
This case exemplifies a situation where reconcil- Fact: In suicides, the victim tends to pour
ing the scene reconstruction suggesting the move- accelerants on the clothes before setting fire.
ment of the burning victim with the autopsy report v. Myth: Pugilistic attitude in a burned
suggesting burning to be post-mortem would have dead body indicates that the burning was
thrown a better light on the ground reality relating antemortem.
to the manner of death. In the absence of such rec- Fact: Pugilistic posture occurs due to heat
onciliation, the manner of death, whether homicide contraction of the more bulky flexor mus-
or suicide, continues to be equivocal. Consequently, cles, which is a purely postmortem effect
the conviction awarded to the mother-in-law of the (Saukko and Knight, 2004). It is the arti-
deceased also remains debatable. fact that suggests “fight or flight” attitude
(Shkrum and Ramsay, 2007). Bohnert and
Pollack (1998) cremated 15 bodies where
7.4 DISCUSSION death was due to natural causes and found
them showing pugilistic attitude after about
7.4.1 Myths and Facts Relating to Observations in 10 minutes.
Deaths due to Burns
i. Myth: The body burns when drenched with 7.4.2 Death due to Burns: Contextual Facts
an accelerant. Relating to India
Fact: It is the combustible material—the
cloth that burns when sprinkled with an Globally, suicide by burning is considered uncom-
accelerant. The burning clothes cause burns mon and as a rather fashionable trend of indicating
political opposition (Taylor and Mant, 1984). was set on fire after pouring kerosene. Specific
However, in India, young females are known to discussions on the mobility of burning victims are
commit suicide by setting fire to their clothes after offered by Shkrum and Ramsay (2007) citing the
soaking with kerosene or other inflammable mate- works of Eckert (1981) and Alarie (2002) which
rials (Subrahmanyam, 1999; Shkrum and Ramsay, deserve description at this juncture since recogniz-
2007). Mathiharan and Patnaik (2005) recognized ing the extent of disorientation in such mobility may
that the pernicious custom of dowry among certain aid in accounting for some of the perimortem inju-
Hindu castes sometimes has led young women to ries on burn victims.
commit suicide by burning themselves, and also It has been indicated that within a minute of
some murders by husbands and ‘in-laws’ of Hindu burning, smoke causes incapacitation as a result
married women have been reported. of coughing, eye irritation, reduced visibility, and
In India, ‘dowry deaths’ have been widely studied disorientation. Regarding the mobility of a burning
by social activists. However, the number of dowry victim, Eckert (1981) observes that strange behavior
deaths for the year 1995 mentioned as 17 per day by associated with carbon monoxide asphyxiation may
Nangia (1997) is seen interpreted by Lakhani (2005) make a victim run back into the fire to save an imag-
as Indian women being burned alive or tortured to ined victim or hide in the bath tub, under the bed,
death at the rate of seventeen (17) women per day or within inches of safety without realizing it. It has
adding elsewhere in the same article that the impli- also been noted that the presence of alcohol, barbi-
cation of murder was intentional. In another article, turates, sedatives, and other drugs may potentiate
Palriwala (2010) has cited the Parliamentary Joint the toxic action of carbon monoxide. Alarie (2002)
Select Committee on the Dowry Prohibition Bill suggests that additional factors attributable to fire
(JSC) as stating that ‘incidents of “wife burning”, such as reduced visibility and disorientation due to
excluding “suicides of new brides”, had increased smoke obscuration, coughing and choking, crawl-
from 670 in 1975 to 1,676 in 1979 (all-I ndia)’. Such ing on the floor to avoid the heat from the flames
an abrupt increase in the reported number of ‘wife etc. will also be influencing the mobility of burning
burning’ cases appears surprising and abnormal victims. In as much as burn victims are very much
as well. It may be noted that campaigns on social mobile, when an individual is doused with gasoline
issues are known to have both positive and nega- and set afire, very often the assailant is likely to be
tive spillover effects (Thøgersen and Crompton, trapped by his or her own devices (Eckert, 1981).
2009). The sharp increase in wife-burning cases, It would be relevant here to mention the
if considered as a fallout of campaigning, prompts motionless quiescence recognized in the Buddhist
one to believe it to be a mixed consequence of both Burning Monk in the year 1963 as being an excep-
spillover effects—the positive spillover leading to tional instance of lack of mobility possibly due to
identifying more cases of wife burning and the neg- the effect of meditation (Manno, 2019). The degree
ative spillover leading to treating possible suicides of mental stubbornness seen among individuals
similar to those described in this chapter as cases of submitting themselves for suicidal missions such
‘bride burning’. Especially in deaths due to burns, as performing as human bombs or as pilots operat-
appropriate amalgamation of crime scene findings ing airplanes on suicidal crashes may not be com-
with autopsy and other investigational findings parable with the mental state of vexatious female
may eliminate the confusions when two manners of individuals resorting to commit suicide by burning
death such as ‘suicide’ and ‘bride burning’ are both themselves. As field investigators, the SOCOs may
hypothesized and debated. note that there is a general consensus that burn
victims are remarkably mobile when they are alive
(Shkrum and Ramsay, 2007; Eckert, 1981; Alarie,
7.4.3 Observations Indicating the Mobility 2002) and behave in an irrational, irresponsible,
of Victim While Aflame and disoriented manner (Alarie, 2002; Rutty, 2003)
leaving behind trace evidence and burn patterns
Victim’s mobility while aflame, once established, as they move about which greatly aid crime scene
becomes reliable evidence indicating that the victim reconstruction. In the light of the aforementioned
was alive and active when burning. Establishing observations, antemortem and perimortem injuries,
that a victim was mobile while aflame would read- both external and internal, in burn victims need to
ily disprove such theories as the one put forth in the be interpreted by including the possibility of the vic-
confession of the accused in Case 7–2 that the victim impacting or banging with surrounding objects
tim was strangulated to death and then the body during the disoriented movement prior to collapse
and fall. Mobility of a burning victim can be diag- in the simultaneously split meningeal vessels due to
nosed either by a study of patterns indicating evi- heat leads to internal bleeding in the extradural or
dence of localized burning in locations unrelated to epidural space of the skull (between the dura mater
the site where the dead body is seen or by the incom- and the skull), a frequent artifact in burn victims
mensurability between the pattern of burn evidence (Mason, 1993; Knight, 1997; Mant, 1997; Shkrum
on the dead body, the clothing, and the immediate and Ramsay, 2007). However, it has also been
surroundings. noted that at time such bleeding can be subdural
Other frequent burn evidence which can indi- too (Mason, 1993). Such ambiguous autopsy find-
cate the movement of the victims while ablaze are ings have prompted authors to caution that scien-
char or smoke patterns in wall hangings, paper cal- tific objective investigation and coordinated effort
endars, clothes on clotheslines, nylon strings used by the team comprising pathologist and field inves-
as clotheslines that are at significantly higher eleva- tigator are necessary to reach definitive conclusions
tions or at distances that cannot be reached by the on the manner of death (Benz, 1980).
flames from a body lying and burning, and, location Regarding the importance of crime scene inves-
of the accelerant residue on the floor and accelerant tigation, DeHaan (2002) points out that fire injuries
sources such as kerosene can or kerosene stove and to the body can be correlated with damage to the
burnt match sticks and boxes of matches well away clothing and that such correlation should be carried
from the dead body. Multiple burnt or unburnt out on burn victims and should be suitably docu-
matchsticks that are considered indicating hesita- mented by photography so that burn patterns can
tion on the part of the victims intending suicide or then be compared to the burn patterns of clothing
flow patterns of accelerant on the floor lacking signs and other surfaces at the scene. Indicating that burn
of spillage are additional evidence supporting self- patterns are the cornerstone of all fire investigation
infliction of burns. SOCOs may bear in mind that because of their universal applicability, (DeHaan,
evidence indicating the mobility of the victim have 2002) specifies that typical ‘V’ pattern on the verti-
to be observed only by a careful examination of the cal surface indicates localized fires in the same way
scene—examining the dead body during autopsy protected areas are definite indication of the loca-
will not be of any use in deducing if the victim had tion of objects that burnt.
moved while aflame.
7.4.5 Burn Patterns as Universal Indicators

7.4.4 Relevance of Crime Scene Findings When of Localized Burning
Deciding the Manner of Death in Burns
Cases Two major fire patterns that are indisputable in
indicating localized burning are i) the typical ‘V’
Authors have realized that all manners of death pattern on vertical surfaces and ii) the patterns of
are possible in fire injuries and that the determina- any protected areas that may be left both on vertical
tion of the cause and manner of death requires the surfaces and on horizontal planes such as floors. The
integration of scene findings and other information ‘V’ patterns observed on the parapet wall in Case
provided with postmortem findings and ancillary 7–1 (Figures 7.9 and 7.10) or on the vertical surface
toxicological and chemical testing (Shkrum and of the refrigerator door in Case 7–2 (Figures 7.24
Ramsay, 2007). Furthermore, scholars in the field of and 7.25) are definite indication of localized burn-
forensic pathology have acknowledged the equivo- ing that sustained in those localities. When such evi-
cal nature of many of the autopsy findings relating dence are interpreted in relation to the final location
to death due to burns. For example, the fiery-red of the burn victim, movement of the victim can be
margin with blisters characteristic of antemortem deduced. The relevance of protected areas in deter-
burns also occurs when heat is applied to a recently mining the origin of fire in structure fires has been
dead body (Spitz and Fisher, 1980; Gordon et al., described (Almiral and Furton, 2004; DeHaan and
1988; Knight, 1991; Pounder, 2000). Similarly, Icove, 2014). Protected areas that define the gen-
while the presence of soot particles in the trachea eral type of the object that burned in that location
and bronchi can be a sure sign that the person was such as the area defining the burned box of matches
breathing while on fire, the opposite, the absence of or its label (Figures 7.5 to 7.8) or the area defining
soot particles and monoxide, may not mean that the the shape of the burned cloth that could be super-
victim must has died before the fire started (Knight, imposed with the pattern of the smoke deposition
1991; Gerling et al., 2001). Oftentimes, boiling of blood on the floor (Figures 7.17 and 7.18) are definite
indications of localized burning. Importantly, pro- region and the clothes that remained unburned
tected areas of such objects like a box of matches or underneath the vaginal region in the dead body
pieces of clothes on the floor, when appropriately illustrated in Figures 7.20 and 7.21. The only pos-
recognized in the scene and interpreted in relation to sible reconstruction that flows from the aforemen-
the location where the burn victim’s body is found, tioned observation is the strong inference that the
can enable reconstructing the movement of the vic- victim had sustained the burns in the vaginal region
tim while ablaze on a definitive basis. Pertinently, while she was in a posture other than the one seen
pieces of clothes that are already burnt or charred, in the photograph. Similar strong inference would
when displaced to different locations due to such also flow from the incommensurable char patterns
forces as wind, would not reveal protected areas in between the fingers and the thigh region illus-
the locations where they come down and land. trated in Figure 7.22. Consequently, no explana-
Protected areas in burned bodies are those areas tion opposed to mobility of the victim while aflame
lacking soot deposition and charring of clothes would acquiesce with these observations; opposed
when the area is clothed. This observation acquires propositions including the confession of the suspect
importance in distinguishing burning bodies after that the victim was murdered and dead body was
death since body parts not directly exposed to flame then set fire to would not sustain for acceptance.
(e.g., pressed against a hard surface) are relatively Burn patterns are the undoubted effects of the
protected (Eckert, 1981; Shkrum and Ramsay, natural cause, the fire, and thus qualify for univer-
2007). In an experiment that used firestone grid sal applicability (DeHaan, 2002). The SOCOs are
with flames on all sides for cremating 15 bodies apprized to be well acquainted with the universal
where death was due to natural causes, Bohnert applicability of fire scene patterns so that this pat-
et al. (1998) observed protection by the coffin terned evidence can be appropriately observed and
although it lasted only for a minute. Consequently, utilized in burn-related death investigations.
these authors noted that bodies from house or room
fires often show only minor damage on the pro-
tected sides lying against the floor, as these could 7.4.7 Predicaments Attributable to Lapses in
not be reached by the flames. Regarding the ques- Observing and Reconstructing Scenes of
tion whether the localization of areas of burnt skin Death due to Burns and Possible Remedial
provides a sufficiently certain indication of the final Measures
position of the body at the site of the fire, Gerling
et al. (2001) state that among 78 out of 115 cases Both the cases of death due to burns described in
studied, the modest degree of the heat injuries read- this chapter indicate that the smoke patterns in the
ily allowed determination of the unexposed skin objects and circumstances of the crime scene as
surface and that in seven cases, however, such a well as those on the dead body have neither been
differentiation was not possible. Knight (1991) con- observed nor any reconstruction done immediately
sidered it important to note the color of the skin in the crime scene during the initial stages of inves-
to identify if areas have been protected from burns tigation. Recording the observable evidence during
and smoke-staining. It would be expedient for the the initial investigation has twofold impacts. First,
SOCOs to observe, immediately photograph, and immediate recognition of these observations by the
record ‘V’ patterns and protected areas when exam- investigation officer himself obliges to vouchsafe
ining the scene and dead bodies in burn cases. reasonable explanations for these observations.
Second, once so obligated, the investigation officer
would be prompted to launch an expeditious review
7.4.6 Lack of Commensurability in Burn Patterns of all the divergent theories and averments without
as Indicator of Dynamism letting differences in opinions to prolong.
Lapses relating to recording crime scene obser-
Burn patterns on the dead body, the clothing, and vations or reconstructing crime scenes during the
the immediate surrounding should be studied for initial stage of the investigation cannot be blamed
commensurability. Evidence indicating incommen- on any single agency. The observations described in
surability between the burn patterns on a dead body the aforementioned cases in particular and in this
and those on the clothing would confirm that the guideline in general may not conform to those mun-
dead individual was moving during the process of dane observations routinely recorded during scene
burning. In Case 7–2, consider the lack of commen- investigations—such as ‘the dead body was seen
surability between the burn patterns in the vaginal lying on its back’ or that ‘there were bloodstains
on the floor near the dead body’. Furthermore, rec- DeHaan, J. D. Kirk’s Fire Investigation, NJ: Brady,
ognizing the relevancy of an observation, framing 2002.
suitable hypotheses, and arriving at reconstruction DeHaan, J. D. and Icove, D. J. Structure fires and
may not be within the capability of average inves- their investigations, in Kirk’s Fire Investigation,
tigation officers or even the SOCOs when the lat- DeHaan, J. D. and Icove, D. J. (Eds.) Edinburgh
ter are not suitably trained. In this regard, this field Gate, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson, 2014.
guide may aid SOCOs to make observations-based Eckert, W. G. The medicolegal and forensic aspects
crime scene reconstruction as an essential para- of fires, Am J Forensic Med Pathol., 2 (1981):
digm (Figure 2.3) in addition to physical evidence- 347–357.
oriented crime scene investigation. Pertinently, Gerling, I., Meissner, C., Reiter, A. and Oehmichen,
countries like Australia, New Zealand, and the UK M. Death from thermal effects and burns,
(Sharman and Eliot, 2000; Horswell, 2004; The Forensic Sci Int., 115 (2001): 33–41.
Forensic Science Regulator, 2012) have recognized Gordon, I., Shapiro, H. A. and Berson, S. D. Forensic
crime scene reconstruction among the responsibili- Medicine: A Guide to Principles, Edinburgh:
ties of SOCOs—a trend that needs to be popular- Churchill Livingstone, 1988.
ized world-wide. Horswell, J. The Practice of Crime Scene Investigation,
One of the grave predicaments attributable to Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2004.
improprieties in crime scene examination relates Jayaprakash, P. T. Improprieties in Documenting
to construing possible cases of suicides as murders. Crime Scene Observations as Cause for
A group of Judges of the Supreme Court of India Wrongful Convictions. Paper presented dur-
had initiated the awareness on wrongful convictions ing the 13th International Symposium on
in India by writing a letter to the President of India Victimology, Tokiwa University, Mito, Japan,
indicating the possibility of wrongful convictions August 23–28, 2009.
(Times of India, 2012). Presumably, those wrongful Knight, B. Simpson’s Forensic Medicine, 11th ed.,
convictions alluded by them pertained to convicting London: Arnold, 1991.
a wrong individual for an offence that was real. But Koussiafes, P. M. The interpretation of data gen-
the cases illustrated in this chapter have revealed a erated from fire debris examination: Report
problem of another social dimension in which indi- writing and testimony, in Analysis and
viduals can be charged for offences that did not exist Interpretation of Fire Scene Evidence, Almirall,
at all. As indicated by Shkrum and Ramsay (2007), J. R. and Furton, K. G. (Eds.) Boca Raton, FL:
it becomes all the more expedient to consider inte- CRC Press, 2004.
gration of crime scene findings when concluding the Lakhani, A. Bride- burning: The “elephant in the
manner of death in every case of death due to burns room” is out of control, Pepp Disp Resol L
to guard the investigation officers, SOCOs, and the J., 5 (2) (2005): 249–298. Available at: Bride-
others from construing possible suicides as murders.
Burning: The “Elephant in the Room” Is Out of
Control (pepperdine.edu)
REFERENCES Manno, F. A. M. Monk on fire: The meditative mind
of a burning monk, Cogent Psychology, 6 (1)
Alarie, Y. Toxicity of fire smoke, Crit Rev Toxicol., (2019): 1678556.
32 (2002): 259–289. Mant, A. K. Postmortem injuries, in Forensic
Almirall, J. R. and Furton, K. G. (Eds.). Analysis and Medicine: A Study in Trauma and Environmental
Interpretation of Fire Scene Evidence, Boca Hazards, Tedeschi, C. G., Eckert, W. G. and
Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2004. Tedeschi, L. G. (Eds.) Philadelphia: W. B.
Benz, J. A. Thermal deaths, in Modern Legal Saunders, 1997.
Medicine, Psychiatry and Forensic Science, Mason, J. K. Forensic Medicine: An Illustrated
Curran, W. J., Mc Garry, A. L. and Pethy, C. S. Reference, London: Chapman and Hall
(Eds.) Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company, 1980. Medical, 1993.
Bevel, T. and Gardner, R. M. Bloodstain Pattern Mathiharan, K. and Patnaik, A. K. (Eds.). Modi’s
Analysis With an Introduction to Crime Scene Medical Jurisprudence and Toxicology, 23rd
Reconstruction, Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2002. ed., New Delhi: Lexis Nexis, 2005.
Bohnert, M., Rost, T. and Pollak, S. The degree of Nangia, A. The tragedy of bride burning in India,
destruction of human bodies in relation to Brook. J. Int’l L., 22 (3) (1997): 637–693.
the duration of the fire, Forensic Sci Int., 95 Available at: The Tragedy of Bride Burning In
(1998): 11–21. India (brooklaw.edu)
Palriwala, R. Women are not for burning: The anti- Spitz, W. U. and Fisher, R. S. Medicolegal Investigation
dowry movement in Delhi, in Social Movements of Death: Guidelines for the Application of
II: Concerns of Equity and Security, Oxford Pathology to Crime Investigation, Springfield:
in India Readings in Sociology and Social Charles C Thomas, 1980.
Anthropology, Oommen, T. K. (Ed.) New Subrahmanyam, B. V. Modi’s Medical Jurisprudence
Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2010. and Toxicology, New Delhi: Butterworths,
Pounder, D. J. Burns and scalds, in Encyclopedia of 1999.
Forensic Sciences, Siegel, J., Knupfer, G. and Taylor, A. S. and Mant, K. A. Taylor’s Principles and
Saukko, P. (Eds.) London: Academic Press, Practice of Medical Jurisprudence, 13th ed.,
2000: 326–330. Edinburgh: Livingstone, 1984.
Rutty, G. N. Fire deaths, in Forensic Medicine: The Forensic Science Regulator, Department of
Clinical and Pathological Aspects; Payne- Justice and The Royal College of Pathologists.
James, J., Busuttil, A. and Smock, W. (Eds.) Code of Practice and Performance Standards
London: Greenwich Medical Media Ltd., 2003, for Forensic Pathology in England, Wales
349–373. and Northern Ireland, Home Office, 2012.
Saukko, P. and Knight, B. Kinght’s Forensic Available at: www.rcpath.org
Pathology, London: Hodder Arnold, 2004. Thøgersen, J. and Crompton, T. Simple and pain-
Sharman, L. E. and Elliot, D. A. Scene analysis and less? The limitations of spillover in environ-
reconstruction, in Encyclopedia of Forensic mental campaigning, Journal of Consumer
Science, Siegel, J. A., Knuper, G. and Saukko, P. Policy, 32 (2009): 141–163.
(Eds.) London: Academic Press, 2000, 457–462. Times of India, 2012. Available at: https://timeso-
Shkrum, M. J. and Ramsay, D. A. Forensic Pathology findia.indiatimes.com/india/9-death-penalties-
of Trauma Common Problems for the wrongly-i mposed-E x-j udges-t o-P resident/
Pathologist, Totowa: Humana Press, 2007. articleshow/15552912.cms
Chapter 8
Scheme for Investigating Cases of Death
due to Fall From Height
8.1 INTRODUCTION have been found to have traveled to sites (Shkrum

and Ramsay, 2007). In the first case described in
Authors have recognized that all manners are possi- this chapter, the fall had occurred at the victim’s
ble in cases of deaths due to fall from height (Cross, house. In the second case in which the body was
2006; Shkrum and Ramsay, 2007). It has been recovered from inside a well, the victim, according
pointed out that determining whether trauma is the to the scene reconstruction, appeared to have trav-
result of an accident may depend on the “eye of the elled to the scene that was away from her residence.
beholder”. As such, it is impossible at postmortem Falls from height are also reported to occur when
to determine if the injuries were caused by an acci- the victims are under custody. Damages to clothes
dental fall, an intended jump, or a deliberate push and a detailed study of even minor injuries would
because the points of contact during the descent and throw light on the posture in which the victim could
the contact with the ground will result in the same have landed and sustained the injuries.
injuries regardless of the initial “cause” (Shepherd, The methodology suggested in the flowchart
2005). (8.2 Flowchart) and the cases described would offer
Most cases of fall from heights are reported to the broad basis for guiding the scientific investiga-
occur at the victim’s residence while some victims tion in deaths due to fall.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003267096-8 169

8.2 FLOWCHART FOR INVESTIGATING
8.1. FLOWCHART DEATH
FOR INVESTIGATING DEATH DUE
DUE TO FALL
TOFALL FROM
FROM HEIGHT
HEIGHT
170
CRIME SCENE
OBSERVATIONS
SKETCH PHOTOGRAPHY
DEAD BODY SOC
OVER-ALL SOC
LOCATION OF FALL DEAD BODY SOC
TIME OF ANTE-MORTEM OTHERS - Victim’s residence - Ground plan
DISCOVERY INJURIES - Recreational areas - Elevation view OVER ALL
- Height etc. - Isometric view POSTURE
EVIDENCE ON Cadaveric spasm
- Immediate DUE TO GRIPPING BUILDING
- Not immediate PREPARATION - Include cardinal - Height – in buildings
- Location - Tugging of EVIDENCE FOR WORK- INJURIES (SCALED)
- In tune with directions - Damages – with scale
- Type clothes PLACE RELATED ACTIVITY - General
customary - Domestic/Industrial - Others
- Removal of - Close-up
activities LACERATIONS - Activity-related objects
footwear OBSTRUCTIONS
- Location / size - Others - Others HIGHLIGHTS DAMAGES IN
INTOXICATION/ - Location
CLOTHING
DRUG - Height/depth - Damages (scaled)
EVIDENCE OF EFFORT (SCALED)
ABRASIONS WORK-PLACE - Scaling walls - Front
- Smell - Location/size RELATED - Climbing stairs - Parapet wall - Back
- Others - Direction - Dress OTHER STAINS
- Others
- Instruments in the - Obstructions - Location (scaled)
body EVIDENCE FOR IMBALANCE
FALLEN POSTURE CONTUSIONS FOREIGN OBJECTS
- Objects for elevation
- Damages in - In hands
- Location - Objects for climbing EVIDENCE OF
DAMAGES IN obstructions - Nearby
- Prone - Shape - Defective barrier (children STRUGGLE
- Supine CLOTHES related) If any
- Type (look for Include
- Others RELATIONSHIP
tattered tears) measurements OTHERS
BETWEEN FLIGHT PATH DAMAGES wherever possible
- Areas ADDITIONAL ITEMS
DISTANCE FROM CUTANEOUS - Sun shade, brick work etc.
INJURIES AND Scaled
BUILDING - Clothesline etc.
DAMAGES ON - Metal objects
CLOTHES OTHERS
- Measurement - Tree branches etc.
- On the clothes etc.
- Others

SUICIDE NOTES/DRUGS
- Torn pieces/scribbling
• Consider scene circumstances indicating preparation/work-related
- Tablet packages
activities.
• Study damages on clothes for commensurability with cutaneous
injuries that are antemortem in nature.
• Consider flight path damages such as those on tree branches or
sunshades etc. for directionality and for correspondence with injuries.
Cases of Death due to Fall From Height 171
CASE 8–1: FALL FROM HEIGHT—ACCIDENTAL, SUICIDAL OR HOMICIDAL?
THE CASE ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS 3

A married woman aged 22 years, living in an apart- The victim jumped down from the sixth floor
ment on the sixth floor of a block of flats (gray and died—possible case of suicide.
arrow in Figure 8.1), reportedly fell down and suc-
cumbed to the injuries. On the day of occurrence, SEQUENTIAL HYPOTHESIS 1
the victim was found lying on the ground (black
Evidence for workplace related day-to-day routine
arrow in Figure 8.1) at about 10.30 hours and was
domestic activities are indicated in the balcony.
taken to the hospital where she was declared dead.
The available evidence and witnesses were not help-
Observed premises
ful in deciding the manner of death which could be
accidental, homicidal, or suicidal. Furthermore, at a) The balcony was 2.56 × 0.87 m in size
a later stage, the parents of the victim alleged that and had 0.67- m high cement parapet
the victim was murdered by using blunt force, and wall along its periphery with iron grille
the body was then laid on the ground to simulate a work with a high wooden railing on top
fall from height. About 5 months after the occur- of the parapet wall making the total
rence, this author was requested to reexamine the height of the retaining structure 1.23 m
scene to reconstruct the incident and to clarify the (Figure 8.2). Inside the balcony, at a
allegation on the manner of death. height of about 2.30 m from floor level,
During the reexamination of the scene, the five metal clotheslines were seen run-
photographs taken in the course of the initial inves- ning north-south. Outside the balcony,
tigation were used as the primary source for deriv- two iron angles were seen affixed about
ing the observations that manifested at the time of 34 cm below the level of the wooden rail-
occurrence. These photographs showed the mate- ing, one each on the southern and north-
rial objects and the circumstances that prevailed in ern end of the iron grille. Three metal
the location from where the victim reportedly fell clotheslines were seen fastened to these
down, the balcony of the apartment. In addition to angles (Figure 8.2).
studying the observations in the scene, a dummy b) In a photograph showing the inside of the
made using a 1.52-m high mannequin (equaling balcony taken immediately in the scene,
the height of the victim that was mentioned as 5 ft. clothes are seen hanging on the clothes-
in the autopsy report) was also used for studying line inside the balcony (gray arrow in
the feasibility to reach the clotheslines in different Figure 8.3) along with a wooden stool
postures. The same dummy was dropped from the (black arrow in Figure 8.3) in the south-
balcony in the sixth floor to estimate the distance western corner of the balcony. In another
it reached from the base of the apartment block photograph (Figure 8.4), a plastic bucket
when it fell on the ground. with clothes inside it (black arrow in
Figure 8.4) is seen in the balcony along
with clothes on the clotheslines outside
PRIMARY HYPOTHESIS
the balcony (Figure 8.4).
The victim fell down from the sixth floor and c) The reported time of discovery of the
died—possible case of accidental fall victim on the ground was about 10.30 in
the forenoon.
ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS 1
The victim was murdered, and the body was then Accepted (major) premises
laid on the ground to simulate as a case of fall a) The structural arrangements of the
from height—possibly a case of homicide. clotheslines inside and outside the bal-
cony described during the reexamination
ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS 2 indicate the design of the balcony for use
The victim was pushed/hauled down from the as regular workplace for drying clothes.
balcony and she fell down and died—possibly a b) The presence of clothes on the clothes-
case of homicide. lines inside and outside the balcony as
FIGURE 8.1 Sketch of the apartment from where the victim reportedly fell (gray arrow). Black arrow
indicates the location where the body was found. Figures marked 1, 2, and 3 indicate the locations
where the dummy landed during experiment conducted when reexamining the scene.
FIGURE 8.2 Topography of the balcony in the apartment from where the victim reportedly fell down.
Clotheslines were seen inside as well as outside the balcony. Trials 1 and 2 indicate the location from
where the dummy was dropped during the reexamination.
FIGURE 8.3 Photograph of the inside of the balcony taken during the initial investigation. Clothes
were found on the clothesline inside the balcony (gray arrow) along with a wooden stool (black arrow).
Note the absence of a lower style in the wooden stool (white arrow).
FIGURE 8.4 Photograph of the outside of the balcony taken during the initial investigation. Note the
clothes on the clothesline, the bent angle (white arrow) outside the balcony, and the plastic bucket with
clothes (black arrow) inside the balcony.
FIGURE 8.6 Dummy is shown resting on the

FIGURE 8.5 Dummy similar to the height of wooden stool.
the victim used during the reexamination of the
scene. Dummy is shown resting on the floor of to hanging out the laundry in the clotheslines
the balcony. inside and outside the balcony on the day of
occurrence. The presence of the wooden stool
well as in the plastic bucket inside the
supports its use for gaining elevation for drying
balcony seen in the photographs of the
the clothes on the clotheslines.
scene taken immediately after the occur-
rence indicate that hanging out the laun-
dry in the balcony was underway on the SEQUENTIAL HYPOTHESIS 2
day of occurrence. The presence of the An individual of about 1.52- m height (repre-
wooden stool in the balcony shows its sented by a dummy) requires an object for ele-
use for gaining elevation for drying the vation to reach the clotheslines both inside and
clothes on the clotheslines. Accidental outside the balcony for activities such as hanging
falls are known to occur during work-
out the laundry.
place related activities at heights (Shkrum
and Ramsay, 2007).
Observed premises
c) The time of the discovery of the victim
on the ground is in tune with day-to-day a) The clotheslines inside the balcony
routine activity of drying the clothes. are 2.30 m high from floor level. The
clotheslines outside the balcony are
Reconstruction about 34 cm below the wooden railing
The balcony is seen designed for use as a regu- which is about 1.23 m above the floor
lar workplace for drying clothes. The photo- level of the balcony (Figure 8.2). The fea-
graphs taken immediately in the scene support sibility for an individual of 1.52 m height
workplace-related day-to-d ay activities relating to reach these clotheslines for drying the
FIGURE 8.7 Feasibility to reach the clotheslines

inside the balcony when resting on the wooden
stool.
FIGURE 8.8 Feasibility to reach the clotheslines
cloth was ascertained using a dummy of outside the balcony when resting on the wooden
similar height (Figure 8.5). stool.
b) The wooden stool seen in the balcony
in Figure 8.3 which had been recovered and the hands, when stretched, were
earlier was further studied during the seen to access the clotheslines inside the
reexamination. The wooden stool was balcony (Figure 8.7) as well as those out-
0.46 m high, and the feasibility for an side the balcony (Figure 8.8).
individual of 1.52-m height to reach the
clotheslines when using a stool of simi- Reconstruction
lar height for elevation was ascertained
using the dummy (Figures 8.6–8.8). The compulsory use of the wooden stool for
hanging out the laundry by a person of about
Accepted (major) premises 1.52 m height is indicated by the ordinarily inac-
a) The 1.52- m high dummy, when rest- cessible higher setting of the clotheslines both
ing on the balcony floor (Figure 8.5) inside the balcony and outside the balcony.
and stretching out the arms, could not
reach the clothesline on the inner side SEQUENTIAL HYPOTHESIS 3
the balcony which were at a height of
2.30 m. The vertical line passing along the center of
b) The same dummy, when elevated and gravity of an individual standing on a stool and
rested on the 0.46-m high wooden stool maneuvering to dry the clothes on the clothes-
(Figure 8.6), attained a height of 1.98 m, lines inside or outside the balcony would be
shifting away from the areas of the feet of that gravity of that individual when standing on the
individual. stool.

In the photograph taken immediately in the scene The center of gravity for a human being lies in
(Figure 8.3), the wooden stool is seen located in the the middle of the trunk corresponding to the
south-western corner of the balcony. Assuming navel level, and, in erect posture, the vertical line
that the aforementioned location of the stool had along the center of gravity passes through the
remained undisturbed, an individual intending base covered between the areas of the feet ensur-
to dry clothes on the clotheslines would have to ing stability. Shift in the center of gravity of an
be in two different postures when standing on individual beyond the areas supporting the feet
that wooden stool—one facing east to reach the would lead to imbalance. When an individual
clotheslines inside the balcony, another facing of about 1.52-m height stands on a stool as seen
west to bend and reach the clotheslines outside positioned in Figure 8.9 and maneuvers to dry
the balcony (see diagrammatic representations clothes in the western- most clothesline inside
‘A’ and ‘B’ in Figure 8.9). The stability of such an the balcony (Figure 8.9-A) or on the clotheslines
individual would be influenced by the relocation outside the balcony (Figure 8.9- B), the body
in the vertical axis passing along the center of would have to bend to such extents as shown in
FIGURE 8.9 Sketches illustrating the possible postural variations of an individual when maneuvering
to reach the clotheslines inside and outside the balcony when resting on the wooden stool.
Figure 8.9 that the vertical axis passing along

the center of gravity of that individual would be
shifted beyond the areas of the feet as shown by
the dotted lines in Figure 8.9. Such relocation
in the line passing along the center of gravity is
likely to cause imbalance for the individual.
Reconstruction
Attempts to maneuver to reach the clotheslines
inside as well those on the outside the balcony by
a person of 1.52-m height standing on a 0.46-m
high stool would lead to relocation of the verti-
cal line passing along the center of gravity away
from the areas covered by the feet of that indi-
vidual thereby leading to imbalance.
The lack of stability, viz. the wobbling and sway-
ing of the wooden stool, could have enhanced the
imbalance for an individual standing on the stool
and maneuvering to reach the clotheslines.
Observed premises
FIGURE 8.10 Structural deformities in the
A detailed examination of the wooden stool wooden stool and the extent of wobble found
with a square platform of 29.2- cm sides that during the study. These formed observable evi-
was recovered during the initial investigation dence indicating a lack of stability when using
revealed loss of the two lower styles with only the stool.
empty slots in their places. Examination of the
image of the stool recorded in the photograph Reconstruction
taken immediately in the scene also indicated the The structural damages and the consequent lack
absence of a lower style (white arrow pointing of stability, viz. the wobbling and swaying of the
the stool in Figure 8.3). In addition, there was a wooden stool, could have augmented the imbal-
crack in the wooden structure on the upper style ance for an individual when standing on that
(Figure 8.10). The possibility for the platform of stool and maneuvering to reach the clotheslines
the stool to sway consequent to the structural from the balcony.
damages in the wooden stool was studied in the
laboratory.
Accepted (major) premises The damages in the clotheslines and the iron
angle supporting them outside the balcony indi-
The wooden stool recovered from the scene was
cate evidence of downward stress commensurate
examined in the laboratory by dropping plumb
lines on its sides to study the extent of sway when to bend the iron structure acting on them.
an individual (of about 1.55-m height and 45-kg
weight) stood on the stool and maneuvered for- Observed premises
ward and backward. During such maneuvering, a) In the photograph taken immediately in
the platform of the stool was found to sway, both the scene, the end of the arm in the iron
back and forth as well as sideways, to an extent angle supporting the clotheslines in the
that reached a maximum of 2.5 cm (dotted lines southern end outside the balcony was
in Figure 8.10). Such sway and wobbling in a seen downwardly bent (white arrow in
stool used for gaining elevation would augment Figure 8.4), and the same could be made
the imbalance for the individual standing on that out during the reexamination of the
stool. scene also (white arrow in Figure 8.11).
FIGURE 8.11 Enlarged view of the bent angle in

the clothesline outside the balcony—observable
evidence suggesting stress on the metal angle.
FIGURE 8.13 Sketch illustrating the loosened

and sagged metal wire on the clothesline outside
the balcony.
FIGURE 8.12 The extent of unwinding seen in
the farthermost metal wire and the additional its absence (white arrows in Figure 8.12).
piece (green arrow) that revealed evidence of sag- In the next slot, the twisted end of the
ging (black and white arrows) outside the bal- wire is seen to be intact (blue arrow in
cony. In the next slot, the twisted end of the wire Figure 8.12). The farthermost metal wire
is seen intact (blue arrow). The unwound and clothesline (green arrow in Figure 8.12
sagged metal wire provided observable evidence and marked as ‘Sagging clothesline’ in
suggesting impact by a heavy object. Figure 8.13) was found to sag to an extent
The other intact angle available can of 13.5 cm when pressed downward.
be used to ascertain the tensile force
required for causing similar bend. Accepted (major) premises
b) The terminal part of the metal wire far- a) The bend in the terminal end of the iron
thermost from the balcony (green arrow angle that was evident in the photograph
in Figure 8.12 and marked as ‘Loosened taken immediately after the occurrence
wire ends’ in Figure 8.13) revealed an (Figure 8.4) indicated that a downward
additional piece of metal wire still cling- stress had acted on that iron angle.
ing into the slot (Figure 8.12). The twists During laboratory analysis using the
of these metal wires had given way as remaining intact iron angle, weight in the
indicated by the unwound part of the range of 40 to 45 kg was found to cause
metal wire revealing repeated areas perceptible bending in that arm compa-
of red oxide coating (black arrows in rable in extent to the bend observed in
Figure 8.12) with intermittent areas of the bent iron angle in the scene.
An inert dummy, when slid atop the railing,
would fall on the ground indicating a possible
location that would be reached by a dead weight
falling from the sixth floor.
Observed premises
The dummy used was slid down the railing of
the balcony (Figure 8.14) two times, once with-
out contacting the angle and on the second
time contacting the angle itself, as shown by
the two arrows marked ‘Trial 1’ and ‘Trial 2’
in Figure 8.2. On both the trials, the dummy
fell on the ground at locations that were nearer
to the basement by about 1.5 m (‘1’ and ‘2’ in
Figure 8.15) compared to the location where the
victim was reportedly found lying on the day of
occurrence (‘0’ in Figure 8.15). The dotted line
figure in location ‘2’ in Figure 8.15 indicates the
initial position of the fall of the dummy from
where it bumped to the final position shown in
solid line and marked as ‘2’.

The distance a body is found from a structure
is not necessarily reliable in determining intent,
FIGURE 8.14 Dummy positioned for dropping i.e., jump vs. fall (Shkrum and Ramsay, 2007).
from the balcony in the sixth floor. Thus, a difference of about 1.5 m between the
location of fall of the dummy and the location of
b) The metal wire of the clothesline reveal- discovery of the victim is not significant enough
ing unwound ends described before to suggest that the victim made a deliberate jump.
indicated greater extent of sagging. The The farther distance reached by the victim may
recent nature of the unwinding of the be attributable to life activities at the moment of
twists in that wire is shown by the dis- attaining imbalance or while falling.
continuities in the surface coatings such
as red-oxide. Downward forces acting Reconstruction
on metal wires with their ends twisted The differences in the distances between the
on to other objects would stretch out locations of fall of the dummy and the location
those wires leading to unwinding of the of initial discovery of the dead body were not
twisted ends. significant enough to infer a deliberate jump
on the part of the victim. The farther distance
Reconstruction reached by the victim’s body may support that
The downwardly bent terminal end in the angle body had not descended as a dead weight but
on the southern end of the balcony indicates may be due to life activities at the moment of
downward stress on that angle caused by an attaining imbalance or while falling.
object in the weight range of 40 to 45 kg or more.
The evidence of downward stress on the metal Conjoined reconstruction
wire and the arm in the iron angle support that The sequential hypotheses 1 to 6 that took into
these objects could have obstructed the weight of consideration the design of the balcony for use
an individual of about 50 kg during the down- as a regular workplace for hanging out the laun-
ward fall of that individual. dry, the compulsory requirement of the wooden
FIGURE 8.15 The relative locations of fall of the dummy during the reexamination marked ‘1’ and ‘2’.
The location where the victim was reportedly found is marked ‘0’.
stool to obtain the required elevation to reach was brought down and laid on the ground to
the clotheslines, the possibility for relocation simulate fall from height. However, it is not pos-
of the vertical line passing along the center of sible to scientifically ascertain the propositions
gravity outside areas of the feet for an individual in the alternative hypotheses 2 and 3 if there
maneuvering on the stool, the damages in the was a deliberate push or an intended jump caus-
wooden stool and the consequent wobble when ing the fall, apart from the scene circumstances
a person stands on that stool, and the location of described before.
fall of the victim ascertained using the dummy
conjointly support the primary hypothesis that Limitations in the reconstruction
the victim could have fallen due to loss of stabil- 1. The circumstances that prevailed in the
ity when engaged in the day-to-d ay work-related scene such as the presence of the wooden
activity of hanging out the laundry. The damages stool and clothes on the clotheslines were
on the iron structures in the clotheslines outside inferred from the photographs taken of
the balcony support the descent of a falling body the scene at that time; these evidence
rather than the alternative hypothesis (1) that the were not available in the scene during
victim could have been murdered and the body the reexamination.
2. The location of fall of the victim on the victim, its volume and center of grav-
floor at the ground level had been identi- ity could not be simulated to those of a
fied on the basis of the statement of the human being in general or the victim in
witness, the complainant. particular.
3. There is no scientific methodology to 5. The recorded velocity of wind on the
precisely relate the structural changes day of occurrence was 004 kmph
such as the bend in the arm of the iron (northwest), and on the date of dummy
angle or the loss of twists in the end of trial it was 004 kmph (southwest). The
wire to have occurred on the date of opposed direction of the wind could
occurrence of the fatal fall. also have influenced the location of fall
4. Although the dummy used conformed of the dummy although the velocity was
to the reported height and weight of the low.
CASE 8–2: FALL INTO A WELL—WHETHER THE VICTIM WAS ALIVE OR DEAD?
THE CASE and 8.18). The kameez revealed two

A decomposed dead body was found inside a irregularly tattered torn areas on its
well in the backyard of a house. The deceased front side (arrow in Figure 8.19—‘F’
was identified to be a married woman living in indicating ‘front side’).
the same locality but away from the scene house. b) Detailed examination of the damaged
The scene was initially examined by the desig- areas in the kameez indicated two tat-
nated SOCO, and, after 2 days, it was reexam- tered tears, one about 3.5 cm long (‘A’
ined by this author on the request of the senior in Figures 8.20–8.22) and another about
investigation officer. The scene house had a gated 2.5 cm long (‘B’ in Figures 8.20–8.22),
compound wall with a passage leading to the with varying width on the right front
backyard (Figure 8.16). An adjacent passage also side about 22 cm above the level of the
led nearer to the well with a hand pump (inset in lower hem (Figure 8.20). Following
Figure 8.16) built abetting the compound wall. these tears, small patches of intermittent
tattered areas extended upwards, alto-
PRIMARY HYPOTHESIS gether to a length of about 16 cm (dia-
The dead body of the deceased was dropped in to grammatically shown in Figure 8.20;
the well—possibly a case of homicide. arrows other than those marked ‘A’ and
‘B’ in Figure 8.21). Corresponding to
ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS the tear in the outer cloth of the kameez
(marked ‘T-O’ in Figures 8.21 and 8.23),
The victim fell into the well while being alive—
the inner lining cloth of the kameez also
possibly a case of suicide.
revealed two tattered tears (marked ‘T-I’
in Figure 8.23). In the inner lining layer,
SEQUENTIAL HYPOTHESIS 1 one tear was about 2.0-cm long, and the
A study of the type of damages to the clothing of other was about 1.5-cm long. The over-
the deceased can indicate the possible cause that all measurements taken of the kameez
produced those damages. indicated its baggy style.
c) Examination of the salwar indicated a
Observed premises tattered tear of about 2-cm long in the
a) The deceased was wearing salwar (pants) outer cloth layer (arrow in Figure 8.24) in
and kameez (shirt), a type of Indian cos- the region of the back rise on the right side
tume used by women. The aforemen- about 17 cm below the waist level (dia-
tioned clothing recovered from the dead grammatically shown in Figure 8.25).
body was reconstructed (Figures 8.17 There was also a corresponding tattered
FIGURE 8.16 Aerial view sketch showing the well in which the decomposed dead body was discov-
ered. Note its relationship with the street. The inset shows the elevation view details of the hand pump
adjacent to the parapet wall.
tear measuring about 2 cm in the inner salwar and was about 13 cm above the
lining cloth in the same back-rise region level of the lower hem of the salwar (dia-
of the salwar. Furthermore, on the inner grammatically shown in Figure 8.25).
aspect of the salwar corresponding to the d) All the aforementioned damages indi-
ankle region, the inner lining cloth also cated irregular tattering of fibers charac-
revealed a tear about 1.5 cm in size. This teristic of damage due to heavy abrasive
damage was on the medial aspect of the force on the clothing caused due to
FIGURE 8.19 Arrow indicates the location of

damages on the outer cloth in the kameez (shirt).
FIGURE 8.17 Salwar (pants) and kameez (shirt)

recovered from the dead body.
FIGURE 8.20 Diagrammatic representation of

the arc-shaped tattered tear on the outer cloth of
the kameez (shirt).
impact on a rough surface. The relatively
puffy ends of the torn fibers indicated
‘recency’ of the damages.

a) Damages on the clothing can be useful
for relating the objects in a scene that
caused these damages. Forcible impact
of the clothing worn in the body on
rough surfaces leads to tattered tears.
FIGURE 8.18 Diagrammatic illustration of the b) The damages described on the kameez
location of damages on the cloth in the kameez and salwar indicate direct impact on
(shirt). objects having rough surfaces. Such
FIGURE 8.23 Relationship between the tattered

tear on the outer (TO) and inner (TI) layers of the
cloth of the kameez (shirt).
FIGURE 8.21 Close-up view of the arc-shaped
tattered tear on the outer cloth of the kameez
(shirt).
FIGURE 8.22 Enlarged view of the tattered

damages ‘A’ and ‘B’ indicating irregular snapping
of the yarns of the cloth.
impacts are known to result abrasive
forces that cause uneven thinning of the
fabric material, fraying of fibers, and for-
mation of hole. The extent of these dam-
ages corresponds to the degree of the
roughness of the impacting object and
the impacting abrasive force. FIGURE 8.24 Tattered tear in the cloth of the
c) Multiple tears, in similar alignment in back rise on the salwar found about 17 cm below
multiple layers of clothing, such as on the waist level.
FIGURE 8.25 Diagrammatic representation of the tattered tear in the cloth of the back rise on the
salwar as shown in Figure 8.24.
the outer and inner layers of the kameez have been caused concurrently in one and the
as well as on the outer and inner layers same event. Being baggy, the kameez is likely to
of the salwar, support the inference that sway; on the other hand, the back rise of the sal-
these layers of clothing were one over war, being relatively snugly fitting, would offer
the other when the impacting force, in better correlation with the cutaneous injuries on
one and the same event, acted on them. the deceased. The roughly arc-shaped tattering
Multiples of such damages on different in the entire damage indicates the impacting sur-
parts of the clothing, such as the damage face to be of similar shape, a structure likely to
on the ankle region, imply concurrent be present in the internal construction of a well.
and multiple impacts on the same event. It
has been recognized that damages to the
garment may support the observations of
other professionals such as pathologists Tattered and ragged tears on the clothing worn
(Taupin and Cwiklik, 2011). by an individual found dead inside a well can be
d) The fiber ends and their disposition can caused due to abrasive force impacting on that
be useful to infer ‘recency’. individual when falling into a well and coming
into contact with rough concrete surfaces in the
Reconstruction structures inside the well.
The two major tears described as ‘A’ and ‘B’
in the kameez (shirt) of the deceased indicate Observed premises
that they have been caused due to heavy impact a) During the course of reexamination,
with a rough surface such as concrete structures the structural details of the interior of
commonly found inside a well. The correlation the well were studied by this author by
between the aforementioned tears with the tears climbing down the well. The well was
in the back rise of the salwar worm by deceased about 11-m deep, and the inner diameter
indicate that both the aforementioned damages was about 1.2 m up to about 7.8 m where
FIGURE 8.28 Broken concrete chunk (‘A’) lying

on the offset area along with the broken portion
of the concrete sleeve (arrows).
broken (white arrow in Figure 8.27). The
arc of the broken area was about 23 cm
(black arrows in Figure 8.28; diagram-
matically shown in Figure 8.29).
c) A chunk of the broken concrete (‘A’ in
Figure 8.28) that was lying on the offset
area revealed evidence of recent break-
FIGURE 8.26 Structural details of the inte- age, and its broken edges physically
rior of the well from which the dead body was matched with a portion of the broken
recovered. edges in the concrete sleeve (arrows in
Figure 8.30). The relatively brighter sur-
face area in the block ‘A’ may be because
of the disturbance due to the activities
relating to retrieving the dead body from
the well.

a) In the construction of a well of limited
diameter of about 1.2 m, an eccentric-
ity and an area of offset with a further
reduction in diameter to 1 m at a depth
of about 7.8 m, would act a physical
obstruction for a human body falling
FIGURE 8.27 Surface of the concrete sleeve in inside the well.
the offset inside the well with rough edges (gray b) In the circumstances of this case, the
arrow) revealing the embedded iron rods (black arc of the broken area measuring about
arrows) with a broken portion (white arrow). 23 cm in the circumference of the well
is seen to correlate with the roughly
there was an eccentric offset (arrow in arc-shaped tattered tears on the kameez
Figure 8.26) due to the reduced diameter worn by the deceased which extended to
of 1 m beyond that depth. about 16 cm in total length.
b) In the offset area, the exposed circum- c) The structural damage in the arc of the
ference of the concrete sleeve had rough cement concrete sleeve that has a rough
edges (gray arrow in Figure 8.27) reveal- surface, such as the damaged part of the
ing the embedded iron rods (black arrows arc, the presence of broken block of con-
in Figure 8.27) with a portion that was crete in the offset itself, and, the physical
FIGURE 8.29 Diagrammatic representation of the damages in the concrete sleeve.
block. The evidence of breakage further offered

support indicating the impact of a heavy object
falling on the concrete sleeve.
Damages on the clothing of the deceased can be
correlated with the nature of the cutaneous inju-
ries on the deceased’s body.
Observed premises
a) The Medical Officer who conducted the
autopsy had recorded the following inju-
ries in the postmortem report.
FIGURE 8.30 Physical match (arrows) between (i) Incised looking type laceration: a) 5
the broken edge of the chunk of concrete (‘A’) and × 1 × ¼ cm b) 4 × 1 × ¼ cm seen on
the broken edge of the concrete sleeve. the right frontal region of scalp, the
outer touching the hair margin.
(ii) A vertical laceration over inner sur-
match between the edges of that broken face of left ankle 1 × 3 cm bone deep
block with the edges in the damaged arc extending on the lower part of left
support the proposition that the tattered leg.
tears in the clothing of the deceased (iii) Bruising of tissues on lateral aspect
could have been caused due to fall and of right gluteal region 6 × 3 × 2 cm.
impact on the concrete sleeve. (iv) Bruising of tissues on inner aspect
of right ankle 7 × 6 × 1 cm.
Reconstruction (v) Circular and elliptical old healed
The arc-shaped tattered damages in the cloth- scars on (a) right side of chest below
ing of the deceased are seen to circumstantially the breast 2 × ½ cm; (b) on right
correlate with the rough surfaces of the concrete hypochondrium 4 × 3 cm; (c) on the
sleeve edges, portion of which was found broken middle of right abdomen 4 × 3, 3 ×
as evidenced by physical matching of the broken 2 cm.
(vi) A depression 1 × 2.5 cm seen on well with the cutaneous injury, the abrasion,
right frontal bone near lower part described on the right buttock of the deceased.
of coronal suture. In addition, the damage on the right inner aspect
b) Among the six injuries noted before, the of the salwar also correlates with the laceration
injury ‘(iii) Bruising of tissues on lateral in the inner right ankle of the deceased. Thus,
aspect of right gluteal region 6 × 3 × more than one cutaneous injury is seen to be cor-
2 cm’ is seen to correlate with the tat- relating with corresponding damages in multiple
tered damages in the multiple layers of locations in the clothing supporting concurrent
the clothing, i.e., the kameez as well as impact. Abrasions and lacerations being ante-
the right back rise in the salwar worn mortem cutaneous injuries, the possibility for
by the deceased. In addition, the injury the deceased to have fallen into the well when
‘(iv) Bruising of tissues on inner aspect alive is seen to be supported.
of right ankle 7 × 6 × 1 cm’ is seen to cor-
relate with the damage seen on cloth in SEQUENTIAL HYPOTHESIS 4
the inner aspect of the salwar above the
Hand-written notes suggesting depressed state of
right hem.
mind supporting suicide and victims of suicide
are known to consume sedatives.
a) Bruising on the body parts that are cov- Observed premises
ered with clothes cannot occur without
a) Reconstruction of the writings on torn
damaging the clothes on the correspond-
pieces of paper recovered from the room
ing part unless the clothes are uplifted
in the house where the victim lived indi-
exposing the cutaneous layer for direct
cated parts comprising portions such as
contact. Bruises are a sign of cardiac out-
‘No one has tortured me or done any-
put (McCallin, 1901; Dix, 2000; Shkrum
thing to me’ (Figure 8.31) suggesting the
and Ramsay, 2007), and fabric holes are
torn pieces to be parts of a suicide note.
known to match with cutaneous wounds
e) Diazepam had been detected during tox-
(Shkrum and Ramsay, 2007).
icological analysis of the visceral organs.
b) Although the determination of primary
impact sites is not always obvious dur-
ing a fall, direct impacts occur on the
head, buttocks, and lower extremities f) In cases of suicidal falls, depression has
(Shkrum and Ramsay, 2007). Multiple been indicated as being more common
cutaneous injuries on different surfaces than psychosis, and the information that
of the body imply multiple concurrent had assisted in the determination of sui-
impacts during fall (Dix, 2000; Shkrum cide included suicide notes and suicidal
and Ramsay, 2007). ideation (Shkrum and Ramsay, 2007).
e) Although drugs like diazepam can be
Reconstruction used for incapacitating vulnerable vic-
tims before homicidal assault, these
The tattered-type of damages, especially those
drugs are also commonly found among
on two different locations in the kameez and on
suicidal victims (Shkrum and Ramsay,
the back rise of the salwar, are seen to correlate
2007).
FIGURE 8.31 Portion of writings on torn pieces of paper recovered from the room in the house where
the victim lived.
Reconstruction Postscript
The presence of handwritten notes suggesting The doctor who conducted the postmortem
depressed state of the mind of the deceased sup- examination on the decomposed body recov-
ports intention to commit suicide. Consumption ered from the well had opined that the deceased
of sleeping pills has been known among victims would have died due to diazepam poison and that
of suicide. drowning was post-mortem in nature. Diazepam
tablets were found in the room of the deceased.
Conjoined reconstruction The prosecution case was that the husband of
The two major tattered tears on multiple layers the deceased mixed diazepam tablet in tea and
of the kameez (shirt) and the tattered tears on the administered the same to the deceased, murdered
two layers of cloth on the back rise of the salwar, her, and, then, along with his father, transported
all of which are characteristic of abrasive dam- the dead body to the well and dropped into it.
ages due to impact on rough surfaces, are seen to The trial court acquitted the accused due to lack
correlate well with the damages in the concrete of evidence, and during the revision, the Hon’ble
sleeve in the offset inside the well offering support Judge of the High Court also upheld the deci-
for the impact of the clothed body of victim on sion of the trial court (Vasu vs. Krishnan and
the edges of the concrete sleeve. The broken block others in Criminal Revision No. 1556 of 2003,
of concrete in the offset inside the well which The High Court of Judicature at Madras dated
physically matched with the damage in the sleeve 02–08–2007).
is seen to offer further support for the aforemen- In this case, the manner of death as due
tioned inference. The correspondence of two to diazepam poisoning and drowning as post-
cutaneous injuries on the deceased with dam- mortem had been decided solely on the basis
ages on the clothing worn by the deceased, more of the opinion of the medical doctor who con-
particularly, the relatedness between the injury ducted autopsy. Considering drowning as post-
on the gluteal region and the damage of cloth- mortem implies dropping the dead body into the
ing, from the outer layer to the inner layer, on well, a circumstance that does not reconcile with
the back rise of the salwar worn by the deceased, the reconstruction described before in which
indicate the possibility for the deceased to have the abrasive damages on the clothing, possibly
fallen into the well when alive. The occurrence caused due to impact with structures inside the
of multiple damages on the clothing and corre- well, had been shown to align with cutaneous
sponding multiple cutaneous injuries on the body injuries of antemortem nature on the deceased
concurrently in one and the same event is par- which had been described by the medical doctor
ticularly pertinent in supporting that the victim who conducted the autopsy. As such, the manner
fell while alive. The aforementioned inferences, of death suggested as due to diazepam poison-
when evaluated alongside the handwritten notes ing and disposal of the body into the well after
that suggested depressed state of the mind, and death remains debatable. Appropriate integra-
the presence of diazepam in the visceral organs of tion of the scene reconstruction with the autopsy
the deceased support the alternative hypothesis findings would have brought to light the manner
that deceased had fallen into the well while alive of death that could be scientifically supported as
and that the manner death could be suicide. nearer to ground reality.
8.4 DISCUSSION ii. Myth: Finding a dead body at a greater dis-

tance from the building indicates ‘jumping’
8.4.1 Myths and Facts Relating to Observations to death.
in Death due to Fall Fact: The distance a body is found from a
structure is not necessarily reliable in deter-
i. Myth: In cases of deaths due to fall, the
mining intent, i.e., jump vs. fall (Shkrum
greater height of barrier supports homicide.
Fact: In cases of deaths due to fall, clear- and Ramsay, 2007).
ing barriers of greater height indicates vic- iii. Myth: The injuries sustained during a death
tim’s resolution and hence supports suicide due to fall can indicate the cause of initia-
(Taylor, 1873; Dix, 2000). tion of fall.
Fact: Among the injuries sustained during Evidence of recent damages in the objects that
a death due to fall, only those injuries per- obstruct the passage of a falling body can offer clue
taining to gripping or restraining can indi- that a body had traversed that passage. Such evi-
cate the cause of fall (Shepherd, 2005). dence include damages in tree branches, concrete
iv. Myth: Falls onto the ground occur from a or other projections from buildings such as sun-
considerable height. shades, roof shades, etc. When tree branches are
Fact: Falls onto the ground may occur even damaged, evidence indicating the downward direc-
from standing (Shepherd, 2005). tion of severing of the branches must be observed
and recorded. The presence of leaves or other traces
of vegetation on the clothing of the victim and the
8.4.2 Workplace-Related Falls traces of fibers of the clothing of the victim on the
obstructing objects must also be looked for and
Among the workplace incidents and other acciden- recorded.
tal falls, falling from buildings, scaffolds, and lad- Damage to clothing continues to be one of the
ders is a leading cause of death in the construction neglected clues in cases of fall from heights. The
industry. Males aged 20 to 30 years are the most damages may include tears caused by sharp objects
frequent victims (Shkrum and Ramsay, 2007). that intervened during the fall or, more commonly,
Workplace-related falls usually occur in the pres- those damages that relate to impact of the clothes on
ence of witnesses, and its accidental nature may also a rough surface at the completion of the fall. Here,
be identified by the work-related objects or instru- the relevance of the discussion on ‘Evidentiary value
ments that had also fallen along with the victim. of cloth and damages on clothes’ in Chapter 5 is
indicated.
8.4.3 Falling Under Intoxication

8.4.6 Handwriting Evidence in the Form
Although intoxication may arise as an issue in of Suicide Note
workplace-related falls also, intoxication and reck-
less behavior are the two well- known common In many of the equivocal deaths, crime scene inves-
factors in non- work-
related accidental as well as tigation may lead to the recovery of handwritten
suicidal falls. The use of ethanol and illicit drugs notes expressing suicide ideation. In the United
has been detected in up to one-third of accident and States, suicide notes have been noted as occurring
suicide victims (Shkrum and Ramsay, 2007). in about one-third of the suicidal deaths involv-
ing manners such as by fall from heights, hang-
ing, drowning, gunshot wounds, and penetrating
8.4.4 Fall of Children wounds. In addition, suicide notes have also been
noted in cases of death by ligature strangulation
Defective barriers and lack of adult supervision and by inhalation of exhaust fumes (Shkrum and
lead to children falling from apartment buildings. Ramsay, 2007). Dix (2000) mentions suicide note
Children are reported to tolerate falls better than in a case of death by firearm wound and in a case
adults as they have less mass and more flexible of death by crashing a motor vehicle into a rock
bones (Shkrum and Ramsay, 2007). wall. Authors also caution that if a suicide note
identifies the suicidal agent or agents, toxicological
analysis may reveal a different substance entirely
8.4.5 Useful Circumstantial Clues at Scenes (Hepler and Isenschmid, 2008). However, suicide
of Fall From Heights notes, once recovered in a scene, oftentimes play a
vital role in concluding whether the particular act
Evidence indicating preparation to jump may be that led to the death of the individual was predeter-
available in cases of planned suicides. These evi- mined. It must be noted that suicide notes may not
dence would include removal of jewels and keep- always occur in full or in traditionally written form
ing them in a safe place at home or removal of the on sheets of paper. In Case 8–2 described before,
shoes and other footwear before jumping. Other the note, written on pages of foolscap paper, was
scene findings that would support intent in cases of found torn into multiple pieces that were left in the
fall from height are deliberate attempts to reach the waste bin in the room where the victim was liv-
height such as climbing over a barrier or crawling ing. On reconstructing the pieces, the final sen-
through a narrow passage. tence, shown in Figure 8.31, provided the cue on
FIGURE 8.32 Note found written in vernacular Tamil on the floor of the house of the victim averring that
the victim was being taken to the river by some unknown person. Some of the letters revealing useful hand
writing characteristics are shown using arrows.
FIGURE 8.33 Admitted writing of the deceased

individual indicating similar letters (arrows) as
shown in Figure 8.32.
suicide ideation on the part of the deceased. In a

case of death by drowning, the victim who killed
her child and herself by throwing themselves into
a river wrote a note, in vernacular Tamil, on the
floor of her house using charcoal averring that she
was being taken to the river by some unknown
person (Figure 8.32). In spite of the writing being
scribbled on the floor, the characteristics, some
of them shown using arrows 1–4 in Figure 8.32,
could be compared with the admitted writing of
the deceased on a post-card written earlier (arrows
1–4 in Figure 8.33; individual letters displayed side
by side in Figure 8.34). Misleading statements in
suicide notes or in the oral statements of victims of
suicide recorded before death are not uncommon
in India where there is a social stigma attached to FIGURE 8.34 Side-
by-
side display of the letters
committing suicide. It is also possible to stage a sui- pointed out in Figures 8.32 and 8.33 highlighting
cide note, and, in addition, averments that suicidal examples of handwriting characteristics that can be
notes are staged may also be leveled by relatives of useful for comparison.
victims of suicide. In either case, the SOCOs must Hepler, B. R. and Isenschmid, D. S. Specimen selec-
strive to obtain admitted writings of the deceased tion, collection, preservation, and security,
individual which reveal comparable characteristics in Postmortem Toxicology of Abused Drugs,
that can be examined by document experts to iden- Karch, S. B. (Ed.) Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press,
tify if the writings are genuine. Such characteristics 2008.
include, among others, the beginning and ending of Hilton, O. Scientific Examination of Questioned
the stroke, some of which are shown using arrows Documents, Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1993.
in Figure 8.34 and the shade which form part of the Huber, R. A., Headrick, A. M. Handwriting
morphology of the “line quality” and differences in Identification: Facts and Fundamentals, Boca
relative size of the letters (Osborn, 1991; Hilton, Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1999.
1993; Huber and Headrick, 1999; Ellen, 2006). McCallin, W. Introduction to Medical Jurisprudence,
Regarding the importance of pen-pressure-related London: Bailliere, Tindall and Cox, 1901.
qualities in handwriting, Osborn (1991) states that Osborn, A. S. Questioned Document Problems: The
they “almost deserves to be learned by heart” and Discovery and Proof of the Facts, NJ: Patterson
that “[o]ne who does not understand them is not Smith, 1991.
qualified to give an opinion on the subject of ques- Shepherd, R. Deaths in custody, in Clinical Forensic
tioned, disputed or suspected handwriting”. Medicine: A Physician’s Guide, 2nd ed., Stark,
M. M. (Ed.) Totowa, NJ: Humana Press Inc.,
2005.
REFERENCES Shkrum, M. J. and Ramsay, D. A. Forensic Pathology
of Trauma Common Problems for the
Cross, R. Fatal falls from a height: Two case studies, Pathologist, Totowa, NJ: Humana Press, 2007.
J Forensic Sci., 51 (1) (2006): 93–99 Taupin, J. M. and Cwiklik, C. Scientific Protocols
Dix, J. Colour Atlas of Forensic Pathology, Boca for Forensic Examination of Clothing, Boca
Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2000. Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2011.
Ellen, D. Scientific Examination of Document: Taylor, A. S. The Principles and Practice of Medical
Methods and Techniques, Boca Raton, FL: Jurisprudence, 2nd ed., Philadelphia: Henry C
CRC Taylor and Francis, 2006. Lea, 1873.
Chapter 9
due to Electrocution
9.1 INTRODUCTION missed. When the body parts are in contact with
the ground, the exit wounds may not be large and
In deaths due to electrocution, all manners apparent. However, the presence of entry wounds in
of death have been recognized to be possible. body parts which are in contact with the electrical
Shkrum and Ramsay (2007) cite a study of 220 wires or with other objects that conduct electricity
electrocutions among which 217 related to acci- would offer sufficient evidence indicating electrocu-
dents, two to suicides, and one to homicide. tion. The entry wounds usually present with a cen-
Any sudden death near an electric cord must be tral area of charring surrounded by a gray–white
evaluated for a possible electrocution since no zone of necrosis (Shkrum and Ramsay, 2007).
injuries may be found on the body if the death Metal contacts that act as conductors of electricity
is due to low voltage (Dix, 2000). Death due to to the body parts leave evidence on the skin in the
electrocution is so sudden that it is often linked form of metallic deposits (e.g., copper, iron) on skin
to increased or abnormal muscle contraction (Dix surfaces that are burned. The related metal objects
and Graham, 2000; Shkrum and Ramsay, 2007). may reveal charred skin residues sticking to them.
It is important that the body posture must be Lightning is a natural cause of electrocution, and
studied immediately in the scene. Especially, the the injuries can vary depending on the nature of the
position of the arms and legs must be recorded in strike.
relation to gravity to identify if there is evidence The methodology suggested in the flowchart
of instantaneous rigor. (9.2 Flowchart) and the cases described would
In deaths due to electrocution, the entry and enable identification of relevant observations dur-
exit wounds are seen as being burns on the skin ing the scientific investigation of deaths due to
and may range from pinpoint to large and can be electrocution.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003267096-9 195

9.2 FLOWCHART FOR INVESTIGATING DEATH DUE TO ELECTROCUTION
196
CRIME SCENE
SOC
DEAD BODY
OVER-ALL SOC
ACCESS TO DEAD BODY SOC
POSTURE INJURIES TRACE EVIDENCE ELECTRICITY—INDOOR - Ground plan
(ON THE BODY) - Direct—via wires - Elevation view
OVERALL - Char evidence - Indirect—dampness - Isometric view OVERALL OVERALL
MAJOR - Metal traces
Lying/sitting/others
ELECTRICAL BURNS Lying/sitting/others - Source of
OUTDOOR—lightning - Include cardinal
(ENTRY SITES) electricity
directions
BODY POSTURE AND - Multiple/single Object in
TRACE EVIDENCE
ELECTRICITY SOURCE - Missing fingers hand/mouth etc. - State of fuse
(ON CONDUCTOR)
- Accessibility /toes/Lesions in ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT
- Skin traces
- Additional body - High voltage HIGHLIGHTS
- Cloth/fiber traces Posture–gravity - State of
contrivances - Severe burn in - Melting/arcing
relationship switches/plugs
- Others lightning - Low voltage contact
- Electricity source
- Fuse/Electric
WOUNDS: - Trace evidence
- Course of exposed equipment
WORK-PLACE - Victim’s posture - Missing finger/toe Metal/plastics
electrical wires - Burns—major
RELATED ACTIVITIES
- Tools - Objects held – - Burns—minor OTHER OBJECTS
- Others OTHER OBJECTS wires etc. - Crater like - For access
MINOR - For access wound - For cutting
ELECTRICAL BURNS - For cutting - Others - Wound in - For insulating
EVIDENCE OF (EXIT SITES) relation to earth - Any other
- For insulating
ELABORATE
Crater like injuries - Any other Include
ARRANGEMENT IMPRINT EVIDENCE
Multiple/single measurements
- Delicate maneuvering Scaled photos
Palms/ feet/areas wherever possible
- Binding with tape
of body contact IMPRINT EVIDENCE
- Others
Fingerprints etc. THROWN OBJECTS

In lightning
CADAVERIC SPASM CUES FOR RECONSTRUCTION - Metal objects
- Body posture in - Torn cloth
THROWN OBJECTS
relation to gravity • Consider workplace activities, body posturein In lightning
- Objects held in relation to gravity, and accessibility to electrical - Injury type
hands/ source when hypothesizing accidental possibilities. - Metal objects
mouth etc. • Consider evidence of elaborate arrangement and - Torn cloth
delicate maneuvering when hypothesizing suicidal
RIGOR MORTIS or homicidal nature of electrocution.
LIVIDITY
Cases of Death due to Electrocution 197
CASE 9–1: ACCIDENTAL ELECTROCUTION—DOMESTIC VOLTAGE

A male individual was found dead in his house The victim died due to accidental electrocution
lying on his back with the left hand holding a because of negligence.
metal wire (Figure 9.1). It was reported that the
deceased was trying to fix a clothesline by fasten- ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS
ing a metal wire to a nail and then attempting to Apparently, there was no other alternative
drive the nail on to the wall of the house. hypothesis
On exposing the wall, the nail (white arrow
in Figure 9.2) was seen contacting the electric
wire inside the wall. The metal wire gripped in
the hand of the victim was in continuity with the The circumstances in the scene indicate the
nail (black arrow in Figure 9.2) finally twisted on involvement of the deceased in domestic work-
to the nail. related activities.
FIGURE 9.1 A male individual lying dead in his house with the left hand holding a metal wire.
Observed premises
a) The deceased was found lying on the
floor with the twisted metal wire held in
the hand (Figure 9.1). The metal wire was
in continuity with a nail (black arrow in
Figure 9.2) which was seen driven into
the wall (white arrow in Figure 9.2). The
presence of a chisel, etc., on the bench
(Figure 9.1) indicated that the deceased
was involved in domestic- work-related
activity of fixing a clothesline in the
house.
b) The metal wire was in contact with
multiple parts of the deceased and had
caused burn injuries typical of electri-
cal burns in those areas of contact such
as the right upper arm (white arrow in
Figure 9.3) and right abdomen (black
arrow in Figure 9.3). The metal wire in
the abdominal region indicated charred
tissues adhering to it.

FIGURE 9.2 The metal wire (black arrow) was a) Many of the electrical injury deaths
seen connected to a nail (white arrow) driven on are known to occur at home, and low-
the wall. voltage injuries occur due to contact with
FIGURE 9.3 Electrical burns on the victim included those on the areas of contact of the wire, viz. on
the right upper arm (white arrow) and right abdomen (black arrow).
energized objects such as wires (Shkrum

and Ramsay, 2007).
b) Burn injuries on the deceased in the
areas of contact with the metal wire
indicate passage of electricity to the
body through the metal wire in the pos-
ture in which the deceased was found in
the scene.
Reconstruction
The nail with metal wire twisted on to it and
seen driven into the wall, the metal wire held in
the hand of the deceased, and the other circum-
stances in the scene indicate that the deceased
was involved in the domestic-work-related activ-
ity of fixing a clothesline in his house.
The evidence of cadaveric spasm in the posi-
tion of the deceased in a scene indicates the final
activities and the last posture of the deceased at
the time death occurred.
Observed premises
a) The left hand of the deceased is seen held
upward with the fingers gripping the metal FIGURE 9.4 Observable evidence indicating
wire (arrow in Figure 9.4), signs indicating cadaveric spasm was the upwardly held hand
immediate onset of rigidity, viz. cadaveric with the fingers gripping the metal wire (arrow).
spasm, in these parts of the body. The Note the grip of the wire by the fingers with the
metal wire near the hand is not straight thumb finger held within the other fingers—an
and taut but instead indicates sag. observation pointing to the failure of primary
b) The iron nail gripped between teeth flaccidity and, instead, the onset of instant rigid-
(arrow in Figure 9.5) indicates cadaveric ity during death.
spasm in the jaw since the jaw muscles
had not relaxed immediately after death.

a) Although the upwardly held left hand may
be argued to be supported by the tension
of metal wire, the sag in the wire indicates
that the hand is not wholly supported by
the wire. Furthermore, the gripped state
of the metal wire inside the fingers with
the thumb finger folded within the other
fingers leads to the strong inference that
primary flaccidity had failed to set in the
left hand and that the present posture
indicates cadaveric spasm.
b) The nail gripped between the teeth rein-
forces the occurrence of cadaveric spasm FIGURE 9.5 The nail gripped between the teeth
in the jaw. Increased or abnormal mus- (arrow)—another observable evidence reinforc-
cle contraction during electrocution is ing instant rigidity during death.
known to lead to ‘instantaneous’ rigor Postscript

consistent with the circumstances of Manifestation of cadaveric spasm in a death
the death (Shkrum and Ramsay, 2007). caused by electrocution is well illustrated in
Cadaveric spasm represents the posture this case. Evidence in the scene indicated that
of the deceased at the time of death the victim was involved in the domestic activ-
and is known to occur in deaths due to ity of fixing a clothesline rendering the acciden-
electrocution (Dix and Graham, 2000; tal nature of electrocution obvious. Under such
DiMaio and DiMaio, 2001; Shkrum and circumstances, the diagnosis of cadaveric spasm
Ramsay, 2007; Fierro, 2013). offers an opportunity to verify the belief of some
authors that early normal rigor could have super-
Reconstruction vened leading to misreporting as cadaveric spasm
The posture and grip seen in the left hand and (Saukko and Knight, 2016). Such a claim does
the gripping of the nail in the mouth indicate not appear acceptable in the present case since
cadaveric spasm and illustrate the posture in the grip with which the wire was held in the hand
which death had occurred. or the nail was retained between the teeth could
not be attributed to normal rigor mortis, how-
Conjoined reconstruction ever early it may be. Per contra, the very fact that
The continuity of the steel wire from the wall to the wire was gripped by the hand and the nail
the body with electrical burns in the arm and was still in between the teeth offered telltale evi-
abdomen indicates the accidental nature of elec- dence that rigidity had set in instantaneously in
trocution. The posture of the deceased, especially the muscles of these parts before the normal pri-
the left hand fingers gripping the wire and the nail mary flaccidity occurred. Manipulating the scene
held between the rows of teeth, portrays cadav- to create the appearance of cadaveric spasm may
eric spasm and thus depicts the last act of the sound acceptable when staging the scene to hide
deceased at the time of death, and these acts point a homicide while in the instant case such a prop-
out that the deceased was involved in domestic osition would not prove tenable. Interestingly,
activities pertaining to fixing the iron clothesline even the authors criticizing cadaveric spasm like
on the wall. The primary hypothesis that the vic- Bedford and Tsokos (2013) are seen to concede
tim died due to accidental electrocution because that grasp reflex response to the electrical stimu-
of negligence is seen to be supported by both the lus may occur in death due to electrocution, for
aforementioned sequential hypotheses. which this case offers a typical example.
CASE 9–2: ACCIDENTAL ELECTROCUTION—LINE VOLTAGE
THE CASE ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS

A male individual was reportedly repairing the Apparently, there was no other alternative
pipeline in a water pumping motor in a well. The hypothesis.
iron pipe that was held upright accidentally fell
down (white arrow in Figure 9.6). During the fall, SEQUENTIAL HYPOTHESIS 1
the iron pipe contacted the electrical power line There had been contact between the iron pipe
running overhead (black arrow in Figure 9.6), and and the power line leading to electrocution of the
the repairman was electrocuted. The victim was victim who was in contact with the iron pipe.
taken to the hospital where he was declared dead.
Observed premises
PRIMARY HYPOTHESIS Multiple electrical burns were found in the chest
The victim died due to accidental electrocution region of the victim, and these injuries indicated a
because of negligence. roughly linear alignment (white arrows in Figure 9.7).

Electrical burns on the body indicate points of
entry of electricity, and the linear alignment of
the burns supports the object conducting electric-
ity being a pipe as found in the scene.
Reconstruction
The electrical burns on the victim’s body are
consistent with contact of the deceased with a
linear structure capable of conducting electricity
such as the iron pipe found in the scene.
There had been contact between the iron pipe
and the power line leading to conduction of elec-
tricity in the iron pipe.
Observed premises
a) The iron pipe revealed evidence of elec-
trical arcing to an extent of about 4 ft.
FIGURE 9.6 A scene of electrocution showing along its length (Figure 9.8) in the form
iron pipe (white arrow) and the electrical power of series of dots with smoky deposits
line (black arrow). indicating directionality toward one side
(enlarged image in Figure 9.9). Electrical
FIGURE 9.7 Electrical burns on the chest of the victim (arrows). Note the linear disposition.
FIGURE 9.8 Evidence of electrical arcing on the iron pipe.
arcing between two objects, here the

power line and the iron pipe, produces
series of multiple burns (Figures 9.8 and
9.9) when one of the objects, in this case
the iron pipe, was moving and sliding on
the other object, the power line.

The metal surface of the pipe, when sliding in
contact with electrified power line, will generate
a series of arcing leaving characteristic marks on
the surface of the pipe.
Reconstruction
The series of arc marks in the iron pipe is consis-
tent with contact of the iron pipe with the power
line leading to arcing followed by a sliding move-
FIGURE 9.9 Enlargement of the arcing evidence ment as indicated by the directionality in series
on the iron pipe indicating directionality. of arc marks.
FIGURE 9.10 Limited evidence of arcing on a

power line caused by intermittent contact of the FIGURE 9.11 Continuous arcing caused by the
metal frame of a lorry. contact of the metal frame of a lorry with the
power line leading to melting and snapping of the
Conjoined reconstruction power line wire.
The cutaneous injuries on the body of the deceased
indicate characteristics of electrical burns, and
the alignment of these injuries is consistent with Note
contact with a pipe-like object found in the scene. Intermittent contact of metal objects with electri-
The pattern of arcing on the surface of the pipe cal wires may lead to limited evidence of arcing
indicates contact of that surface with an elec- (Figure 9.10), while continued arcing in a par-
trical line and subsequent sliding of the pipe. ticular location may cause melting and snapping
The observations and the sequential hypotheses of the metal in the electrical wire (Figure 9.11).
described before support that the deceased had These illustrations relate to another accidental
died due to accidental electrocution. contact between a lorry frame and a power line.
CASE 9–3: DEATH DUE TO ELECTROCUTION: SUICIDE-M ISTAKEN-FOR-MURDER?
THE CASE in reconstructing the scene came to be discussed

A female individual was seen dead reclining with this author subsequent to the completion of
on an iron chair in her house, and a coir rope the initial scene investigation.
(white arrow in Figure 9.12) was seen tied
around her waist. Two electrical wires, from a PRIMARY HYPOTHESIS
plug point on the wall across the table (black
The victim was electrocuted after causing uncon-
arrow in Figure 9.12), were seen connected to the
deceased—one to the gold bangle worn on the sciousness—a possible case of homicide.
right hand (white arrow in Figure 9.13) and the
other to the silver anklet worn on the left foot ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS
(black arrow in Figures 9.13 and 9.14). The items The victim electrocuted herself—a possible case
of materials recovered from the scene included a of suicide.
knife that was found on the table and two cut
pieces of electrical wires, one about 4½ inches
and another about 1½ inches long. A ten-month- SEQUENTIAL HYPOTHESIS 1
old girl baby of the deceased was found tied with
a rope in another location of the house. Elaborate arrangement and evidence of delicate
Based on the photographs taken immediately maneuvering in attaining the electrical connec-
in the scene, the possible alternative hypothesis tions support the free will and involvement of the
FIGURE 9.13 One electrical wire was seen con-

nected to the bangle worn on the right hand of
FIGURE 9.12 A female individual seen dead the deceased (white arrow), while the other wire
reclining on a chair with a coir rope (white arrow) was seen connected to the anklet worn on the left
tied around her waist. Two electrical wires from foot (black arrow).
the plug point across the table (black arrow) were
seen connected to the deceased.
deceased in the process of accomplishing those

connections.
Observed premises
a) On enlarging the photograph show-
ing the electrical wire connected to the
anklet (black arrow in Figure 9.14), the
wire connected to the anklet was seen
passing underneath the anklet and then
connecting to the anklet (white arrow in
Figure 9.15). FIGURE 9.14 Electrical burn on the ankle cor-
b) The electrical wire connected to the ban- responding to the anklet.
gle was seen sagging downward, going
upward, held underneath the right ring on the anklet and the other on the ban-
finger of the deceased (black arrow in gle, the copper core of the electrical wire
Figure 9.16) and then connecting to the was seen exposed and in contact with
plug point. In both the connections, one the skin surface.
FIGURE 9.16 Enlarged view showing the elec-

FIGURE 9.15 Enlarged view of the wire on the trical wire connected to the bangle. Note the
anklet. Note the wire passing underneath the wire passing underneath the right ring finger of
anklet and then connecting to the anklet (white the deceased (black arrow)—another observable
arrow)—observable evidence indicating elabo- evidence pointing to an elaborate arrangement in
rate arrangement in wiring. wiring.
Accepted (major) premises SEQUENTIAL HYPOTHESIS 2

a) Elaborate wiring has been indicated in The upwardly positioned left arm with flexed
suicide by electrocution (Shkrum and wrist supports instantaneous rigor or cadaveric
Ramsay, 2007). spasm indicating the posture seen in the photo-
b) Authors have noted that in cases of graph as the final position of the victim when
suicide by electrocution, wires are con- death occurred.
nected from the electrical source to the
skin surface where the copper wires Observed premises
remain exposed or secured by duct tape a) The left arm that remained upwardly
(Shkrum and Ramsay, 2007). oriented with the elbow held straight
(black arrow in Figure 9.17) and with
Reconstruction the hand resting on the cradle wood
Accomplishing the electrical connections using with rope (parts of baby swing) on
electrical wires that are connected to two dif- the edge of the table (white arrow in
ferent ornaments in different body parts, viz. Figure 9.17) illustrated instantaneous
the wrist and ankle, with the copper core of the rigor in that hand in the posture of the
wires remaining exposed and twisted on these deceased seen in the photograph since
ornaments, indicated elaborate arrangement occurrence of flaccidity would have
and delicate maneuvering supporting the free caused the muscles of the arm and the
will and involvement of the victim in the afore- hand to sag and slide down from the
mentioned processes. table in tune with gravity.
lead to grasp reflex leading to ‘instan-

taneous’ rigor or cadaveric spasm in
parts of the body consistent with the cir-
cumstances of the death (Knight, 1997;
Shkrum and Ramsay, 2007; Bedford and
Tsokos, 2013). Cadaveric spasm cannot
be simulated after death, and it may,
therefore, be of considerable value in the
differential diagnosis between suicide
and homicide (Mason, 1993).
Reconstruction
The onset of cadaveric spasm in the extended pos-
ture of the left arm and the ‘instantaneous rigor’
evident in the grasp reflex in the left hand holding
the cradle wood are evident from the fact that these
parts of the body are seen held against gravity, an
indication counter to the sagging of muscles that
is normal when death occurs. As such, the posi-
tion of the deceased in the scene, as recorded in the
photographs, indicates her final posture that the
left arm was extended upwards on the table possi-
bly toward the source of electricity at the moment
she died. This reconstruction does not support
placing an unconscious victim and electrocuting
her by an assailant switching on the electricity.
FIGURE 9.17 The left arm was seen held upward The observations suggesting elaborate arrange-
against gravity with the elbow held straight (black ment and delicate maneuvering for attaining the
arrow) and the hand flexed at the wrist and held electrical connections support the free will and
on the cradle wood (white arrow). These obser- involvement of the deceased. The definite onset
vations support the onset of instantaneous rigor of cadaveric spasm in the left arm of the deceased
during death that occurred in the aforementioned is supported by the fact that the left arm as well as
posture of the deceased. the hand was still maintained, after death, in the
extended posture against gravity. While cadaveric
b) The downwardly flexed state of the left spasm is supported by scholarly literature, there
wrist (white arrow in Figure 9.17) with is no such support for the proposition that the
the fingers pointing forward when hold- hand of an unconscious victim can be held fast
ing the cradle wood illustrates a state of against gravity before causing the death of that
instantaneous rigor in that posture since individual. The sequential hypotheses described
flaccidity would have caused the hand to earlier do not support the primary hypothesis that
sag and slide down in tune with gravity. the victim was electrocuted by an assailant after
causing unconsciousness and that the manner of
Accepted (major) premises death was homicide. On the other hand, the two
a) ‘Instantaneous rigor’ in skeletal muscles sequential hypotheses described before support
is known to occur during death due to that the deceased electrocuted herself.
electrocution (Knight, 1997; Shkrum
and Ramsay, 2007; Bedford and Tsokos, Postscript
2013). The medical doctor who conducted the autopsy
b) Increased or abnormal muscle contrac- had noted that rigor mortis had passed off and
tion during electrocution is known to that frothy and bloody discharge was issuing
from the mouth. The antemortem characteris- In this case, cadaveric spasm, a well-
tics in the externally seen electrical burns on the accepted phenomenon in death due to electro-
wrist and ankle of the deceased were described cution, had not been recognized during the
in the autopsy report. Internally, the air passage, immediate examination of the scene although
esophagus, glottis, and lungs were noted as con- its manifestation can be assessed, as illustrated
gested. After the receipt of the report from the earlier, when studying the photographs that
toxicologist that the examination of the viscera of had been taken of the scene immediately. It
the deceased did not reveal any toxic substances, is also pertinent that once cadaveric spasm is
the doctor had opined the cause of death as due not recognized in the scene before moving the
to electrocution. During the subsequent opinion body, it cannot be recognized during autopsy.
that was canvassed, the doctor had stated that the Furthermore, the position of the dead body seen
congestions in the air passage, esophagus, glot- in the photographs that suggested the onset of
tis, and lungs are symptoms that could also occur cadaveric spasm had not been integrated with
when strangulating the neck. The prosecution put the autopsy findings when suggesting the man-
forth the theory that the husband of the deceased ner of death as homicide. Pertinently, even when
throttled the deceased, caused unconsciousness, conceding to the theory that the victim was
tied her to the chair, and then electrocuted her to throttled and then electrocuted when uncon-
death. During the trial, the defense counsel had scious, the rigid posture of the hand against
argued that the case could be one of suicide and gravity across the table cannot accrue when the
that the cradle wood could have been used by the deceased was unconscious; the hand extended
deceased to reach the electrical point to turn it during unconscious state would only tend to
on. However, considering the circumstances in sag downward. In this case, the photographic
the scene and the opinion of the medical doctor depiction of the body posture demonstrative of
that the congestion in the air passage could also cadaveric spasm supports the manner of death
be caused due to throttling, the husband was con- to be suicidal electrocution thereby rendering
victed to life imprisonment (State vs. Anthoniraj the homicide theory unacceptable and, as a con-
in Sessions Case No. 25/1988 Sessions Court, sequence, making the conviction awarded to the
Thiruchirapalli dated 30.03.1988). husband also as debatable.
9.4 DISCUSSION iv. Myth: Lightning fatalities mostly occur in

the open.
9.4.1 Myths and Facts Relating to Observations in Fact: Yes. Lightning tends to pass along the
Deaths due to Electrocution surface of a conductor rather than through
it, and hence persons in buildings are rarely
i. Myth: Characteristic entry and exit wounds affected by current should the building be
are seen in death due to electrocution. struck (Camps, 1968).
Fact: When in soles, the exit wounds may
be pin point and not be obvious (Dix, 2000;
Shkrum and Ramsay, 2007). 9.4.2 Lightning as a Natural Cause Leading to
ii. Myth: Elaborate wiring on the body secured Death by Electrocution
by tapes supports homicide.
Fact: Elaborate wiring on the body secured Lightning is caused due to potential differences
by tapes supports suicide (Shkrum and between the accumulated negative charge in the
Ramsay, 2007). bottom of the clouds and the ground that is posi-
iii. Myth: Rigor mortis takes the same dura- tively charged. It has also been observed that in
tion irrespective of the manner of death. general, deaths do not occur in well- protected
Fact: Rigor may set rapidly in causes of buildings although plumbing fixtures, telephones
death associated with increased or abnor- etc., attached to the outside of the buildings may
mal muscle contraction such as electrocu- act as conductors causing injuries to occupants.
tion (Shkrum and Ramsay, 2007). Individuals in open areas and in partly sheltered
areas are considered to be at risk (Shkrum and 9.4.4 Useful Circumstantial Clues at Scenes of
Ramsay, 2007). Electrocution
Among the external injuries in death due to
lightning, superficial thermal burns may be caused Most of the electrocution deaths are shown to be
by the ignition of clothes. Deep burns that are com- due to accidents. In such cases, the evidence indicat-
mon in high-voltage electric current are rarely seen ing the activities of the victim in close proximity to
in lightning. Lightning may strike an individual the source of electricity would be obvious in crime
either directly or indirectly through the objects that scenes—such as the nail and wires in Case 9–1.
are in contact with that individual. Metal objects Homicide by electrocution is considered rare, while
on the clothing of the victims may heat up and instances of staging suicidal electrocution to mask
cause burn injuries. Lichtenberg figures (fern-like a homicide have been recorded (Dix, 2000; Shkrum
figures) appear within 1 hour on the skin surface and Ramsay, 2007). Suicidal electrocutions are also
in lightning victims and may remain up to about relatively rare. In cases of suicidal electrocutions,
24 to 48 hours. Lichtenberg figures are not burns authors have illustrated the elaborate arrangements
(Dix, 2000; Shkrum and Ramsay, 2007). These made by the victim by way of securing the wiring
are described as effects due to a secondary positive with tapes, twisting the wire ends, and so on as
flash over characteristic of lightning (Shkrum and supporting the act of suicide (Shkrum and Ramsay,
Ramsay, 2007). Such appearances are to be photo- 2007).
graphed immediately in the scene.
REFERENCES
9.4.3 Cadaveric Spasm in Deaths due to
Electrocution Bedford, P. J. and Tsokos, M. The occurrence of
cadaveric spasm is a myth, Forensic Sci Med
Shkrum and Ramsay (2007) illustrate the pro- Pathol., 9 (2013): 244–248.
nounced flexor muscle contraction of the arms of Camps, F. E. Gradwohl’s Legal Medicine, Bristol:
an electrocuted man holding an antenna. These John Wright & Sons, 1968.
authors observe that rigor mortis localized to one DiMaio, V. J. and DiMaio, D. Forensic Pathology,
extremity can occur immediately after death in 2nd ed., Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2001.
high-voltage electrocution, and such evidence of Dix, J. Colour Atlas of Forensic Pathology, Boca
‘instantaneous rigor’ in a dead body may be consis- Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2000.
tent with the circumstances of the case (Shkrum and Dix, J. and Graham, M. Time of Death,
Ramsay, 2007). It is seen that even those authors Decomposition and Identification: An Atlas,
critiquing cadaveric spasm as a myth like Bedford Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2000.
and Tsokos (2013) are conceding that the continued Fierro, M. F. Cadaveric spasm, Forensic Sci Med
grasping of the electrical cord may result in elec- Pathol., 9 (2013): 253.
trocution deaths (where there is no safety switch Knight, B. Simpson’s Forensic Medicine, 11th ed.,
cut-off). For a scene investigator, any attitude of London: Arnold, 1997.
the dead body such as grasping objects or depicting Mason, J. K. Forensic Medicine: An Illustrated
the arm against gravity is a reliable indicator of the Reference, London: Chapman and Hall
final act of the victim. Failure to observe and record Medical, 1993.
such positions of the dead body in the scene before Saukko, P. and Knight, B. Knight’s Forensic Pathology,
disturbing the body may result in rejecting suicide Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis
as a possible alternative hypothesis and in guessti- Group, 2016.
mating homicide as the only conceivable hypothesis Shkrum, M. J. and Ramsay, D. A. Forensic Pathology
as shown in Case 9–3. For a detailed discussion on of Trauma Common Problems for the
cadaveric spasm, the reader may see Section 4.4.3 in Pathologist, Totowa: Humana Press, 2007.
discussion in Chapter 4.
Chapter 10
by Drowning
10.1 INTRODUCTION symptoms such as the fine frothy discharge from the
air passages have long been held as fairly reliable
Recovery of bodies from water may not always (McCallin, 1901; Dix, 2000; Shkrum and Ramsay,
mean ‘drowning’ and such cases may present one of 2007) but can be observed only when the body is
the most difficult medicolegal problems, and, as rec- fresh. Once the body is decomposed, many of the
ognized by Camps (1968), the position has not been findings are altered and rendered unavailable.
helped by the somewhat oversimplified approach in In general, about 90% of the drowning cases
some text books. These cases usually pose a chal- are considered ‘accidental’ followed by suicides with
lenge for the investigators when determining the homicides considered as being uncommon (Shkrum
manner of death. Stating that the autopsy is usually and Ramsay, 2007). In India, drowning has been
negative in a drowning case, Dix (2000) recognizes found as the preferred suicide method by females.
that the diagnosis of drowning tends to be one of Instances are on record in which mothers aggravated
exclusion and that other than some work with dia- in domestic life throw their children into water and
toms, there are no good drowning tests to prove a
commit suicide, and those failing in their attempt
person drowned. While all manners of death are
face charges of murder (Subrahmanyam, 1999).
possible in drowning, in some instances, the manner
Practical utilization of a particular forensic
may remain ‘undetermined’ (Shkrum and Ramsay,
technique is primarily influenced by the popular-
2007). Witnesses may be available in some cases of
ity of the technique among the investigating police
drowning, and when there is a single witness, there
may be issues relating to the association of that wit- officers, and bone-marrow-based diatom test con-
ness with the victim. In drowning cases, the absence tinues to be the choice whenever highly decomposed
of violence may not necessarily exclude homicide remains are recovered from water. While there is
since the victim may have been taken by surprise greater scope for utilizing diatoms’ evidence dur-
while, on the other hand, the presence of injuries ing drowning investigations, it is equally important
may not also imply homicide since they may have that there is a need for better understanding of the
been received during or after immersion into water limitations in diatom test. Duly recognizing these
(McCallin, 1901; Shkrum and Ramsay, 2007). needs, a suitably illustrated discussion on diatoms is
Determination that a drowned victim was alive included in this chapter.
on entering the water is based on various exter- The methodology outlined in the flowchart
nal and internal findings which have to be sup- (10.2 Flowchart) and the cases described would
ported by circumstances to conclude drowning as be of essential assistance for the field investigators
the manner of death (Byard, 2015). Some of these involved in drowning investigations.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003267096-10 209

10.1. FLOW CHART FOR INVESTIGATING DEATH BY DROWNING
10.2 FLOWCHART FOR INVESTIGATING DEATH BY DROWNING
210
CRIME SCENE
SOC
WILLFUL PREPARATION SOC DEAD BODY
- Objects left in scene - Ground plan
POSTURE ANTEMORTEM OTHERS - Parked vehicle - Elevation view
INJURIES - Way of dressing - Isometric view OVER ALL POSTURE
- Suicide ideation/note Cadaveric spasm
FLOATING/ON LACERATIONS FROTH - Include cardinal WATER FRONT
SHORE - Location/Size - Nose—type directions BUILDING FROTH
EVIDENCE OF STRUGGLE Close-up
- Prone - Others - Depth—with scale
- In the scene
- Supine ABRASIONS - Weeds etc.
- in surrounding areas INJURIES (SCALED)
- Others - Location - Others
NAIL DEPOSITION - General
- Direction/size HIGHLIGHTS
- Flailing/others OBSTRUCTIONS & - Close-up
STATE OF BODY - To be preserved DAMAGES
CONTUSIONS - Height/depth EVIDENCE OF
- Cadaveric spasm INSIDE THE WELL ETC. DAMAGES IN
- Location STRUGGLE
Objects in hands CLOTHING
- Shape - Parapet wall If any
- Rigor mortis STOMACH/LUNGS - Concrete sleeves (SCALED)
- Decomposition - Diatoms - Brick work/mud - Front
OTHERS - Obstructions
- Algae ADDITIONAL ITEMS - Back
RELATION TO - Damages in Scaled - Others
ADDITIONAL WATER FRONT
DAMAGES IN DECOMPOSED - Running/static obstructions
ITEMS FOREIGN OBJECTS
CLOTHES BODIES - Others—puddles etc. OTHERS
- Ligatures - In hands
- Multiple organ - Others
- Weights - Nearby
POSSIBILITY OF samples and long - Depth/current
SELF-INFLICTION bones for diatom Include
NATURE OF TYING NAIL DEPOSITS
test measurements
- Likely by self WATER—ALGAE etc. Close-up
- Not likely by self - Water color wherever possible
POSTMORTEM IN SKELETONS - Algae/diatoms OTHERS
INJURIES - Long bones for - Mud/other particles

CLOTHING - Skin erosions diatom test
- Signs of - Crustaceans
preparation /fishes
- Damages due to - Entomological
impact - Animal attacks
- Relation to - Others
• Consider observations indicating intent such as manner of clothing etc.
wounds and frothy discharge when hypothesizing suicide or accident as manners of
death.
• When relying on diatoms, consider the possibility for ingested diatoms
especially when the victims’ food habit includes consumption of clams etc.
Investigating Cases of Death by Drowning 211
CASE 10–1: DEATH DUE TO DROWNING—SUICIDE OR ACCIDENT?
THE CASE with air in the lungs resulting in the formation of

A female individual was drowned in a canal, and fine froth which issues from the nostrils. Since
on rescuing she was found dead. Reportedly, she the early years, authors have considered such
was feeling depressed in her family life. froth as being a reliable sign indicating that the
victim had entered into the water when still living
PRIMARY HYPOTHESIS (McCallin, 1901; Dix, 2000; Shepherd, 2003;
Mathiharan and Patnaik, 2005; Shkrum and
The victim died due to drowning, and the man-
Ramsay, 2007).
ner of death was suicide.
ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS Reconstruction

The victim died due to drowning, and the man- The victim had entered into the water when liv-
ner of death was accident. ing, and death had occurred due to drowning.
SEQUENTIAL HYPOTHESIS 1 SEQUENTIAL HYPOTHESIS 2

The victim had entered into the water when she The manner the saree is worn by the victim sug-
was still alive. gested willful prearrangement and preparation
on the part of the victim before entering into the
Observed premises water.
There was fine froth issuing from the nostrils
(Figures 10.1 and 10.2). Observed premises
The victim’s saree is seen gathered between her
Accepted (major) premises legs (black arrow in Figure 10.1) with its end
When an individual enters into the water when tucked inside in the hip region (white arrow in
alive, water enters into the lungs and gets churned Figures 10.1 and 10.2).
FIGURE 10.1 The deceased evidencing fine froth issuing from the nose. Note the gathering of the saree
between the legs (black arrow) and tucking it inside the hip (white arrow)—observable evidence sup-
porting prearrangement by the victim prior to drowning.
FIGURE 10.2 Front view of the froth issuing from the nose and the tucked state of the saree (white
arrow).
Accepted (major) premises that death was due to drowning, and the manner
Indian women entering into water to commit sui- was suicide.
cide are known to secure their clothing in ways
that would prevent disheveling of the clothing Postscript
and exposing their nakedness (Subrahmanyam, The observation of frothy discharge from the
1999). nostrils is a reliable sign indicating antemortem
nature of drowning although such observation
Reconstruction would occur in any manner of drowning, be it
homicidal, suicidal, or accidental. This case typi-
The manner the saree of the victim is worn sup-
cally illustrates evidence indicating a specific style
ports the victim’s willingness in preparing her
of securing the personal clothing, which suggests
dress before entering into the water. intentional preparation on the part of the victim
prior to entering water, an act supporting suicide as
Conjoined reconstruction the manner of drowning. Pertinently, recognizing
The presence of frothy discharge from the nos- the arrangement of the clothing is better achieved
tril, a sign of death due to drowning and the evi- immediately in the scene since such arrangements
dence indicating prearrangement of the dress by are likely to be disturbed when the dead body is
the deceased, supports the primary hypothesis oved and transported to the autopsy table.
CASE 10–2: A DECOMPOSED BODY WEIGHTED WITH A STONE—SUICIDE OR HOMICIDE?
THE CASE by Indian males around the waist). The deceased

A decomposed body of a male individual was seen was seen wearing a pair of shorts. The stone tied
floating in a well (Figure 10.3). On the removal to the body raised suspicion that it could be a
of the body, a granite stone was found tied to the case of murder followed by the disposal of the
neck of the victim using a dhoti (a garment worn dead body inside the well.
FIGURE 10.3 A decomposed body of a male floating in a well.
PRIMARY HYPOTHESIS be done to prevent self-rescue. But it must be

The victim was murdered, and the body was dis- homicidal if the weighting and tying are of such a
posed of inside the well after tying the stone—a nature that the deceased could not have effected
possible case of homicide. them himself or was unable to throw himself
into the water by his own efforts (Taylor, 1873;
ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS McCallin, 1901; Mathiharan and Patnaik, 2005;
Shkrum and Ramsay, 2007).
The victim died due to drowning, and the man-
ner was suicide.
Reconstruction
SEQUENTIAL HYPOTHESIS 1 The length of the dhoti between the knot on the
stone and the knot on the neck supported the
The manner the stone was secured and tied to the possibility for the deceased to have accomplished
neck using the dhoti indicated the possibility for the tying of the stone himself, then enter into the
the deceased to tie the stone, carry it, and maneu- water, and drown to prevent self-rescue.
ver movement.
Observed premises SEQUENTIAL HYPOTHESIS 2

A granite stone (white arrow in Figure 10.4) was The victim entered into the water when he was
found swathed inside part of the dhoti and then still alive.
knotted (gray arrow in Figure 10.4) with the
remainder of the dhoti leading to the neck of Observed premises
the victim (series of black arrows in Figure 10.4) The autopsy was conducted on the spot, and
with another knot on the neck. The length of the microscopic examination of the stomach content
dhoti between the knot on the stone and the knot of the victim and the water from the well revealed
on the neck would be sufficient for the victim to similar green algae.
carry the stone and maneuver movement.
Accepted (major) premises In death by drowning, fluid and foreign material
If the body is found to be weighted and tied, it from medium can be found in the stomach and
is probably a case of suicide, as this is liable to intestines as a result of swallowing (Mathiharan
FIGURE 10.4 A stone (white arrow) was found tied in a dhoti (gray arrow) with the remaining cloth
of the dhoti leading to the neck of the victim (series of black arrows) and then tied to the neck.
and Patnaik, 2005; Shkrum and Ramsay, 2007); Conjoined reconstruction
however, small amounts of water can enter the The generous length of the dhoti between the
stomach after death particularly if the pressure knot on the stone and the knot on the neck sup-
of the drowning medium is high (Shkrum and ported the possibility for the deceased to have
Ramsay, 2007). entered into the water with the stone tied to him
to prevent self-rescue. The similarity between
Reconstruction algae in the stomach content and in the drown-
ing medium further supports the antemor-
The presence of similar algae in the stomach con- tem nature of drowning. Thus, the alternative
tent and in the drowning medium supports the hypothesis that the victim died due to drowning
entry of the victim into the water when he was alive. and the manner was suicide is supported.
CASE 10–3: A DECOMPOSED BODY FLOATING IN A WELL—SUICIDE OR HOMICIDE?
THE CASE the hut after the altercations and later fell into
A male individual aged about 22 years was found the well accidentally. The body had decomposed
missing, and 2 days later his body was found with localized distensions due to gaseous accu-
floating inside an open well. The deceased was mulations (Figure 10.5). The well was opening
reportedly involved in a brawl in a hut during on the ground level with soil forming the bound-
the night before he went missing. On the one ary along the perimeter (Figure 10.6), and the
hand, it was alleged that the deceased was done sides of the well, all through its depth, had mud
to death, and the body was thrown into the well. wall. The outer diameter of the well was about
Alternatively, it was averred that the victim left 2 m with water at about 6 feet below the ground
FIGURE 10.5 Decomposed male dead body recovered from inside a well.
The victim fell in to the water when he was still
alive.
Observed premises
The diatoms in the water sample collected from
the well were similar to those found in the stom-
ach content collected and preserved during the
autopsy.

Fluid and foreign material from medium can be
found in the stomach and intestines as a result
of swallowing (Mathiharan and Patnaik, 2005;
Shkrum and Ramsay, 2007); however, small
amounts of water can enter the stomach after
FIGURE 10.6 The open well with mud wall on death particularly if the pressure of the drown-
sides. ing medium is high (Shkrum and Ramsay,
2007).
level. The diameter of the well at the water level
was 1.4 m, and the depth of water was about 6 m. Reconstruction
The presence of similar diatoms in the stomach
PRIMARY HYPOTHESIS content and in the drowning medium supported
The victim was killed, and the body was drowned the entry of the victim into the water when he
inside the well—drowning was post-mortem, the was alive.
manner of death was homicide.
ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS The evidence of soil deposited in the fingernails
The victim fell into the well and died due to support the struggle of the victim inside the well
drowning—drowning was antemortem, and the suggesting he was alive when entering into the
manner of death was accident. water.

Dirt or soil under the fingernails could indicate
the flailing of hands along a muddy wall or the
bottom surface (Shkrum and Ramsay, 2007).
Flailing indicates life activity.
Reconstruction
Soil depositions in the fingernails support trans-
fer of soil from the mud wall of the well and thus
suggested flailing of the victim indicating that he
was alive inside the well.
The similarity between the diatom composi-
FIGURE 10.7 The fingernails of the deceased tion in the stomach of the deceased and the
revealing mud particles. well water indicated the entry of the well water
into the stomach of the deceased supporting
antemortem drowning. Flailing of the deceased
inside the well, a life activity, is indicated by the
accumulation of soil inside the fingernails of the
deceased. Thus, the sequential hypotheses 1 and
2 support the alternative hypothesis that drown-
ing was antemortem.
Postscript
Traditionally, diatoms entering into the system
have been used as indicators of antemortem
drowning. In addition, this case illustrates the
utility of soil and diatoms inside the nails as
evidence supporting flailing inside the well.
Drowning victims are known to submerge and
struggle. In a video record of a drowning in a
pool, Marrone et al. (2021) observed initial
intense shaking of the limbs followed by the vic-
tim remaining completely submerged and with
rhythmic movements of the limbs. Where the
drowning occurs in waters with mud or soil at
the bottom, such as ponds, wells or rivers, the
struggle would result in the hands flailing the
surrounding benthic zone. In instances where
the victim has well-grown fingernails, such flail-
ing activities would result in the accumulation of
benthic soil inside the nails. Soil recovered from
FIGURE 10.8 Enlarged view of the mud parti- inside the nails and the diatoms present therein
cles packed inside the fingernails (arrows). can be compared with the control soil laden with
diatoms collected from the benthic level for sug-
Observed premises gesting transfer during possible flailing activities,
The fingernails were fairly grown and revealed which in turn would support life activity inside
soil particles packed inside (Figure 10.7 with fin- the water and hence the antemortem nature of
gernails enlarged in Figure 10.8). drowning.
10.4 DISCUSSION manifesting readily, it may appear when the body

is moved and when there is pressure on the thorax
10.4.1 Myths and Facts Relating to Observations in which may expel the accumulated froth remain-
Deaths by Drowning ing in the lungs. It must be stressed that the froth
would disappear when decomposition sets in, which
i. Myth: Wrinkled hands (‘washerwoman’s oftentimes happens by the time the autopsy com-
hands’) and goose skin (‘goose bumps’, cutis mences after transport of the body to the mortu-
anserina) are typical in death by drowning. ary. Froth being an indicator of death occurring
Fact: Wrinkled hands (‘washerwoman’s during the immersion of living individuals, lapses
hands’) and goose skin are artifacts due to in photographing such frothy discharge immedi-
prolonged submersion in water (Shkrum ately may cause difficulties when countering other
and Ramsay, 2007). make-believe hypotheses proposing foul play that
ii. Myth: There must be sufficient depth of may be alleged at later stages. The scene circum-
water for an individual to drown and die. stances relating to the recovery of the body such as
Fact: Unconscious persons can drown in wet clothes and witness presence need to be consid-
a ‘puddle’ or ditch if facing downwards ered when interpreting frothy discharge since it has
(Camps, 1968). been noted that frothy discharge may also appear in
iii. Myth: Finding of material (e.g., weeds, cases of death by strangulation (Camps, 1968).
sand) clutched in a victim’s hands suggests Compact accumulation of soil or dirt inside the
struggling. fingernails is another indication that points to active
Fact: True. Finding of material gripped in struggle or flailing inside the water. It is advisable to
collect such depositions from the fingernails imme-
a victim’s hands suggests cadaveric spasm
diately in the scene itself since transporting the dead
setting in during the period of struggle
body to the mortuary, especially in the wake of
(Subrahmanyam, 1999; Shkrum and
decomposition, is likely to lead to the loss of the
Ramsay, 2007).
depositions or to contaminate them.
iv. Myth: A dead body thrown into a well will
The presence of clothes and personal effects or
float immediately.
the vehicle belonging to the deceased in the scene has
Fact: A body does not float until its spe-
to be recorded as such since the manner of arrange-
cific gravity reaches a point of buoyancy
ments of these items may shed light on the intent of
from gases generated due to decomposi- the victim (Shkrum and Ramsay, 2007). The way the
tion. Because the specific gravity of the victim’s clothes are worn is also important; Indian
head is greater than that of the feet, a sub- females committing suicide are known to wear
merged body floats in a head-down position their apparel in such a way the body is not exposed
(Shkrum and Ramsay, 2007). (Subrahmanyam, 1999), and such arrangements are
v. Myth: Skin erosions in face around the to be photographed before disturbing the body.
mouth and eyes in dead bodies recovered
from water indicate evidence of struggle.
Fact: Skin erosions, especially around the 10.4.3 Role of Alcohol and Other Substances in
mouth and eyes, in dead bodies recovered Drowning Cases
from water are postmortem artifacts often
caused by aquatic insects (Rodriguez, 1997; Ethanol intoxication may lead to an impaired abil-
Dix, 2000). ity to deal with an unexpected situation leading to
accidental drowning (Shkrum and Ramsay, 2007).
Impairment may also occur due to prolonged expo-
10.4.2 Relevance of Immediate Observations in sure to organophosphate insecticides. A dead body
Scenes of Drowning of a male individual, who reportedly drowned in a
canal when bathing, was brought to the mortuary in
Immediacy in recording the observations is con- the boot of a car. There was strong smell of organo-
sidered particularly important in scenes relat- phosphate insecticide when this author opened the
ing to death due to drowning. Froth issuing from boot. Further enquiry revealed that the victim had
the nostrils has to be observed immediately in the been spraying insecticide in the field throughout the
scene since the froth may disappear when the body day and went to the canal in the evening to take a
remains in the open or may be lost when the body bath, a circumstance that could have led to possible
is moved. In some cases where the froth is not impairment leading to drowning.
10.4.4 Circumstances Indicating the Possibility of 10.4.5 Diatoms as Indicators of Death by

Suicide Drowning
In drowning, suicide is the only manner of death that Diatoms, the microscopic unicellular aquatic algae
requires the demonstration of the victim’s intent. The belonging to Bacillariophyta, have acquired popu-
circumstances that would support intent to commit larity as forensic evidence for diagnosing death by
suicide are the presence of witnesses, availability of drowning. The controversy over the reliability of
a suicide note (also see Section 8.4.6) or suicide ide- the diatom test needs no over emphasis: the pres-
ation, evidence of depression or terminal illnesses, ence of diatoms in the bone marrow of drowned
association with self-inflicted wounds, etc. victims has been held as evidence indicating death
As described in Case 10–1, the manner of wear- by drowning by one school (Thomas et al., 1961;
ing the dress may throw light on intent. An unusual Timperman, 1969; Pollanen, 1998; Hürlimann
finding that had been recognized over a long period et al., 2000; Krstic et al., 2002), while doubts on
of time as supporting intent to commit suicide is the validity of the diatom test is being voiced by
attaching heavy weights to the body (Taylor, 1873; another group (Spitz and Schneider, 1964; Peabody,
McCallin, 1901; Shkrum and Ramsay, 2007). 1980; Foged, 1983; Pachar and Cameron, 1993).
However, if the tying of the weight is of such nature Textbooks on forensic medicine popular in the
that the deceased could not have achieved it, it must western part of the world (Tedeschi et al., 1977;
be interpreted as homicide. It has been noted that Spitz and Fisher, 1980; Polson et al., 1985; Gordon
the presence of toxic or lethal concentrations of et al., 1988; Knight, 1996; DiMaio and Dana,
medications can also assist in the determination of 1998; DiMaio and DiMaio, 2001) appear equivo-
suicide (Shkrum and Ramsay, 2007). cal in treating diatoms as indicators of death by
FIGURE 10.9 Samples of diatoms extracted from clams.

drowning. However, the medicolegal textbooks decomposed in diatom- rich fresh water support-
popular in India seem to somewhat endorse the use ing the antemortem entry of ingested diatoms since
of diatoms (Parikh, 1999; Subrahmanyam, 1999; the piglet had been fed with fish flours when it was
Nandy, 2000; Vij, 2001; Reddy, 2002). Horswell’s reared. A research conducted by feeding metered
(2000) indication that obtaining a portion of femur doses of diatoms (10 to 50 μm in size) along with
(15 cm) enables ‘establishing location of drowning: food to rats and sacrificing the animals periodically
fresh water or salt water’ reflects the notion preva- for testing the organs for the presence of diatoms
lent among the investigating officers in the utility of revealed pennate diatoms in the length ranging
diatom evidence. between 15 and 40 μm (width <10 μm) in varying
The presence of diatoms in living persons can counts in brain, heart, lungs, kidney, and liver (with
no longer be doubted. Multiple researchers have centric types also) with fragments in intestine, while
reported the presence of diatoms in non-drowned in the control group of rats, diatoms were absent
dead individuals (Spitz and Schneider, 1964; (Syazwani, 2016). It is now well established that
Timperman, 1969; Peabody, 1980; Foged, 1983; the ingestion of edible marine forms has proven to
Pachar and Cameron, 1993; Krstic et al., 2002), increase the concentration of diatoms in foodstuffs
and Pollanen (1997) had found that in 10% of (Yen and Jayaprakash, 2007), and diatoms ingested
drowning cases, the diatoms in bone marrow did by rats are found lodged into the organs (Syazwani,
not match with those in the drowning medium. 2016).
Diatoms have been shown to be profusely rich in The capabilities and limitations in diatom test
nonvegetarian foodstuffs like clams (Figure 10.9), have to be detailed for enabling the SOCOs in uti-
prawns (Figure 10.10), and anchovies that are being lizing diatoms in drowning investigations appro-
routinely ingested by many people—an adult in priately. Interpretation of death due to drowning
Malaysia used to eating clams and prawns regularly based on diatom test can be considered as pertain-
has been indicated as ingesting an estimated num- ing to two phases, one concerning the presence of
ber of about 2,197,104 diatom frustules in a single diatoms in the lungs and stomach content and the
year (Yen and Jayaprakash, 2007). Giancamillo other relating to the presence of diatoms in the other
et al. (2010) found a marine diatom in a piglet internal organs including the bone marrow.
FIGURE 10.10 Samples of diatoms extracted from prawns.

FIGURE 10.11 Presence of diatoms in lungs and stomach content and interpretation of death by drowning.
i) Presence of diatoms in the lungs and stomach 1999; Kristic et al., 2002). Twenty diatoms per 100
content: During the process of drowning, the water microliters of pellets from a 10 g of lung sample are
along with diatoms of all sizes (those >30 µm as well suggested to be sufficient to infer death by drowning
as those <30 µm) is taken into the lungs and is also (Pollanen, 1998; Ludes et al., 1999). The advantage
swallowed into the stomach (Figure 10.11). In dead is that the diatoms present in the lungs and stom-
bodies in bloated stage of decomposition, the lungs ach content are derived directly from the drowning
and stomach that are not yet liquefied can be ana- medium entering into these organs and thus truly
lyzed for the presence of these diatoms (Ludes et al., represent every size of diatom types present in that
medium enabling a thorough assessment of the spe- the organs (Hendey, 1980; Knight, 1996;
cies composition of diatoms in the organs and the Yen and Jayaprakash, 2007; Syazwani,
drowning medium. 2016). The diatoms ingested during life can
ii) Presence of diatoms in the other internal remain lodged in the organs and bone mar-
organs including bone marrow: The pathway of row for durations that are unknown (Yen
diatoms in the systemic circulation in drowning and Jayaprakash, 2007). A deceased indi-
(Figure 10.12) is based on the premise that when the vidual who regularly swims in the locale
lungs become waterlogged, the diatoms of smaller where the body was recovered may have
sizes, i.e., less than 30 µm present in that water, been exposed to the diatoms in that water
passively enter the capillaries in the alveolar spaces before drowning (Shkrum and Ramsay,
along with the water that enters into the blood- 2007).
stream (Knight, 1996). The diatom-laden blood is
then circulated to the organs as well as the bone Other factors to be considered when interpret-
marrow where the diatoms get lodged. When skel- ing diatom test results include the following:
etal remains are recovered from water, the bone
marrow can be used for extracting diatoms. It has a) Importantly, the SOCOs are cautioned
also been found that diatoms of larger size (>30 µm) that the absence of diatoms in the organs
do not enter into the bloodstream. Unlike the dia- from a dead body recovered from water
tom composition in the lungs and stomach content, cannot be construed as being evidence of
which is a complete representation of the species post-mortem disposal of that body in water
composition in the drowning medium, i.e., includes even when that water reveals evidence of
diatoms of larger sizes also, the diatoms that enter diatoms. Only about 28% drowning in
into the circulatory system are restricted to those of naturally occurring fresh water revealed
smaller sizes and of certain aspect ratio. When mul- positive diatom results. Absence of diatoms
tiple organs are harvested from decomposed dead in femoral bone marrow during marrow
bodies, five complete diatoms from the organs or analysis can also be due to the relatively
bone marrow that are similar to those in the immer- small proportion of blood circulation this
sion medium have been suggested to be sufficient for bone receives. The lower concentration of
positive diagnosis of death by drowning (Pollanen, diatoms in the water or the small amount of
1998; Ludes et al., 1999). When considering the dia- water aspirated in so-called dry drownings
toms lodged in the organs for interpreting the nature could also lead to negative results (Shkrum
of drowning, it is imperative to consider the possi- and Ramsay, 2007).
bility of diatoms ingested during life that may have b) The presence of any diatoms in organs by
been already deposited in the internal organs. itself may not constitute evidence indicating
On the limitations in diatom test: death by drowning since diatoms have also
been detected in the organs of non-drowned
a) Contamination from the drowning dead individuals (Spitz and Schneider,
medium: If there is decomposition or 1964; Timperman, 1969; Peabody, 1980;
trauma that can affect the lungs, stom- Foged, 1983; Pachar and Cameron, 1993;
ach, and other organs, diatoms in the Krstic et al., 2002). The diatom composi-
drowning medium can contaminate the tion in the organs and in the drowning
organs. Small amounts of water can enter medium must be similar for inferring the
the stomach after death particularly if the entry of diatoms during drowning.
pressure of the drowning medium is high. c) Diatom populations are dynamic, and
Diatoms may passively enter the lungs and thus the taxa combinations are likely to be
upper respiratory tract during prolonged influenced by (i) the endogenous rhythms
submersion (Shkrum and Ramsay, 2007). of migration exhibited by several epipelic
Occasionally, the stomach may contain diatoms, (ii) the distinction between the
diatoms derived from the last meal such as plankton and benthos in diatoms being
shellfish as recounted by Peabody (1977). not absolute, (iii) the recognition that the
b) Ingested diatoms confusing drowning strict use of biological species concept in
interpretation: Authors have indicated the the diatoms does not appear to be feasible
possibility of diatoms ingested via shellfish, in view of possible hybridization of mor-
winkles, prawns, clams, etc., entering into photypes (Round et al., 1990), and (iv) in
Live entry of an individual into diatom-rich

water (diatoms of all sizes->30µm and <30µm)
CONTROL: Known fact: Water with

Diatom species in diatoms of all sizes enter
drowning medium into the lungs and stomach
Harvesting Diatoms (<30µm; aspect ratio

diatoms 1:2 to 1:5) penetrate the
alveolar membrane
Similarity with CONTROL

in species composition— Entry of
qualitative and diatoms into
quantitative (sizes <30µm) blood stream
5 complete
diatoms Diatom-laden
blood reaching
5 complete the heart
diatoms Diatoms lodged
in the bone
marrow in long
bones
Diatom-laden
blood in
Diatoms lodged circulation
in brain, kidney,
liver etc.
FIGURE 10.12 Presence of diatoms in multiple organs and interpretation of death by drowning.
view of the presence of muddy deposits in DiMaio, V. J. and DiMaio, D. Forensic Pathology,
the trachea of drowned individuals (Mant, 2nd ed., Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2001.
1984; Gordon et al., 1988) the combination Dix, J. Colour Atlas of Forensic Pathology, Boca
of taxa by itself being prone to influence by Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2000.
the previously accumulated diatoms in the Foged, N. Diatoms and drowning—once more,
water bed (Yen and Jayaprakash, 2007). Forensic Sci Int., 21 (1983): 153–159.
Giancamillo, A. D., Giudici, E., Andreola, S., Porta,
For practical purposes, the SOCOs may con- D., Gibelli, D., Domeneghini, C., Grandi, M.
sider the following suggestions: When the internal and Cattaneo, C. Immersion of piglet carcasses
organs have not decomposed, the diatom com- in water—The applicability of microscopic
position in the stomach and lungs can be consid- analysis and limits of diatom testing on an ani-
ered as a complete representation of the diatoms mal model, Legal Medicine, 12 (2010): 13–18.
in the drowning medium. Where the bodies have Gordon, I., Shapiro, H. A. and Berson, S. D. Forensic
decomposed and the internal organs are still rec- Medicine: A Guide to Principles, Edinburgh:
ognizable, the SOCOs can follow the suggestion Churchill Livingstone, 1988.
by Krstic et al. (2002) that the lungs, brain, heart Hendey, N. I. Diatoms and drowning—a review:
(and/or blood), stomach, liver, and kidney can be Letter to the Editor, Med Sci Law, 20 (4)
used in view of their reservation over the use of the (1980): 289.
bone marrow due to the possibility of accumulation Horswell, J. Packaging, in Encyclopedia of Forensic
of diatom shells that originate from air, food, or Science, Siegel, J. A., Knuper, G. and Saukko, P.
water. While the diatoms detected in the lungs and (Eds.) London: Academic Press, 2000, 432–440.
stomach content can be interpreted as represent- Hürlimann, J., Feer, P., Elber, F., Niederberger, K.,
ing the entire diatom composition in the drowning Dirnhofer, R. and Wyler, D. Diatom detection
medium, the diatoms detected in the internal organs in the diagnosis of death by drowning, Int J
such as liver, kidney, brain, and bone marrow which Legal Med., 114 (2000): 6–14.
encompass only the diatoms of smaller sizes in the Knight, B. Forensic Pathology, London: Arnold, 1996.
drowning medium would have to be interpreted Krstic, S., Duma, A., Janevska, B., Levkov, Z.,
as representing an incomplete composition of the Nikolova, K. and Noveska, M. Diatoms in
diatoms in the drowning medium. In addition, the forensic expertise of drowning—a Macedonian
diatoms detected in these organs may also possibly experience, Forensic Sci Int., 127 (3) (2002):
include those ingested diatom frustules embedded 198–203.
in these organs prior to drowning. Importantly, Ludes, B., Coste, M., North, N., Doray, S., Tracqui,
the diatom composition in the lungs and stomach A. and Kintz, P. Diatom analysis in victim’s tis-
is likely to be influenced by both the composition sue as an indicator of the site of drowning, Int
of live diatoms in the planktonic and the previously J Legal Med., 112 (1999): 163–166.
accumulated dead shells in the benthic levels since a Mant, K. A. Taylor’s Principles and Practice of
drowning victim is known to reach the benthic level Medical Jurisprudence, Edinburgh: Livingstone,
while still alive leading to deposition of mud in the 1984.
trachea (Mant, 1984; Gordon et al., 1988). Hence, Marrone, M., Ferorelli, D., Stellacci, A. and Vinci,
the SOCOs must take samples of water representing F. A fatal drowning filmed in a private pool:
both the planktonic taxa of diatoms and the benthic Analysis of the sequences of submersion,
composition of diatoms. Forensic Science International—Reports,
3 (July 2021): 100189
Mathiharan, K. and Patnaik, A. K. (Eds.). Modi’s
REFERENCES Medical Jurisprudence and Toxicology, 23rd
ed., New Delhi: Lexis Nexis, 2005.
Byard, R. W. Immersion deaths and drowning: Issues McCallin, W. Introduction to Medical Jurisprudence,
arising in the investigation of bodies recov- London: Bailliere, Tindall and Cox, 1901.
ered from water, Forensic Sci Med Pathol., 11 Nandy, A. Principles of Forensic Medicine, Calcutta:
(2015): 323–325. New Central Book Agency, 2000.
Camps, F. E. Gradwohl’s Legal Medicine, Bristol: Pachar, J. V. and Cameron, J. M. The diagnosis of
John Wright & Sons, 1968. drowning by quantitative and qualitative dia-
DiMaio, V. J. and Dana, S. E. Forensic Pathology, tom analysis, Med Sci Law., 33 (4) (1993):
Austin: Landes, 1998. 291–299.
Parikh, C. K. Parikh’s Textbook of Medical Spitz, W. U. and Schneider, V. The Significance of dia-
Jurisprudence, Forensic Medicine and toms in the diagnosis of death by drowning, J
Toxicology, New Delhi: CBS Publishers, 1999. Forensic Sci., 9 (1964): 11–18.
Peabody, A. J. Diatoms in forensic science, J Forensic Subrahmanyam, B. V. Modi’s Medical Jurisprudence
Sci Soc., 17 (1977): 81–87. and Toxicology, New Delhi: Butterworths,
Peabody, A. J. Diatoms and drowning—A review, 1999.
Med Sci Law., 20 (4) (1980): 254–261. Syazwani, W. M. F. Study on Diatoms Ingested via
Pollanen, M. S. The diagnostic value of the diatom Foodstuffs for Evaluating Reliability of Diatom
test for drowning, II. Validity: Analysis of dia- Test in Drowning, thesis submitted in partial
toms in bone marrow and drowning medium, J fulfillment of the requirements for Masters
Forensic Sci., 42 (2) (1997): 286–290. in Forensic Science to the Universiti Sains
Pollanen, M. S. Diatoms and homicide, Forensic Sci Malaysia, Kubang Kerian, Malaysia, 2016.
Int., 91 (1) (1998): 29–34. Taylor, A. S. The Principles and Practice of Medical
Polson, C. J., Gee, D. J. and Knight, B. The Essentials Jurisprudence, 2nd ed., Philadelphia: Henry C.
of Forensic Medicine, 4th ed., Oxford: Pergamon Lea, 1873.
Press, 1985. Tedeschi, C. G., Eckert, W. G. and Tedeschi, L. G.
Reddy, K. S. N. The Essentials of Forensic Medicine Forensic Medicine: A Study in Trauma and
and Toxicology, Hyderabad: Medical Book Environmental Hazards Vol. III: Environmental
Company, 2002. Hazards, Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1977.
Rodriguez, W. C. Decomposition of buried and sub- Thomas, F., Hecke, W. V. and Timperman, J. The
merged bodies, in Forensic Taphonomy—The detection of diatoms in the bone marrow as evi-
Postmortem Fate of Human Remains, Haglund, dence of death by drowning, J Forensic Med., 8
W. D. and Sorg, M. H. (Eds.) Boca Raton, FL: (3) (1961): 142–144.
CRC Press, 1997. Timperman, J. Medico-legal problems in death by
Round, F. E., Crawford, R. M. and Mann, D. G. The drowning: Its diagnosis by the diatom method,
Diatoms, Biology and Morphology of the Genera, J Forensic Med., 16 (1969): 45–75.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990. Vij, K. Textbook of Forensic Medicine: Principle and
Shepherd, R. Simpson’s Forensic Medicine, 12th ed., Practice, New Delhi: B.I. Churchill Livingstone,
London: Arnold, 2003. 2001.
Shkrum, M. J. and Ramsay, D. A. Forensic Pathology Yen, L. Y. and Jayaprakash, P. T. Prevalence of dia-
of Trauma Common Problems for the tom frustules in non-vegetarian foodstuffs and
Pathologist, Totowa: Humana Press, 2007. its implications in interpreting identification of
Spitz, W. U. and Fisher, R. S. Medicolegal Investigation diatom frustules in drowning cases, Forensic
of Death: Guidelines for the Application of Sci Int., 170 (2007): 1–7.
Pathology to Crime Investigation, Springfield:
Charles C Thomas, 1980.
Chapter 11
due to Poisoning
11.1 INTRODUCTION type, poison would be detected in the stomach con-

tent, while in the latter category, poison may not
All manners of death are known in poisoning—it be responsible for the death and thus may not be
could be any one of the three types, viz. suicidal, detected in the organs. In both the cases, the crime
accidental, or homicidal. However, the fact that scene findings would play an important role in sup-
death was due to poisoning is invariably demon- porting the hypothesis on the manner of death.
strable due to the regular autopsy practice of pre- In India, the number of suicides that was 38,829
serving the visceral organs for toxicological analysis during 1967 (NCRB India, 1967) increased by
in every case of suspicious death and the advanced about 3.34 times reaching 1,29,887 in 2017 (NCRB
analytical abilities presently available in forensic India, 2017). Among these, death due to poisoning
science laboratories to detect toxic substances. was 6,561 in 1967 and increased by about 5.4 times
When the victim’s dead body is available in reaching 35,671 in 2017 although the number of
a scene of poisoning, and the manner of death is suicides by hanging continues to lead. In spite of the
suicidal, there are telltale evidence—mostly those considerable increase in the number of suicides by
indicating deliberate ingestion of the poison— poisoning, allegations of homicide in death due to
observable in the scene itself supporting the hypoth- poisoning are lesser compared to those in hanging
esis of suicidal poisoning. In cases where the victim cases, the major reasons being the availability of evi-
is taken to the hospital for treatment, the history dence suggesting deliberate ingestion of poisons in
relating to the symptoms recorded in the hospital the crime scenes and the laboratory ability to detect
and the treatment given to the victim would help in the poisons in the internal organs. The relevance of
supporting the manner of poisoning. these aspects in reconstructing the manner of death
Poisoning in relation to homicide can be of two in poison cases is included in the discussion.
broad types—one in which the victim dies due to The methodology in the flowchart (11.2
clandestine administration of a poison that is con- Flowchart) and the case studies described would
sumed unknowingly and the other in which the vic- provide the required basic assistance for the field
tim is killed by some other means such as throttling, investigators involved in the investigation of scenes
and poisoning is staged in the scene. In the former relating to death due to poisoning.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003267096-11 225

11.1. FLOW CHART FOR INVESTIGATING DEATH DUE TO POISONING
11.2 FLOWCHART FOR INVESTIGATING DEATH DUE TO POISONING
226
CRIME SCENE
SOC OVER-ALL SOC

DEAD BODY
GASEOUS
GASEOUS OTHERS - Ground plan DEAD BODY SOC
VICTIM/CLOTHES INJURIES
- Elevation view, if
LOCATION Odor: scene/ body needed BODY POSTURE OVER ALL
ATTITUDE/POSTURE CORROSIVE - Closed Grinding: vegetable
INJURIES rooms/garages poisons - Include cardinal INJURIES EVIDENCE OF
- Calm - Open areas directions (SCALED) STRUGGLE
Near mouth - Wells STRUGGLE - Cut injuries If any
- Evidence of Other areas - Sewage tanks - Disturbance - Abrasions
convulsive struggle - Industries - Vomitus/ HIGHLIGHTS - Corrosive injuries DISCHARGES/VOMIT
- proximity to water On the face etc., in purging/voiding - Contusions Location
instances of acid - Poison container - Others Close-up (scaled)
SOURCES
- Willful preparation throwing CONTAINER
- Faulty heating
- Residue-container - Evidence of DISCHARGES— SPILLED POISON
facilities
- Spilling disturbance PATTERN AND Location (scaled)
DISCHARGES ABRASIONS ETC. - Automobile
Location exhaust related - Stains-clothes etc. DIRECTIONALITY
- Vomitus
- Mode of opening - Location of -Vomitus POISON CONTAINER
- Stains in mouth Size and direction - Others
- Paper packets discharges and stains -Stains in mouth Scaled photos
- Bloody discharges Relation to
- Purging convulsive struggle EXPERIMENT IN -Bloody discharges
COPIOUS AMOUNT -Location of other -Purging MODE OF OPENING
- Smell SCENE
CONSUMED? physical evidence
CUT INJURIES - Let down a live
ACUTE EFFECTS? chicken when IMPLEMENT USED
- Counter cut ADMIXED FOOD/ - Others STAINS IN CLOTH FOR OPENING
marks in finger tips suspecting gases
STAINS IN CLOTH in wells etc. BEVERAGES - Location
- Foodstuffs, cups Include - Color ADMIXED
- Location measurements
- Color OTHER INJURIES etc. - Others FOOD/BEVERAGES
If any wherever possible
- Others
OTHER EVIDENCE FINGERPRINT/OTHER

Fingerprints, foot prints etc.
TRACE EVIDENCE
OTHER TRACE Suicide note—if any
EVIDENCE
SUICIDE NOTE
CUES FOR RECONSTRUCTION OTHERS
• Consider the attitude of the dead body when relating with the
type of poison in the scene.
• Relate scene observations on signs of preparation, source and
type of poison, evidence of vomitus etc. when hypothesizing on
the intent of the victim.
Cases of Death due to Poisoning 227
CASE 11–1: DEATH DUE TO POISONING—SUICIDE, ACCIDENT, OR HOMICIDE
THE CASE mat (arrows in Figure 11.2), and a container of

A female individual reportedly committed sui- organophosphorous insecticide was found in the
cide in her house by consuming insecticide. The nearby empty country oven (Figure 11.3).
deceased was found laid on a bench, and drained
tracks of darkly stained substance were observ- PRIMARY HYPOTHESIS
able on both the sides of the mouth of the deceased The victim died due to poisoning, and the man-
(Figure 11.1). In the place of occurrence, the ner was suicide.
kitchen part of the house, there was evidence of
darkly stained vomited matter on an improvised ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS 1
The victim died due to poisoning, and the man-
ner was accident.
ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS 2
The victim died due to poisoning, and the man-
ner was homicide.
Evidence of vomiting in the scene supports delib-
erate ingestion of the poison.
Observed premises
Dried tracks of darkly stained material were seen
on both the sides of the mouth of the deceased
(Figure 11.1). Similar darkly stained materials were
found on different places on the sheet of polythene
spread out for use as an improvised mat (arrows in
Figure 11.2) on the kitchen part of the house.
FIGURE 11.1 A female dead body found laid on
a bench. Note the darkly stained tracks on the
sides of the mouth. Evidence of vomiting in the scene indicated an
acute effect of the insecticide that is consumed
in copious amount. Deliberate ingestion of insec-
ticide is indicated among adults exhibiting acute
symptoms such as vomiting (Ferreira et al., 2008).
Reconstruction
The evidence of vomiting, an acute effect the poi-
son on the victim, supports deliberate intent on
the part of the deceased in consuming copious
amount of the insecticide and in abstaining from
seeking first aid which support suicidal intent.
FIGURE 11.2 An improvised mat in the place of Organophosphate insecticides are not suitable
occurrence revealed darkly stained vomited mat- for unaware or unnoticed administration with
ter (arrows). homicidal intent.
Reconstruction
The presence of the insecticide container with
recognizable label in the scene supports the infer-
ence that the deceased had consumed the insecti-
cide deliberately. The fact that organophosphate
insecticides have characteristic pungent odor that
is readily detectable further supports voluntary
ingestion rather than accidental intake or clan-
destine administration by another individual.
Voluntariness and intent on the part of the
deceased in consuming the insecticide are indi-
FIGURE 11.3 A container of organophospho- cated by the evidence of vomiting, an acute
rous insecticide that was found nearby. effect of the poison as well as the presence of the
insecticide container in the scene. The deceased,
Observed premises
an adult, had abstained from seeking first aid, an
An appropriately labeled container of organo- act that does not support accidental poisoning.
phosphorous insecticide with residual insec- Homicidal poisoning by clandestine administra-
ticide was found in the empty country oven tion by another individual is not supported since
(Figure 11.3) in the scene hut. organophosphate insecticides have readily recog-
nizable pungent odor. Thus, sequential hypoth-
Accepted (major) premises eses 1 and 2 support the primary hypothesis that
Containers of insecticides are suitably labeled death was due to poisoning and that the manner
and hence are readily recognizable. Furthermore, was suicide.
poisons of organophosphate types have charac- During autopsy, the samples of visceral organs
teristic pungent odor and thus are neither likely were preserved, and analysis in the Forensic Science
to be consumed accidentally nor suitable for Laboratory indicated the presence of organophos-
unnoticed administration with homicidal intent. phate compound in the organs.
CASE 11–2: DEATH DUE TO THROTTLING—SUICIDAL POISONING STAGED
THE CASE was different from the footwear impressions that

A couple stayed in a hotel room, and on the sub- were found on the white residue on the floor.
sequent day the room was found locked. The male A bottle of facial cream labeled ‘Remy’ (fin-
individual was not to be seen, and on the third day ishing cream) was found on the table with its lid
there was foul smell emanating from the room. kept aside. Inside the toilet, a bottle of insecticide
On opening the room, a decomposed dead ‘Rogor—EC 30% with Dimethoate’ (organo-
body of a female individual was seen on one of phosphorous systemic insecticide) was found
the cots. On the windowsill of the northern win- on the windowsill. Four dead cockroaches were
dow, there was an aluminum mug containing to found on the washbasin. The bathroom washba-
its half a watery, white liquid emitting the smell sin and the floor also revealed white residue simi-
of insecticide and facial cream. A dead housefly
lar to that found on the floor in the room. A rough
was floating in the liquid.
sketch of the scene was made (Figure 11.4).
Patches of dried white residue of stains were
found on the floor of the room, and these revealed
footwear impressions that were zigzag shaped. PRIMARY HYPOTHESIS
A pair of high heeled rubber flip-flop sandals was The victim died due to poisoning, and the man-
found in the room. The sole design of the sandals ner was suicide.
FIGURE 11.4 Aerial view sketch of the scene.
ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS Observed premises

The victim died due to other causes, and suicidal The aluminum mug contained white liquid emit-
poisoning was staged. ting the smell of insecticide and facial cream. The
floor in the room and bathroom also revealed
SEQUENTIAL HYPOTHESIS 1 whitish dried residue. But, these residues did not
reveal any smell or particulate materials charac-
An individual other than the deceased was teristic of vomited content from the stomach.
involved in depositing the white residue on the
floor of the room and bathroom. Accepted (major) premises
Vomitus reveals characteristic smell and also undi-
Observed premises
gested food particles unless the stomach was empty.
The footwear impressions on the white residue
in the floor of the room had been left when the Reconstruction
residue had been wet, and these prints revealed a The white liquid in the aluminum mug and the
sole pattern that was different from the sole pat- similar residue on the floor were suggestive of
tern seen in the lady’s sandal. attempt by an individual other than the deceased
to spill the insecticide mixture on the floor to
Accepted (major) premises simulate vomiting to stage suicidal poisoning.
Sole patterns in footwear reveal characteristics
that can be used for class level and individual Conjoined reconstruction
identification. The footwear prints on the residue on the floor
of the room indicated the presence of another
Reconstruction individual in the room when the residue was wet.
An individual using footwear that was different The residue on the floor with footwear impres-
from the lady’s sandals found in the room had sions suggested spilling of the insecticide, face
walked about in the room when the fluid residue cream, and water mixture by another individual
on the floor was still wet. to simulate vomiting on the floor to stage sui-
cidal poisoning. Sequential hypotheses 1 and 2
support the alternative hypothesis that poison-
SEQUENTIAL HYPOTHESIS 2 ing had been staged in the scene of crime.
The residue on the floor in the room and inside Autopsy revealed that death was due to throt-
the toilet appeared to have been deliberately tling. Visceral organs did not reveal evidence of
spilled on the floor possibly to dupe vomitus. poison during chemical analysis.
11.4 DISCUSSION ability to detect leftover poison in the stomach and

its metabolites in the visceral organs which enables
11.4.1 Myths and Facts Relating to Observations in establishing not only the ingestion of the poison
Death due to Poisoning but also, depending on the type of poison, the pos-
sibility of willful ingestion. This analytical ability
i. Myth: Aerosols and solids in the form of to detect poisons in the organs is seen to lessen the
powders that come into contact with the avenue for alleging simulation of suicidal poisoning
skin when spraying insecticides can be after murder. Conversely, it can be a challenge for
washed off and hence are not harmful. an investigator when allegations of homicide are
Fact: While solids in the form of powders leveled in manners of death such as due to hanging,
do not penetrate the skin, liquid insecticides drowning, or burns since analytically detectable
used as aerosols penetrate the skin causing categorical evidence particular for these manners
toxic effects. do not manifest in the internal organs. Indeed, it
ii. Myth: The quantity of the poison that is has become a routine practice for seeking toxico-
consumed can be detected by analyzing the logical analysis of the visceral organs in every case
stomach content. of unnatural death for eliminating the possibility of
Fact: The quantity of poison detected in poisoning.
the stomach is the unreacted portion which
remains after the quantity that has been
absorbed into the system. 11.4.3 Trends in Death due to Poisoning
iii. Myth: It is possible to clandestinely admin-
ister commercially available insecticides for The circumstances leading to entry of poison-
homicidal purposes. ous substances into human body and the effect
Fact: Insecticides available in the markets of poison inside the body are numerous although
are characterized by varying colors and instances leading to fatalities warranting scene
pungent smell and hence are easily recog- investigations are relatively limited. Where the vic-
nizable due to their repulsive smell. It is tim survives, there may be possibilities to obtain
usually not possible to administer such poi- information relating to the type of the poison con-
sons unknowingly. sumed and the circumstances that led to poison
iv. Myth: Treatment has proved to be more intake—whether it was accidental or intentional. In
successful in saving victims who had con- such cases, the laboratory analyses, usually termed
sumed poisons accidentally. as ‘clinical toxicological analyses’, of the stomach
Fact: True. This is mainly because of the fact lavage, blood, or urine of the victim under hospital-
that the poison consumed, when accidental, ization would further confirm the type of the poison
gets restricted once the victim becomes aware ingested steering appropriate course of treatment.
of it. Consequent to this awareness, the ini- In such instances, the need for scene examination
tiation of treatment is immediate leading to seldom arises. Among the commonplace poisons
saving the victim. In addition, the poisons in domestic use, those like kerosene, disinfectants,
accidentally consumed are such that they are and detergents are more prone to accidental intake
generally less strong such as kerosene unlike by children. Pharmacological preparations like
the insecticides that produce acute effects. sedatives are known to be consumed by individuals
attempting suicide by other modes such as by falling
from heights.
11.4.2 Relevance of the Laboratory Ability to Although chemical analysis of the viscera
Detect Poisons enables establishing the cause of death as due to
poisoning, technically, in death due to poisoning,
The variety of poisonous substances that can pop too, the manner can be anything among suicidal,
up during criminal investigation is inexhaust- accidental, or homicidal. Suicide and accident
ible. In cases where poisoning is suspected, the have been found to be the more prevalent man-
circumstances and the physical clues in the crime ners among the cases of death due to poisoning.
scene oftentimes provide the key evidence for the Pesticide-related suicides were indicated to be about
SOCO as well as the toxicologist in identifying the 48% in developed countries compared to about
type of the poison. One aspect that makes poison 64–67% in other developing countries (Ferreira
scene investigation less challenging is the analytical et al., 2008). In India, NCRB data for 2019 (NCRB
India, 2019) indicated the number of total deaths cases involving vegetable poisoning in adults may
due to poisoning to be 35,882 and pesticide-related not be reported (Rao, 2010), such poisons usually
deaths to be 24,064 (67.06%). Demographic data take longer time to act and hence are mostly used
on the incidence of poisoning in the different hos- for suicidal purposes. The more common circum-
pitals located in India reveal proportions of sui- stances leading to fatalities by poisoning in India
cides and accidents varying from 44.28% to 92.5% (Subrahmanyam, 1999; Rao, 2010) are presented
and from 7.5% to 44.28%, respectively (Reddy in Table 11.1.
and Kumar, 2013; Waghmare and Mohite, 2013;
Sylvia, 2017). Aggarwal et al. (2014) found a higher
proportion of 53.1% accidental poisoning among 11.4.4 Circumstances Commonplace in Suicidal
children. Homicide had not been reported by most Poisoning
authors (Waghmare and Mohite, 2013; Aggarwal
et al., 2014; Sylvia, 2017), while Reddy and Kumar Important circumstantial indications supporting
(2013) found 1 case of homicide among 149 cases, suicide are evidence of deliberation and willfulness
and Kumar et al. (2009) described 1 case report. on the part of the victim in ingesting the poison.
Relating to organophosphorous and carbamate Usually, the victims are adults or adolescents, and
poisoning, Bardin et al. (1994) suggested grad- the locations chosen are secluded. Majority of the
ing criteria as mild when there is normal level of cases involve the use of easily available poisons such
consciousness and severe or life threatening when as organophosphate insecticides (Ferreira et al.,
consciousness is altered or lost. Mild symptoms 2008). When insecticides are used for suicidal pur-
are likely to characterize accidental poisoning, poses, the repelling smell and taste in most of the
while severe symptoms can be expected in suicide insecticides suggest willfulness on the part of the
attempts. deceased when consuming them. At times, more
In gaseous state, carbon monoxide (CO), a than one poison may be ingested. In spite of the acute
poisonous gas, is known to be used for suicidal and severe effects of the chosen poison, the victims
purposes when victims prefer to lie down near the attempting suicide do not prefer to seek immediate
exhausts of motor cars leaving the engine turned medical assistance. In most cases, the poisons are
on. The posture of the victim in the scene sup- consumed in the concentrated state without any ali-
porting willful preparation would throw light on quot being prepared. Invariably, evidence pointing
suicidal intent—such as lying down with the nose to acute effects such as severe vomiting and convul-
toward the exhaust of a car with the engine rev- sions would be observable in the scene and on the
ving. Accidents due to CO occur when people dead body.
sleep in ill-ventilated rooms with defective heating
equipment or when individuals relax inside cars
with the air conditioner turned on while the vehi- 11.4.5 Circumstances Commonplace in
cles, also turned on, are parked in closed garages Accidental Poisoning
lacking ventilation. Deaths occurring due to sewer
gas, a mixture of carbon dioxide (CO2), methane, Major indications in the scene supporting acci-
hydrogen sulfide, etc., are mostly due to accidents dental poisoning are evidence of lack of delibera-
that happen when ill-prepared individuals attempt tion and willfulness on the part of the victim in
cleaning wells or tanks with accumulated gas. exposure to the poison. Examples include carbon-
Usually, evidence indicating preparation as well as monoxide-related fatalities involving family mem-
witnesses for such acts as cleaning will be available bers sleeping in closed rooms that are connected to
in the scene. defective heating systems or fatalities of individu-
Intentional throwing of corrosive poisons like als relaxing inside cars parked in closed garages
acids on the face and person of targeted victims with engine and air conditioner turned on. Toxic-
are also frequent in countries like India. Sedatives gas-related accidental poisoning occurs when indi-
like chloral hydrate have been known to be mixed viduals get into sewage tanks or into unused wells
with alcohol for inebriating the effect. There are for cleaning them. In such instances, the SOCOs
also instances of unintentional mixing of methyl can tie a live chicken in a rope by its legs and let
alcohol with ethyl alcohol leading to fatalities. it go into the depth of the tank or well to verify if
In parts of India, poisonous sap of vegetable ori- it becomes unconscious due to the noxious gases.
gin is known to be administered to kill female Accidental poisoning may also be reported during
infants (George, 1997). Although many of the drug and alcohol abuse. Mixing of methyl alcohol
TABLE 11.1 Circumstances in the Scene and on the Victim/Dead Body in Relation to Possible Manner of Poison
Intake
Poison type Scene circumstances Victim/dead body Possible manner
Carbon monoxide Sleeping in ill-ventilated Normal sleeping posture Accident (domestic)
bedrooms etc.
Relaxing inside motor car Relaxing on the seat Accident (domestic)
with air conditioner turned
on when the car, with
engine turned on, is parked
inside closed garages
Lying down with the nose Lying down on the ground Suicide
pointing to the exhaust
when the car engine is
turned on
Carbon dioxide/sewer Cleaning deep structures In the act of cleaning Accident (occupational)
gas like wells or sewage tanks
Poisonous gases from Individuals in outdoor Individuals in routine Accident (industrial)
industries nearby the industry activities
Insecticides and her- After prolonged spraying Odor characteristic of Accident (occupational)
bicides in vapor state activities without appro- organophosphates in the
(organophosphates, priate safety measures dead body
carbamates)
Insecticides in liquid In domestic settings with Strong odor of organo- Suicide
state (organophos- the container found near- phosphates; evidence of
phates, carbamates) by, residue usually colored convulsions, struggle,
(yellow, blue, or green) voided urine, vomiting,
purging, and thirst
Herbicides in liquid state In domestic settings with Strong odor with evidence Suicide
(bipyridyls like para- the container found of vomiting, purging
quat) nearby, residue may be
colored blue
Salts of cyanide such as In domestic settings with Lying posture without Suicide or homicide or
potassium cyanide left-over cyanide and drink evidence of struggle homicide followed by
or fruit/foodstuff mixed suicide (involving fam-
with cyanide ily members)
Consumption of raw salts of Any posture Suicide (by those belong-
cyanide packed in thin glass ing to extremist groups)
vials and worn on the body
with other intoxicating liquors has been the cause Among children, exposure was predominantly by
for mass fatalities in some parts of India. This ingestion (51.6%) while among adults, it was mostly
author examined a case wherein three friends con- by inhalation (95.7%), and mortality was minimal
suming alcoholic drinks mistakenly mixed cyanide in accidental poisoning (Ferreira et al., 2008). In
considering it to be chloral hydrate, and all of them a study conducted particularly on child victims,
died of cyanide poisoning. Aggarwal et al. (2014) found children to be more
Retrospective studies reported in India have affected during accidental poisoning, and the most
found death due to accidental poisoning to range commonly ingested poisoning agent to be kerosene.
between 7.5% and 44.8% (Reddy and Kumar, The disagreeable odor in the insecticides can be an
2013; Waghmare and Mohite, 2013; Sylvia, 2017). important factor leading to lesser number of acci-
Internationally, children have been found to be the dental ingestion of pesticides. The data from NCRB
majority of victims in accidental poisoning due India (2015) reveal the total number of deaths due
to insecticides (IPCS, 1993; Ferreira et al., 2008). to consumption of insecticides in India as 30,990
of which 23,930 (77.22%) were suicides and 7,060 Bardin, P. G., Van Eeden, S. F., Moolman, J. A., Foden,
(22.78%) were accidents. Considering the pro- A. P. and Joubert, J. R. Organophosphate and
portion of deaths due to accidental consumption carbamate poisoning, Arch Int Med., 154 (13)
of insecticides, it is desirable that the child group (1994): 1433–1441.
and the particular mode of intake viz. inhalation Ferreira, A., Maroco, E., Yonamine, M. and Félix de
or ingestion are also identified for interpreting the Oliveira, M. L. Organophosphate and carbamate
data. poisonings in the northwest of Paraná state, Brazil
from 1994 to 2005: Clinical and epidemiologi-
cal aspects, Brazilian Journal of Pharmaceutical
11.4.6 Characteristics of Homicidal Poisoning Sciences, 44 (3) (2008): 407–415.
George, S. M. Female infanticide in Tamil Nadu,
A major feature recognized in homicidal poisoning India: From recognition back to denial? Reprod
is the choice of the poison that has the feasibil- Health Matters, 5 (10) (1997): 124–132.
ity for being administered unknowingly. Trestrail IPCS News. The newsletter of the international pro-
(2007) mentions the more common poisons that gramme on chemical safety, (3) (1993): 1–8.
can be administered in food or drinks for homi- Available at: www.who.int/ipcs/publications/
cidal purposes which include methanol, arsenic, newsletters/en/03.pdf.
Botulinus toxin, cyanide as sodium or potassium Kumar, L., Agarwal, S. S., Chavali, K. H. and Mestri,
salts, sodium fluoroacetate, thallium salts and S. C. Homicide by organophosphorus com-
strychnine, which, on account of the bitter taste, pound poisoning: A case report, Med Sci Law,
can still be administered with bitter tasting alco- 49 (2) (2009): 136–138.
holic beverages. Pertinently, organophosphate NCRB India. Accidental and Suicidal Deaths in
insecticides are not mentioned in the aforemen- India, 1967. Available at: https://ncrb.gov.in/
en/accidental-deaths-suicides-india-1967
tioned list possibly because of their disagreeable
NCRB India. Accidental Deaths & Suicides in India,
smell that renders them unsuitable for unknowing
2015. Available at: https://ncrb.gov.in/sites/
administration.
default/files/adsi-2015-full-report-2015_0.pdf
Contrasting the aforementioned scenario, a
NCRB India. Accidental and Suicidal Deaths in
report from Pakistan indicated a proportion of
India, 2017. Available at: https://ncrb.gov.in/
17.36% cases to be homicides among poisoning
en/accidental-deaths-suicides-india-2017
due to organophosphates (Raja et al., 2008), while
NCRB India. Accidental and Suicidal Deaths in
a review from India found the proportion of homi- India, 2019. Available at: https://ncrb.gov.in/
cidal poisoning using organophosphates, alumi- en/accidental-deaths-suicides-india-2019
num phosphates, aluminum phosphide, paraquat, Raja,K.S.,Fazal,M.O.and Bilal,A.Organophosphorus
and arsenic to be 0.3% to 3.7% (Sikary, 2019). compound poisoning, Professional Med J Dec,
In the midst of the aforementioned retrospective 15 (4) (2008): 518–523.
reviews, a case history of homicidal poisoning has Rao, N. G. Textbook of Forensic Medicine and
also been described wherein organophosphate was Toxicology, Bengaluru: Jaypee Brothers Medical
reportedly administered after inflicting head injury Publications, 2010.
on the victim (Kumar et al., 2009). There appears Reddy, P. S. and Kumar, N. H. Profile of medico-
a need for exploring case-specific crime scene cir- legal cases at Sri Siddhartha Medical College
cumstances as those cited by Kumar et al. (2009) and hospital, Tumkur, Medico-Legal Update
for every instance in which organophosphate January-June, 13 (1) (2013): 164–167.
is attributed to be the agent used for homicidal Sikary, A. K. Homicidal poisoning in India: A short
poisoning. review, Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine,
61 (2019): 13–16.
Subrahmanyam, B. V. Modi’s Medical Jurisprudence
REFERENCES and Toxicology, New Delhi: Butterworths, 1999.
Sylvia, S. A Retrospective Study of Deaths Due to
Aggarwal, B., Rana, S. K. and Chhavi, N. Pattern Poisoning, among the Autopsies Conducted
of poisoning in children, an experience from at Government Kilpauk Medical College &
a teaching hospital in northern India, www. Hospital, Chennai, dissertation submitted to
jkscience.org., 16 (4) (2014). the Tamil Nadu Dr. M.G.R. Medical University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Waghmare, S. and Mohite, S. Current trends of fatal
award of degree of M.D. (Forensic Medicine), poisoning in metropolitan hospital, Mumbai,
April, 2017. Medico-Legal Update, 13 (1) (2013): 145–148.
Trestrail, J. H. III. Forensic Science and Medicine:
Criminal Poisoning, 2nd ed., NJ: Humana
Press, 2007, 111–126.
Chapter 12
Scheme for Investigating Sexual
Assault Cases
12.1 INTRODUCTION In rape cases, the victims’ bodies and their

clothing are part of the crime scene (Savino and
The challenges in rape investigations are mainly Turvey, 2005-a). However, the victims’ bodies are
attributable to the possibility of evidence loss due to be examined only by the designated medical doc-
to the behavior and conduct of the victims and sus- tors, and SOCOs may coordinate with the doctors
pects following the offence. These activities would during the collection and preservation of physical
include any mundane deeds ranging from moving evidence or relevant control samples.
from one place to the other to simple acts of washing Some of the trace evidence such as pollen grains,
or wiping stains to taking a thorough bath. Clues dust particles, and fibers that form transferred traces
adhering to the clothes such as hairs are likely to serve to associate the victim and the suspect with the
fall even during usual movement. When the victims place of occurrence, and these evidence may not by
happen to be children and adolescents, parents are themselves be sufficient to prove the offence of rape.
often seen bathing the victims. Oftentimes, adult Although these evidence are not individualizable,
victims lodge the complaints belatedly by which yet, their presence on the suspect can be useful in
time the crime scene may have been disturbed lead- disproving claims of alibi. Relevance of pollen and
ing to further loss of evidence. microbes as evidence is included in the discussion.
The value of physical evidence in rape cases Rape or sexual assault on children is of serious
depends on the type of evidence and the location and grave social concern. In many of such cases, the
from where they are collected. Evidence common- suspect may not be able to achieve full penetration,
place in rape cases are semen or saliva stains and and semen ejaculation may not have been accom-
hairs of the victim and suspect in the crime scene plished. Presence of microbial evidence such as
and/or on the clothing of the victims and suspects. Gonococci on the body of child victims can be use-
These physical clues aid in associating the suspect ful in connecting the suspects who are in infected
with the victim as well as their presence in the crime state.
scene. Because hairs are routinely shed, there is a The methodology in the flowchart (12.2
greater likelihood for the presence of hairs in the Flowchart) and the cases described would provide
crime scene, and SOCOs must bestow particular basic assistance for the field investigators involved
effort to collect them especially in view of the cur- in the investigation of different types of sexual
rent facilities available to establish the source of assault cases.
hairs using DNA analysis.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003267096-12 235

236
12.1. FLOW CHART

12.2 FLOWCHART FORFOR
INVESTIGATING SEXUAL ASSAULT
INVESTIGATINGSEXUAL ASSAULTCASES
CASES
CRIME SCENE
OBSERVATIONS
SKETCH PHOTOGRAPHY
VICTIM / SUSPECT SOC
OVER-ALL SOC
CLOTH/PERSON INJURIES EVIDENCE OF STRUGGLE VICTIM/SUSPECT SOC
Disturbances in SOC - Ground plan
Indoor: bed, mattress, - Elevation view (if
HAIRS/FIBERS PATTERNED MARKS PATTERNED OVER ALL
etc. needed)
LOCATION - Bite marks—take photo MARKS
Body: specify region Outdoor: soil, vegetation,
and swab - Include cardinal (SCALED) EVIDENCE OF
Clothes: specify region etc.
- Nail marks directions - Bite marks STRUGGLE
If any
HAIRS: region ABRASION/CONTUSION/ FOREIGN OBJECTS - Nail marks
(pubic/scalp) OTHERS - Hairs/buttons/clips HAIR EVIDENCE
Root: forcibly pulled? - Location - Others OTHER INJURIES - Location
Shaft: structure type - Size, shape, and direction HIGHLIGHTS (SCALED) - Close-up (scaled)
HAIR - COLLECTION General
(Tamper evident packing) - Hand picking - Evidence of Close-up
Relationship between the - Sweeping disturbance BLOOD/SEMEN
STAINS IN CLOTH cutaneous injuries and - Others HAIRS AND STAINS STAINS
SEMEN, SALIVA, BLOOD the damages in clothes - Location of stains General and close- Location (scaled)
Location/type/pattern/ Tamper evident packing and physical up (scaled)
others Note: Dead body can be evidence
MARK WET AREAS examined in the scene; BLOOD/SEMEN STAINS DAMAGES IN OTHER TRACE
live victims and suspects - Others CLOTHING EVIDENCE
- In clothes/soil—as such
DAMAGES IN CLOTH are to be examined only (SCALED)
- On the floor—swab
TEAR TYPE: Over by medical doctors Include - Front Scaled photos
stretching/ others measurements - Back

AIR DRY—paper packing
HOOKS, BUTTONS ETC. wherever possible - Others
CUES FOR RECONSTRUCTION OTHER EVIDENCE NAIL DEPOSITS

OTHER TRACE EVIDENCE
Close-up
- Pollen/soil/dust, etc.
- Drugs/oil, etc. • Consider hair evidence as associating POLLEN, SOIL ETC.
the suspect and victimwith the scene. - In the scene OTHERS
- Microbial evidence
• Include damages in clothes and injuries - In clothes
NAIL CLIPPINGS FROM on the victim as corroborating struggle.
VICTIM/SUSPECT • Trace biological evidence are to be FOOT/FINGER PRINTS
interpreted after DNA analysis.
Collect immediately
Use fresh razor blades
Investigating Sexual Assault Cases 237
CASE 12–1: PHYSICAL EVIDENCE ASSOCIATING THE VICTIM AND SUSPECT
THE CASE long were observed on the floor (Figure 12.1) and
A child aged about 5 years was reportedly raped by were recovered.
an adult male individual by about midday inside a
hut in a coconut grove. The child raised an alarm, Accepted (major) premises
and the suspect, who was chased by the witnesses, Hairs can be analyzed for suggesting origin.
escaped. The victim was taken by her parents The victim had long scalp hairs, and a sample of
who bathed her in a nearby pond. After lodging her hair was collected through the medical doc-
a police complaint, the victim was examined in tor. Similarly, a sample of the pubic hairs of the
the government hospital that evening. The child suspect was also collected through the medical
complained of severe pain in her vaginal region, doctor.
and the medical doctor found the vaginal mucosa
inflamed with slight oozing of blood. Reconstruction
Laboratory analysis of the scalp hair recov-
PRIMARY HYPOTHESIS ered from the hut and the sample scalp hairs
The suspect was present in association with the collected from the victim indicated morpho-
victim in the scene. logical similarity. Also, a comparison of the
pubic hair collected from the hut with the
ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS sample pubic hairs of the suspect indicated
The suspect was not present in association with similarity. Thus, the aforementioned physical
the victim in the scene. evidence recovered from the hut supported the
presence of the victim and the suspect inside
the hut.
Presence of hairs of the suspect and the victim
in the place of occurrence, the hut, would sup- SEQUENTIAL HYPOTHESIS 2
portthe presence of the suspect in association Bloodstains in the scene of crime indicate the
with the victim. presence of the victim inside the hut.
Observed premises Observed premises

On the examination of the hut, one scalp hair The mat and the two coconut leaf thatches that
about 35-cm long and one pubic hair about 2.5-cm were found spread out inside the hut revealed
FIGURE 12.1 Aerial view sketch of the scene.

dark stains which were found to be bloodstains Conjoined reconstruction

on preliminary examination. Laboratory examination of the swab taken of the
vaginal mucosa of the victim did not reveal seminal
Accepted (major) premises stains. However, the presence of pubic hair inside
Bloodstains form transferred trace evidence. the hut that was similar to the pubic hair of the
Comparison of the blood group of the specimen suspect and the presence of scalp hair in the hut
blood of the victim girl and that of the blood- that was similar to the scalp hair of the victim sup-
stains found in the crime scene can indicate simi- ported the association of the suspect and victim
with the crime scene. That the bloodstains on the
larity in origin.
mat inside the hut and the blood of the victim were
of the same group and the evidence of injury and
Reconstruction
oozing of blood in the vagina of the victim sup-
Laboratory analysis of the bloodstains recovered ported that the victim was bleeding while inside
from the hut and the sample of blood collected the hut. DNA analysis was not in vogue at the time
from the victim indicated similar group support- this case was investigated. Sequential hypotheses
ing the presence of the victim inside the hut when 1 and 2 supported the primary hypothesis that the
she was bleeding. victim was sexually assaulted inside the hut.
CASE 12–2: SEXUAL ASSAULT HOMICIDE: TRACE

EVIDENCE ASSOCIATE THE VICTIM/SUSPECT
THE CASE The pubic hairs collected from the scene were
A girl aged about 13 years was found lying near found to be similar to the control sample of pubic
a motor shed with bleeding injuries on her head. hairs collected from the suspect. The clothing of the
She was taken to the hospital where she was deceased as well as the sarong (lungi) of the sus-
declared dead. The crime scene was examined, pect revealed seminal stains. The greasy stain on
and two bloodstained brick blocks and pubic the blouse of the deceased was found similar to the
hairs were collected (Figure 12.2). During the sample grease collected from the shaft of the motor.
postmortem examination, the doctor observed
that the victim’s pubic hairs had not grown yet. PRIMARY HYPOTHESIS
The vagina was found swollen, and vaginal swab The victim was inside the motor shed, and the
was collected and sent for laboratory analysis for suspect was associated in the sexual act outside
detecting evidence of seminal stains. On examin- the motor shed.
ing the clothing of the deceased after autopsy, the
petticoat and blouse revealed starchy stains with ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS
the blouse indicating an additional greasy stain. The victim was not inside the motor shed, and
Subsequently, the suspect confessed that the suspect had no association with the victim in
he initially restrained the girl inside the motor the sexual act outside the motor shed.
shed and later brought her out, had sexual inter-
course, and, when she raised an alarm, hit her on
the head with brick blocks and left the scene. On
this information, the motor shed was examined. The suspect was present in association with the
The grease-covered shaft of the motor that was victim in the place where the injured victim was
about 45-cm high from the floor level revealed an found lying.
area where grease was missing. The sample of the
grease from the shaft was collected. Observed premises
Laboratory examination revealed seminal a) Bloodstains were found on the soil in a
stains in the swab taken from the vaginal mucosa. shallow area of the ground on the southern
FIGURE 12.2 Aerial view sketch of the scene along with the nearby shed housing the water pump.
side of the motor shed where the victim Reconstruction

was reportedly found lying. A block of During laboratory analysis, the bloodstains on
two bricks held together with mortar the earth and the brick mortar blocks were found
revealed bloodstains on one of its lon- to be similar to the blood of the deceased with
ger edges. Another similar block of two reference to blood group supporting that the
bricks also revealed bloodstains on one of deceased sustained the bleeding injuries in the
its surfaces. Sample blood of the deceased place of occurrence. The pubic hairs recovered
was collected through the medical doctor. from the scene of crime were found morphologi-
b) Pubic hairs measuring about 3 to 5 cm cally similar to the control pubic hairs collected
in length were found in the shallow area. from the suspect. Presence of the pubic hair of
The doctor conducting the postmortem the suspect in the location where the victim was
examination observed that the victim’s found supports the association of the victim with
pubic hairs had not grown yet. Control the suspect in the crime scene.
samples of the hairs of the suspect were
collected from the pubic, scrotal, and SEQUENTIAL HYPOTHESIS 2
thigh regions through the medical doc- Evidence of sexual intercourse on a juvenile vic-
tor. The scalp hairs of the deceased were tim and the presence of seminal stains on the
also collected. clothing of the victim and the suspect indicate
sexual assault.
a) The bloodstains found on the soil and on Observed premises
the brick mortar blocks can be compared a) Vaginal swab of the deceased was col-
with the sample blood of the deceased lected by the medical doctor for ascer-
for establishing origin. taining the presence of semen. Starchy
b) Morphological comparison of the hairs stains were found in the petticoat worn
enables attribution of origin. The pubic by the deceased. Similar starchy stains
hairs collected from the scene can be were found on the lower edge of the
compared with the control samples of blouse worn by the deceased.
hairs collected from the pubic region of b) The sarong (lungi) worn by the suspect
the suspect. revealed starchy stains.

a) Presence of seminal stains in vaginal Laboratory analysis of the greasy stain on the
swab and clothing of the deceased can blouse of the deceased and the control grease from
indicate recent sexual intercourse and the shaft of the motor revealed similar dirt and
sexual assault. particulate materials indicating common origin.
b) Presence of seminal stains on the cloth- Grease as transferred trace due to contact sup-
ing of the suspect supports recent ports the presence of the victim inside the motor
ejaculation. room in a posture, possibly sitting and leaning her
back on the motor shaft, that established contact
Reconstruction of the rear of her blouse with the motor shaft that
Laboratory analysis of the vaginal swab col- was about 45 cm high from the floor level.
lected by the medical doctor revealed seminal
stains supporting sexual assault on the victim. Conjoined reconstruction
The starchy stains found on the clothing of the Similarity between the hairs collected from the
deceased and the suspect were also found to be scene of crime with the hairs of the suspect sup-
seminal stains. ported the presence of the suspect in the scene
of crime. Similar blood group of the bloodstains
SEQUENTIAL HYPOTHESIS 3 in the scene and the blood of the deceased indi-
cated that the victim was bleeding in the scene.
Transferred trace evidence from the motor to the
Presence of semen in the vaginal swab of the
victim can indicate the presence of the victim
deceased and the presence of seminal stains in
inside the motor shed.
the petticoat and blouse of the deceased indi-
cated that deceased was sexually assaulted. The
Observed premises
presence of seminal stains on the clothing of the
Greasy stains were observed on the rear of the suspect supported recent ejaculation. The simi-
blouse of the victim. The grease on the shaft larity between the greasy stains on the blouse
of the motor inside the motor room was found of the deceased and the motor shaft supported
missing in an area, and the shaft was located at the presence of the victim inside the motor shed.
a point about 45-cm high from the floor level Thus, the sequential hypotheses 1 to 3 support
(Figure 12.2). the primary hypothesis that the victim was pres-
ent inside the motor shed, that she was sexually
Accepted (major) premises assaulted, and that the deceased and the suspect
Grease forms a trace evidence when contact is were associated with the scene. Facilities for
established and can be compared for establishing conducting DNA analysis were not available at
common source. the time this case was investigated.
CASE 12–3: SEXUAL ASSAULT HOMICIDE: MICROBIAL

EVIDENCE ASSOCIATES THE SUSPECT
THE CASE mark around the neck. The other injuries observed
In a small sea-shore hamlet off the coast of Bay were an abrasion in the posterior side of the vagi-
of Bengal, a fisherwoman saw the dead body of nal orifice, edematous appearance of the vulva,
a 5½-year-old girl baby hanging upside down, an abrasion over the left upper thigh in its inner
her right ankle tied to a casuarina tree. The aspect, abrasions in the shoulder and back, and a
scene was examined by the designated SOCO, discontinuous ligature mark around right ankle.
and the author was involved in the subsequent Findings during the internal examination included
investigation. an intact hymen, right-side fracture in the hyoid
During postmortem examination, the medi- bone, and congestion in the respiratory track
cal doctor had observed stains in the lower abdo- and lungs. The vaginal swab and scrapings of the
men and pubic region of the victim and a ligature stains from the left middle thigh, the mons pubis,
and pubic regions were collected. Preliminary

microscopic study of the scrapings carried out in
the Microbiology Department of the local medi-
cal college revealed negatively stained Diplococci.
Subsequent examination in the forensic science
laboratory confirmed the presence of Gonococci.
The village being small, a survey was under-
taken to ascertain the whereabouts of all the males
during the estimated time of occurrence. This search
led to shortlisting the male individuals after exclud-
ing those who had gone out to the sea for fishing,
old and frail males, and children. These individuals,
as and when available, were subjected to a screening
test for the presence of Gonococci. The suspect, one
among those individuals, was found to be infected
with Gonococci, which was confirmed during anal-
ysis in the forensic science laboratory.
PRIMARY HYPOTHESIS
Gonococci in a child victim indicate transfer due FIGURE 12.3 Contusion (arrow) found in the
to contact from an infected adult individual and upper thigh region of the victim.
hence can be of evidentiary value.
ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS transferred trace evidence from a suspect

Gonococci infection can occur among children in infected state (Hammerschlag, 2011).
and thus cannot be of evidentiary value.
Reconstruction
SEQUENTIAL HYPOTHESIS Since children are not known to harbor gonococ-
Gonococci are transferred to a child victim when cal infection, the presence of Gonococci in the
a gonococcal infected person has sexual contact swab and scrapping from the mons pubis and
with that child. thigh of the victim and the evidence of gonococ-
cal infection in the adult suspect support that
Observed premises suspect could have contributed to the transfer of
a) The contusion in the upper right thigh Gonococci to the victim during sexual contact
region (arrow in Figure 12.3) indicates with the victim.
the application of localized pressure
in that area possibly caused by a blunt Conjoined reconstruction
object like an erect penis. The presence of Gonococci on the mons pubis of
b) Gonococci are detected in the scrapings a child victim and the gonococcal infected state
and swab taken of the mons pubis and of the suspect support the primary hypothesis
upper thigh of the victim girl. that Gonococci on the deceased child, as cir-
cumstantial trace evidence transferred by con-
Accepted (major) premises tact, support sexual assault on the child by the
a) Gonococci are transferred to victims suspect.
of sexual assault during contact by the In cases of sexual assault on child victims,
penis of an individual in gonococcal penetration may not be achieved, and ejaculated
infected state. seminal stains may not always be available in the
b) Children are seldom affected by gono- scene or on the victim. The problems in investi-
cocci, and the presence of gonococci gating cases of rape on child victims are included
in a child victim can be considered as in the discussion.
12.4 DISCUSSION of the victim or suspect to bring out the appropri-

ate evidentiary value of hairs. Hairs attributable to
12.4.1 Myths and Facts Relating to Observations in a suspect collected from the crime scene, from the
Sexual Offences clothing of the victim, and from the body of the
victim will all have differing probative force when
i. Myth: Rape is a manifestation of animal interpreting the evidentiary value. In the body of
instinct among human beings. the victim, too, hairs from different locations will
Fact: Sexual act among animals is reserved have varying evidentiary value. In a sexual assault
for reproduction, and animals are not homicide in which the dead body found laid on the
known to commit rape. Forced mating in railway track was transported in the train and kept
animals is explainable in terms of parental on the platform in a railway station, hairs sticking
investment or selection theory (Crawford to the outer surface of the blouse may be from the
and Galdikas, 1986), and rape in human previous hairs lying on the train or platform itself.
does not belong to these categories. In the same dead body, hairs found sticking on
ii. Myth: Rape is committed by an offender areas covered by clothes or hairs caught in between
to satisfy his desire for sex since he cannot the fingers would be of greater evidentiary value
control such desire. since hairs in such locations cannot be attributed
Fact: This has been indicated as a myth that to contamination by accidental transfer. Similarly,
may mislead an investigator (Savino and seminal stains from the crime scene, the clothing
Turvey, 2005-b). of the victim, the clothing of the suspect, the vagi-
iii. Myth: Rape is committed by offenders who nal swab, or the body parts of the victim will all
are strangers to the victim. have varying interpretive value. Wherever possible,
Fact: In a majority of the cases, rape is seen SOCOs may render appropriate assistance to the
committed by relatives or persons known to medical doctor during the removal of the clothing
the victims (Pittel and Spina, 2005; NCRB from the deceased since the hairs loosely adhering
Statistics, 2019). are likely to be lost if they are not particularly rec-
iv. Myth: Rapists are attracted by seductive ognized and collected.
apparels women wear such as short and Regarding the DNA exonerations that indicated
revealing dresses. wrong hair evidence interpretations in projects such
Fact: False. Rapists are attracted to vulner- as Innocence Projects, Taupin (2004) indicates that
ability, and wherever and whenever their the controversy was because legal commentators
victims are vulnerable, they attempt to confused probabilities with reliability. While mor-
attack (Savino and Turvey, 2005-b). phologically derived hair evidence may be unreliable
for the very same reasons that make other forensic
evidence unreliable, it has been cautioned that DNA
12.4.2 Relevance of Location of Physical analysis is not always successful on hairs, and there
Evidence in Rape Cases are many cases where identity is not an issue but the
morphology of the hair and the case circumstances
Human hairs are shed routinely in the natural pro- may be more important (Taupin, 2004).
cess of growth and replacement and thus are more
likely to fall during the course of bodily contact
in a sexual act. The fact that hairs are shed eas- 12.4.3 Circumstantial Evidence Indicating
ily also makes contamination more prone due to Struggle in Cases of Rape
previous accumulation of hairs especially when the
relatives or acquaintances happen to be the offend- Especial care must be bestowed to recognize evi-
ers, an association known to be frequent in rape dence that support struggle between the victim
cases (NCRB Statistics, 2019). Furthermore, hairs and the suspect. These may include scratch marks
from unrelated individuals are likely to accumu- caused by nails, deposits of the skin traces of the
late in places with unrestricted public movement assailant inside the fingernails of the victims or
such as buses, trains, hotel rooms, and dilapi- vice versa, traces of materials such as ropes used
dated locations habitually visited by gamblers or for restraining the victim, or transferred traces
drug addicts. In view of these ground realities, it is from the places where the victim was restrained
important to mention the precise location of hairs as the grease described in Case 12–2. Damages in
both in a crime scene and on the body or clothes clothes, loss of buttons, hooks, etc., form important
circumstantial evidence indicating struggle in cases 12.4.5 Palynological Evidence in Sexual Assault

of rape (Taupin and Cwiklik, 2011). Interestingly, Cases
cases have been described where clothing dam-
age analysis assisted in resolving the true or false Pollen is a fine-to-coarse powder, and the pollen
nature of rape accusations (Taupin, 2000). These grains are small in size—usually between about
findings illustrate the potential evidential value 20 µm and 60 µm. They form effective transferred
clothe damages have in cases where there is struggle trace evidence since they can stick to objects in the
between the victim and assailant. The importance scene of crime without any visible sign that they
of circumstantial evidence must be appropriately have stuck. In addition, the intricate and species-
recognized by the SOCOs since the current urge to specific structural variations in pollen grains enable
rely overtly on DNA analysis is seen to increasingly identification of origin from different plant sources.
eclipse the utility of the other avenues for explor- Analysis of pollen evidence enables in establish-
ing circumstance-related evidence in sexual assault ing possible contact among a victim, suspect, and
cases. the scene of crime. Pollen can also be useful in
describing the location of dust samples including
dust on clothing (Mildenhall et al., 2006; Walsh
12.4.4 Relevance of Microbial Evidence and Horrocks, 2008). Pollen need not be restricted
to crime activity undertaken outdoor since pollen
Pathogenic and contagious microbes of the genitalia transfer has been noted from indoor flowers also
are known to be transferred on to the genitals or (Mildenhall et al., 2006).
other areas of hither to uninfected victims during Walsh and Horrocks (2008) indicate that in
sexual assaults (Gordon et al., 1988). Nevertheless, forensic contexts, pollen examination is based on
the ultimate evaluation of such evidence as an the following premises:
incriminating one largely depends on the state of the
victim which may be categorized into the following
a) A sample has a pollen assemblage that
three broad circumstances.
reflects its current and historical vegeta-
tional environment.
i) When the victim is known to be accustomed
b) Samples taken from different sources will
to sexual cohabitation, preponderance of
have different pollen assemblages reflecting
previous infection has to be considered.
their different current and historical vegeta-
ii) When the victim is a postpubescent virgin
tional environments.
revealing evidence of prime sexual cohabi-
c) Samples taken from the same source will
tation, the presence of pathogenic cocci
become more incriminatory. share similar pollen assemblages.
iii) When the victim is a prepubescent girl, d) There may be small differences between
especially a child, the presence of patho- pollen assemblages taken from the same
genic cocci acquires far greater significance source.
as evidence indicating the infected state of
the assailant. Pollen grains are highly resistant to adverse cli-
matic conditions including exposure to many chem-
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention icals. Because of this persistence, control samples
has indicated in their guidelines that the identifi- should be collected to encompass the potential area
cation of a sexually transmissible agent in a child represented by evidential samples. When interpret-
beyond the neonatal period suggests sexual abuse. ing pollen evidence, it must be recognized that the
Thus, a sexually transmitted disease may be the lack of pollen on a suspect does not prove he/she
only physical evidence of sexual abuse in some cases did not enter a room because the suspect may not
(Committee on Child Abuse and Neglect, 1998; have picked up any pollen. Importantly, while pol-
Hammerschlag, 2011). The transmitting male, len evidence can be useful for the popular scenarios
however, is reported to become rarely asymptom- of associating the suspects with a crime scene, on
atic, and infection is usually easily demonstrated occasions, it has been found equally useful for dis-
by either smears or cultures (Burrows, 1959). This sociating suspects from the crime scenes thereby
easiness in males is of particular interest for those playing an extremely important role of supporting
in forensic field since the males are the aggressors in the exoneration of suspected individuals (Walsh and
cases of sexual assault. Horrocks, 2008).
Pollen can be visualized using a transmitting cases in which the assailants are stated as unknown
light microscope. SOCOs may become familiar may offer the rationale for promoting the use of
with the basic microscopic structure of common stored DNA profiles for locating rape offenders at
pollens such as the smooth tetrahedral form in large.
Mimosa pudica L (Touch- me-not plant) or the
spherical form with spiny outgrowths in Hibiscus
rosa-sinensis L. Spikelet of grass may also be found REFERENCES
as transferred traces since these easily adhere to the
clothing during contact. Burrows, W. Text Book of Microbiology, 17th ed.,
London: W. B. Saunders Company, 1959.
Committee on Child Abuse and Neglect. Gonorrhea
12.4.6 DNA Sources in Sexual Assault Cases in prepubertal children, Pediatrics, 101 (1998):
134. doi: 10.1542/peds.101.1.134. Accessed on
Savino and Turvey (2005- b) cite O’Hara (1970), 07.10.2020.
who placed physical evidence in three categories: Crawford, C. and Galdikas, B. M. F. Rape in non-
corpus delicti evidence, associative evidence, and human animals: An evolutionary perspective,
tracing evidence and defined corpus delicti evi- Canadian Psychology/Psychologie canadienne,
dence as objects or substances that ‘are an essen- 27 (3) (1986): 215–230.
tial part of the body of the crime’. In cases of rape, Gordon, I., Shapiro, H. A. and Berson, S. D. Forensic
such evidence containing the DNA of the suspect Medicine: A Guide to Principles, Edinburgh:
include seminal stains on the clothes or in the vagi- Churchill Livingstone, 1988.
nal swab of the victim, skin traces of the assailant Hammerschlag, M. R. Sexual assault and abuse of
in the fingernails of the victim, or bite marks on the children, sexually transmitted infection test-
victim with saliva of the suspect. At the crime scene ing in children, Clinical Infectious Diseases, 53
level, presumption of the presence of these clues (S3) (2011): S103–S109.
is indicated by such qualities that are evaluational Mildenhall, D. C., Wiltshire, P. E. J. and Bryant, V.
as the starchy nature of seminal stains on clothes M. Forensic palynology: Why do it and how
or the dirty depositions of the content inside the it works, Forensic Sci Int., 163 (3) (2006):
nails. Victims and suspects are to be examined by 163–172.
the medical doctor for the collection of such clues NCRB India. Offenders Relation to Victims of
and corresponding control samples. The SOCOs Rape (Section 376 IPC), 2019. Available at:
must assume the responsibility to suitably mark https://ncrb.gov.in/sites/default/files/crime_in_
starchy areas in clothes immediately on recognition india_table_additional_table_chapter_reports/
and also arrange to preserve that area to prevent Table%203A.4_2.pdf
crushing etc. Similar DNA-bearing biological evi- O’Hara, C. E. Fundamentals of Criminal Investigation,
dence from the crime scenes like seminal stains on Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1970.
bed sheets or on the floor or on soil will have to be Pittel, S. and Spina, L. Investigating drug-facilitated
recognized, collected, and preserved by the SOCO, sexual assault, in Rape Investigation Handbook,
and the chain of custody of these clues are to be Savino, J. O. and Turvey, B. E. (Eds.) Amsterdam:
ensured rigorously in view of the high probative Elsevier Inc., 2005, 147–165.
force attached to DNA evidence. Prison Statistics India, 2015. Available at: https://
The possibility for identifying the involvement ncrb.gov.in/sites/default/files/PSI-2 015-% 20
of recidivists in rape cases by matching the DNA 18-11-2016_0.pdf
profiles obtained in crime scenes with those stored Prison Statistics India, 2019. Available at: https://
in DNA databank of arrestees has been indicated. ncrb.gov.in/en/prison-statistics-india-2019
Prison statistics indicate recidivism in India to vary Savino, J. O. and Turvey, B. E. Defining rape and sex-
from 3.0% (Prison Statistics India, 2015) to 3.6% ual assault, in Rape Investigation Handbook,
(Prison Statistics India, 2019). More than 75% pre- Savino, J. O. and Turvey, B. E. (Eds.) Amsterdam:
viously convicted offenders are seen to be involved Elsevier Inc., 2005a, 23–40.
in property crimes, and DNA evidence is seldom Savino, J. O. and Turvey, B. E. Processing the rape
retrieved in property offences. An analysis of the crime scene, in Rape Investigation Handbook,
number of cases where assailants are known to have Savino, J. O. and Turvey, B. E. (Eds.) Amsterdam:
repeated the offence of rape and the number of rape Elsevier Inc., 2005b, 65–93.
Taupin, J. M. and Cwiklik, C. Scientific Protocols for Taupin, J. M. Forensic hair morphology compar-
Forensic Examination of Clothing, Boca Raton, ison—a dying art or junk science? Science &
FL: CRC Press, 2011. Justice, 44 (2) (2004): 95–100.
Taupin, J. M. Clothing damage analysis and the phe- Walsh, K. A. J. and Horrocks, M. Palynology:
nomenon of the false sexual assault, J Forensic Its position in the field of forensic science, J
Sci., 45 (3) (2000): 568–572. Forensic Sci, 53 (5) (2008): 1053–1060.
Chapter 13
Involving Firearms
13.1 INTRODUCTION on the sequence of events that preceded, including

the posture of the victim at the time the injury was
A case of death involving a firearm can be accidental, sustained. Examples of such effects include the dis-
suicidal, or homicidal, and it requires careful scene tribution of shotgun pellets in the body parts of the
reconstruction to conclude the manner on a scien- victim, the locations of the entry and exit wounds
tific basis. Cadaveric spasm conventionally consid- and the trajectory of the bullets inside the body of a
ered to be typical for diagnosing suicidal shoot-outs victim, the marks made by the bullets in the scene,
may not manifest in all cases of suicides. Detecting and so on. A reconstruction based on the aforemen-
traces of gunshot residue (GSR) on the hand may tioned parameters enables to determine the location
enable identifying the shooter although its applied of objects in the crime scene and, particularly, the
value is mostly limited to suicides. Be that as it may, movements of the shooter and the victim—all of
observations of the hit marks of the projectiles in which contribute to deducing the manner of death.
the crime scene or the patterns of gunshot wounds The care required when handling firearms,
on the victims are seen to offer clues to reconstruct the relevance of gunshot residues (GSR), and other
the possible manner of death as well as the posture parameters such as indicators of firing range, gun-
of the victim at the time of sustaining the injuries. shot injury patterns, the characteristics of entry and
Shoot-outs involve weapons, and the fast pace exit wounds, class and individual characteristics of
of development in the weaponry industry has made bullets and cartridge cases, and the evidentiary value
firearms so specialized for specific purposes that the of glass fractures are included in the discussion.
parameters such as range of fire and pellet disper- The flowchart (13.2 Flowchart) on the meth-
sion have also become equally weapon-specific. And odology and the illustrations in the cases described
yet, the terminal effect caused by the projectiles in would be of essential guidance for the field investi-
shoot-out cases continues to remain unique in that gators involved in the investigation of cases involv-
unlike the wounds caused during stabbing or chop- ing firearms and firearm injuries.
ping, the injuries caused during shoot-outs, by virtue
of their instantaneous terminal effects, throw light
DOI: 10.4324/9781003267096-13 247

13.213.1.
FLOWCHART
FLOW CHARTFOR INVESTIGATING SCENES
FORINVESTIGATING INVOLVING
SCENES FIREARMS
INVOLVING FIREARMS
248
CRIME SCENE
SOC VICTIM GSR FROM FIRE ARM ETC OVER-ALL SOC

POSTURE: Head/body/arms/legs SUSPECT/ . VICTIM SOC
FIRED PRODUCTS: FIREARM - Ground plan
SMOOTH BORED VICTIM - Rendering safe - Elevation view
FIREARM CADAVERIC SPASM: Relate with gravity - Postures / C.S - Bullets
- Look for fingerprints - Isometric view
- Pellets FOR HAND ARMS: - Do not clean barrel
- Wads INJURIES AND EFFECTS OF PRODUCTS OF Swab from area of - Entry wound - Cartridge
- Do not touch trigger - Include cardinal
- Empty cases GUN-SHOT ON THE BODY OR CLOTHES web of skin cases
- Note down the make directions
- Powder between the index - Trace evidence in - Muzzle marks
FLAME and thumb fingers - Wads
muzzle end
ENTRY: Singeing on the dorsal side - Exit wound
FIRED PRODUCTS: HIGHLIGHTS - Entry/exit In
RANGE: Present in ‘near-contact’ shot; absent of both the hands - Evidence of recent
RIFILED FIREARM - Pellet spread Glass, wood
in ‘close range’ or ‘distant range’ shots. firing
- Bullets/jacket, etc. - Trajectory etc.
FOR SHOULDER
- Empty cases - Ricochet - Singeing
UNBURNED/ BURNED PARTICLES ARMS: Swab from
- Powder FIRED BULLETS AND - Pellet dispersion - Hit marks
ENTRY: Tattooing or stippling in exposed skin; area of skin on the
RANGE: Present in ‘close’ and ‘intermediary’ dorsal of both the FIRED CARTRIDGES - Smoke deposit
- Prevent abrasion LOCATIONS - Ricocheted
PROJECTILE HIT ranges and absent in ‘distant’ range foot
- Do not wash - Tattooing marks
MARKS - Spent bullets
- Embedded-retrieve BULLET PROCEDURE: - Preserve as such
- Empty cases - Shored marks - Trajectory
- Ricocheted-angle ENTRY: Single, penetrating, or perforating; Use Whatman
- Wads
- Grazing hit regular edges; inverted filter paper
EXIT: One or at times more than one when acidified with one - bloodstain patterns - Blood spatter
- Others with lead LIVE
perforating, irregular; everted edges molar nitric acid - Others patterns
traces CARTRIDGES
TRAJECTORY: Posture reconstruction
- For test firing Include
TRAJECTORY USING - Same batch
THREAD LINES PELLETS measurements
ENTRY: Multiple; in group or dispersed wherever possible
BLOOD SPATTER EXIT: Mostly absent; remain in the body CUES FOR RECONSTRUCTION
PATTERN RANGE: Diameter of dispersion
- Mist DISPERSION: Shadow regions/posture
• Relate the distribution of products of gun-
- Spurts reconstruction
shot and injuries on the victim with the posture
- Others of the victim and/or the location of the suspect
OTHER FEATURES
when the shot was fired.
ENTRY: ‘Stellate wound’ and ‘muzzle marks’ in
• Consider evidence of hit marks in the scene,
GLASS FRACTURE / contact shots; ‘abrasion collar’ due to bullet
the weapon and ammunition types when
OTHER DAMAGES wipe irrespective of range
reconstructing the trajectory or range.
- Entry, exit, etc. • Consider individualization by attributing
- Fracture sequence bullet/cartridge to a particular firearm during
laboratory analyses.
Investigating Cases Involving Firearms 249
CASE 13–1: RECONSTRUCTING VICTIM’S POSTURE—SHOTGUN INJURY
THE CASE rear balcony of the house, and the victim, while
An unidentified intruder, reportedly holding a rushing out of the house, was overpowered and
billhook machete, trespassed into a house and restrained by witnesses on the front staircase
was shot by the house-owner with a Double Barrel landing where he died (Figure 13.1).
Breech Loading (DBBL) gun since the house- The dead body was found lying with the
owner apprehended assault by the intruder. The hands tied together and held upward above the
shooting happened on the open verandah in the head and the legs also tied together with rope
FIGURE 13.1 Aerial view sketch of the scene indicating the reported location of shooter, bloodstains
on the verandah, and the final location of the dead body.
FIGURE 13.2 The posture of the deceased. Note the billhook machete near the body.
at the ankle level. An aruval (billhook machete) Figure 13.3) totaling five, one of it showing num-
was found lying on the left side of the dead body ber’1’ printed on it, were found on the floor in the
(Figure 13.2). The gunshot injuries observed are bloodstained area.
described here. The firearm reportedly used was a 12-bore
The scene of reported shooting, the rear veran- DBBL gun of integral hammer type, and, on
dah of the house, revealed profuse bloodstains opening the breech, a fired cartridge case was
on its southern end (white arrow in Figure 13.3). found in the chamber of the right barrel. The left
Cardboard wads (indicated by black arrows in barrel was empty. The fired cartridge case was
ejected out, and the printed matter on the car-
tridge was noted. The inner surface of the right
barrel revealed granular deposits, while the inner
surface of the left barrel was clean and shiny. The
breech face on the right side revealed a ring of oil
mark corresponding to the size of the base of the
cartridge. The gun was appropriately packed.
PRIMARY HYPOTHESIS
The firearm was discharged when the victim,
holding the billhook in a posture to assault, was
at a close distance from the shooter.
The firearm was discharged when the victim was
at a longer distance from the shooter and in pos-
tures not specifically apprehensive of assault.
When a birdshot cartridge is discharged, the dis-
FIGURE 13.3 Bloodstains (white arrow) on the tribution of pellet injuries on the body of the vic-
verandah. Black arrows point the wads lying on tim can indicate the posture of the victim at the
the verandah. moment the shot was discharged.
Observed premises b) The dorsal aspect of the right hand of

a) Pellet injuries on the deceased extended the deceased revealed pellet injuries,
to a maximum diameter of about 10 and the injured area along its length and
inches in the abdomen from the umbili- breadth of the hand measured about 4
cus toward the right side of the hip and inches (Figure 13.6).
toward the pubis (Figure 13.4). Within
this region, an area of about 4 inches Accepted (major) premises
in width on the right coxal and pubical a) Pellets discharged from birdshot car-
region (arrow in Figure 13.4 and dia- tridges disperse on a target uniformly for
grammatically shown in the sketch in a given range (Rowe, 2000-a).
Figure 13.5) was found devoid of pellet b) Parts of the body which obstruct the
injuries. overall area of pellet dispersion would
incur pellet injuries leading to corre-
sponding shadow regions in the over-
all pattern of pellet dispersion (Dodd,
2005).
Reconstruction
The correspondence of the size and orienta-
tion of the shadow area in the abdomen of the
deceased (arrow in Figure 13.4) with the area of
pellet injuries on the dorsal aspect of the right
hand (Figure 13.6) leads to the strong inference
that the hand of the deceased was in the vicinity
of his abdomen at the moment the deceased sus-
tained the gunshot wound thereby leading to the
shadow area in the abdomen.
FIGURE 13.4 Distribution of pellet injuries on SEQUENTIAL HYPOTHESIS 2

the deceased. Note the area of absence of pellet The distribution of gunshot residues (GSR)
injuries (arrow) in the coxal region. and pellets on the target, here the body of the
deceased, enables suggesting the range from
which the cartridge has been discharged.

the distribution of pellet injuries on the victim’s FIGURE 13.6 Pellet injuries on the dorsum of
abdomen. the right hand of the victim.
Observed premises the forensic science laboratory also did not reveal
a) Gunshot residues (GSR) or evidence of evidence of bloodstains or marks caused by the
tattooing were absent on the deceased. impact of lead shots on the billhook.
The injuries on the deceased indicated
isolated impact of pellets dispersed Accepted (major) premises
to an extent of 10 inches in diameter. The impact caused by lead shots on iron or
(Limitations are given as follows: i. The wooden objects can be detected during labora-
diameter of dispersion could have been tory analysis.
more than 10 inches when including the
pellets that would have travelled beyond Reconstruction
the pelvic contour of the victim and ii. The absence of traces of lead on the iron or wooden
The pellet dispersion did not include the portions of the billhook does not support the claim
possible outliers.) that the intruder (deceased) was holding the bill-
b) Cardboard wads were seen lying in hook in his right hand since the pellet dispersion
the bloodstained area of the verandah. had included and covered the right hand causing
Marks caused by wads were not seen on pellet injuries. It could only be inferred that the bill-
the victim’s body. hook had been planted by the side of the victim’s
body subsequent to the shooting possibly to stage
that the victim was carrying the billhook.
a) Close-range characteristics such as tat-
tooing are manifested when the target Conjoined reconstruction
is within about 1 meter from the muzzle
The presence of pellet injuries on the dorsum of
end of the barrel in shotguns. On a rough
right hand, the area of which corresponds to the
scale, pellets from birdshots disperse by
shadow area in the abdomen, and the absence
1 inch for every yard the shot mass trav-
of pellet marks or bloodstains on the billhook
els (Rowe, 2000-a).
do not support the statement that the deceased
b) Cardboard filler wads from discharged
individual was holding the billhook at the time
cartridges are known to produce marks
the gunshot was discharged. The diameter of
out to about 3 m (15 ft.) distance
dispersion of the pellets and the location of the
(DiMaio, 1999).
wads indicate that the gunshot had been dis-
charged from a range of about 3 meters from the
Reconstruction
victim. The sequential hypotheses 1 to 3 support
Absence of signs indicating close-range shot with the alternative hypothesis that the firearm was
isolated dispersion of the pellets on the body of not discharged when the victim was at a close
the deceased and the presence of wads in the distance intending to assault the shooter.
scene without marks of wad on the body of the
deceased lead to an inference that the gunshot Postscript
could have been discharged from a minimum dis-
tance of about 3 meters or more from the victim. In cases relating to firearm injuries, the cause of
death as due to gun-shot injuries would not be
under dispute. But, for arriving at the manner
SEQUENTIAL HYPOTHESIS 3 whether it is homicidal, suicidal, or accidental
An object such as a billhook that was held in would require a detailed study of the pattern of
the hand of an individual when sustaining pellet the injury which can throw light on the posture
injuries on that hand would also reveal evidence of the victim at the time he sustained those inju-
of getting hit by pellets on the iron blade and the ries. Reconstructing the posture of the victim
wooden handle of the billhook. offers the scientific basis for deducing the man-
ner of death. During such reconstructions, indi-
Observed premises cations of shadowing in pellet injuries acquire
Preliminary examination of the billhook did great importance, as shown in this case. Shadow
not reveal evidence of bloodstains or hit marks injuries are uniquely reliable since it is impossible
caused by lead shots. Analysis of the billhook in to stage such injuries.
CASE 13–2: RECONSTRUCTING VICTIM’S POSTURE—BULLET INJURY
THE CASE the bullet injuries noted during the autopsy was
Police personnel opened fire on a house to gain relied on for aligning the trajectory of the bullet
entry when trying to secure a suspected offender inside victim’s body with the trajectory assessed
relating to a murder. The suspect sustained a bul- from the crime scene when suggesting the plau-
let injury and was declared dead at the hospital. sible posture of the victim when sustaining the
Since multiple shots were fired during the night bullet injury.
time, a scene investigation was carried out to
reconstruct the trajectories of the fired bullets. HYPOTHESIS
Following a verandah, the wooden flush- When multiple shots are fired, it is possible to
type front door of the house opened inward into reconstruct the trajectories of the individual bul-
the hall with a similar door at the rear of the hall lets by observing the entry holes, points of impact,
also opening inward. There were two glass paned and evidence of ricochet, etc., in the scene.
windows in the hall, one on the western and the
other on northern walls (Figures 13.7 and 13.8).
The entry and exit bullet holes on the doors SEQUENTIAL HYPOTHESIS 1
and window glass as well as the hit marks caused Establishing the relationship between the entry
by the bullets on the walls, cot, floor, etc., were bullet holes on the front door and the points
observed, photographed, and recorded on a dia- where the bullets had embedded on the rear door
grammatic isometric view sketch (Figure 13.8). through the points of ricochet on the wall using
Based on the observations, the trajectories of thread lines would enable the reconstruction of
the bullets (marked 1 to 5 in Figure 13.8) were the trajectories of the bullets fired on the front
reconstructed. In addition, the description of door.
FIGURE 13.7 Aerial view sketch showing the plan of the scene house.
FIGURE 13.8 Diagrammatic isometric view of the scene representing the bullet entries numbered
‘1’ to ‘5’ and showing the trajectories of these bullets based on observable evidence such as hit marks
resulting in ricochet and bullet holes.
Observed premises the inner side of that door (1 and 2

a) Two bullet entry holes were found on in Figure 13.10). Using thread lines
the front door (1 and 2 in Figure 13.9) through these holes, the trajectory was
with corresponding exit holes on traced through the ricochet marks on
FIGURE 13.11 Bullet trajectory from the bullet

hole shown using thread line. The bullets perfo-
rating the door had hit the eastern wall and rico-
cheted (marked ‘1r’ and ‘2r’).
FIGURE 13.9 Outer side of the front wooden

door showing the bullet entry holes (marked ‘1’
and ‘2’).
FIGURE 13.12 Trajectory of the ricocheted bul-

let that had hit the inner side of the rear (north-
ern) door (marked ‘1h’).
FIGURE 13.10 Inner side of the front wooden

door showing the bullet exit holes (marked ‘1’
and ‘2’).
FIGURE 13.13 Two hit marks (marked ‘1h’ and
the wall (1r and 2r in Figures 13.11 and
13.12) to the bullet hit marks on the rear ‘2h’) accounting for the terminal points of the
door (1h in Figure 13.12 and 1h and two bullets fired on the front door.
2h in Figure 13.13). The trajectories of
these two bullets were diagrammatically front door in the isometric view sketch
shown as 1 and 2 initiating from the (Figure 13.8).
FIGURE 13.15 The same bullet shown in

FIGURE 13.14 A ricocheted bullet retrieved
Figure 13.14 revealing linear markings on the
from the rear door revealing normal lands and
other side (B) that had contacted the wall and
grooves on one side (A).
ricocheted leading to effacement of the lands and
b) The angles of incidence and ricochet for grooves.
the trajectory at the point 1r were 10º and
8º, respectively; while these were, respec- connecting two or more points of hit by
tively, 17º and 16º for the trajectory at that bullet (DiMaio, 1999) and thread
the point 2r. A bullet retrieved from a lines can be used for connecting the
hit mark on the door revealed impres- points.
sions of lands and grooves on one side
‘A’ (Figure 13.14). On the other side ‘B’, Reconstruction
the impressions of the lands and grooves
The trajectories for the two bullets with points of
had been lost, and, instead, there were
entries on the front door of the house marked 1
rough linear markings suggesting glanc-
and 2 from their entry point to the impact site on
ing hit with a concrete structure like a
the rear door through the point of ricochet on the
wall (Figure 13.15).
wall duly account for the flight path of the two
bullets fired on the front door.
a) When the entry bullet hole and the point
where the bullet had embedded (the
impact site) are known, a thread line can Establishing the relationship between the entry
be used to deduce the projectile’s flight bullet holes on the edge of the rear door, the per-
path (Haag and Haag, 2011). With bul- foration on the iron cot, or the point of ricochet
lets embedded on structures like a wall, on the iron cot ultimately impacting on the wall
one can accurately and confidently deter- after ricocheting on the floor, when connected
mine their point of origin, i.e., where using thread lines, would enable reconstruction
they were fired from, by projecting back- of the trajectories of the bullets fired along the
ward along their trajectory, only if these edge of the rear door.
bullets have not passed through a body
(DiMaio, 1999). Observed premises
b) A bullet that hits a surface in an acute a) Two damages were found on the rear
angle is ricocheted, and the trajectory door, one on the edge of the door
of such a bullet can be constructed by at a height of about 0.69 m (‘3’ in
FIGURE 13.16 Trajectory of the bullet fired through the rear door (marked ‘3’) that had grazed along
edge of the door and then perforated the iron sheet of the cot (marked ‘3h’). Also seen is another entry
mark of a bullet along the edge of the door (marked ‘4’).
Figures 13.16 and 13.17) and the other
also covering the door frame at a height
of 0.50 m (‘4’ in Figures 13.16 and
13.17), both indicating splinters evert-
ing toward the hall. The trajectory ini-
tiating from the damage marked ‘3’ on
the rear door terminated in the hole on
the iron cot (‘3h’ in Figures 13.16 and
13.17). The trajectory initiating from
the damage marked 4 on the rear door
and door frame (‘4’ in Figures 13.16 and
13.17) connected to a hit mark on the
iron post of the cot (‘4r’ in Figure 13.17),
a crater on the floor below the cot (‘4r’
in Figure 13.18), and ended in a hit mark
on the wall (‘4h’ in Figure 13.18). The
trajectories of these two bullets were dia-
grammatically shown as ‘3’ and ‘4’ initi-
ating from the rear door in the isometric
view sketch (Figure 13.8).
b) A disfigured core of a bullet with lead
shaved off on one side (‘A’ in Figure 13.19)
indicating impact on a metal target and
with the other side (‘B’ in Figure 13.19)
indicating impact on concrete, a torn
metal jacket (Figure 13.20) and a piece of
lead were found lying underneath the cot.
FIGURE 13.17 Entry marks of the two bullets
on the edge of the rear door (marked ‘3’ and ‘4’)
and their hit marks on the iron cot (marked ‘3h’ a) When the entry bullet hole and the point
and ‘4h’). of impact, perforating or ricocheting,
FIGURE 13.18 Bullet hitting the iron post of the cot had ricocheted, hit the floor (marked ‘4r’) and
then the wall (marked ‘4h’).
FIGURE 13.19 Disfigured core of a bullet with

lead shaved off on one side (‘A’) due to impact on
metal target and with irregular markings on the
other side (‘B’) due to impact on concrete.
are known, thread lines can be used to

deduce the projectile’s flight path (Haag
and Haag, 2011). Wooden splinters in
entry points of bullets evert toward the
direction of travel of the bullet.
b) Metal jacket in bullets may be avulsed FIGURE 13.20 Part of a torn metal jacket of a
off during ricochet (DiMaio, 1999). bullet found underneath the cot.
Furthermore, semi-jacketed bullets that
pass through intermediary objects such off at an angle from the path of the core
as doors or car windows undergo jacket (DiMaio, 1999).
and core separation. The core, because of
its greater mass, may continue the origi- Reconstruction
nal trajectory for a short distance, and The trajectories for the two bullets with points
the jacket, because of its light weight, of entries on the edge of the rear door of the
rapidly loses velocity and usually flies house marked 3 and 4 from their entry point to
the impact sites, one perforating the iron cot and

the other ricocheting on the on post of the iron
cot and then on the floor and impacting the wall,
duly account for the flight path of the two bullets
fired along the edge of the rear door.
Establishing the crater characteristics in a hole
pierced by a bullet in window glass would enable
the reconstruction of the trajectory of that bullet.
Observed premises
a) The 3-mm window glass on the western
side of the house (Figure 13.8) revealed
a bullet hole (marked 5 in Figure 13.21).
On the outer (western) surface of the
glass, the hole was plain with closely
packed radial and conchoidal fractures
(marked ‘Entry’ in Figure 13.22), while
a crater was evident on its inner surface
(marked ‘Exit’ in Figure 13.23).
FIGURE 13.22 Close-

up photograph of the
entry hole in the window glass. Note the absence
of crater.
FIGURE 13.23 Close-up photograph of the exit

hole in the window glass. The crater formed due
to chipping of glass pieces as the bullet exited is
FIGURE 13.21 Bullet hole (marked ‘5’) in the observable. Note the eccentricity observable in
glass pane of the window. the formation of the crater.
FIGURE 13.24 Diagrammatic representation of the crater in the exit hole shown in Figure 13.23 high-
lighting the eccentricity in the formation of the crater.
b) The crater circumference was eccentric
in relation to the hole (Figure 13.24) indi-
cating an inclined angle in the direction-
ality of the exiting bullet (Figure 13.25).
c) The spent bullet as well as terminal
effects attributable to the bullet trajec-
tory marked 5 were not found inside the
hall.

a) Exit side of the hole caused by a bullet
piercing glass typically reveals crater for-
mation (Curran et al., 2000) since the
projectile that leaves the glass carries
‘away the last scales which it touched’
(Gross, 1906).
b) The angle at which a bullet pierces a
pane of glass can help identify the posi-
tion of the shooter (Gross, 1906; Girard,
2011), and, given two points, one can
calculate the third and suggest the line
of fire (Gross, 1906). FIGURE 13.25 Trajectory of the bullet passing
c) The evidence of bullet entry in the win- through the hole on the window glass shown
dow glass and the absence of any termi- using a thread line held in an inclined angle cor-
nal effect inside the hall of the house in responding to the eccentricity in the crater.
the vicinity of the constructed trajectory the deceased toward the left side in
show that the bullet fired through the the 9th intercostal space fracturing the
glass could have hit the deceased causing 9th rib (diagrammatically shown in
the injury. Figure 13.26). The entry wound had
been described as revealing a crescentic
Reconstruction abrasion.
The bullet that entered through the entry point b) Internally, the bullet had traversed
marked 5 on the window and traveled along the through the base of the left lung and
trajectory marked 5 in Figures 13.8 and 13.25 exited in the apex of that lung in the
did not reveal any impact point inside the hall, medial aspect. The bullet was found
and thus this bullet was inferred as the one that lodged in the left anterior part of the
hit the deceased and caused the injury. neck in the superior mediastinum
(Figure 13.26).
SEQUENTIAL HYPOTHESIS 4 Accepted (major) premises
When the trajectory of a bullet wound inside the a) Entry wound is characterized by abra-
dead body is known, it can be projected back- sion (DiMaio, 1999).
ward toward know entry points to reconstruct b) As a general rule, after striking or per-
the posture of the deceased. forating bone, bullets are not deflected
from their original trajectory through
Observed premises the body. Describing the point of lodge-
a) Postmortem examination had revealed ment or the point of exit in relation to
a single entry wound on the back of the wound of entrance often aids one in
FIGURE 13.26 Diagrammatic representation of the trajectory of the bullet wound inside the body of
the victim based on the description in the postmortem report.
FIGURE 13.27 Diagrammatic representation of the possible posture of the victim when sustaining the
bullet injury caused by aligning the trajectory of the bullet inside the body with the trajectory worked
out from the cratered bullet hole using the thread line.
visualizing the trajectory of the bullet closed rear door. The bullet fired through the
through the body (DiMaio, 1999). The glass pane of the window with its trajectory
trajectory of a bullet will follow a path marked 5 could have hit the deceased. Sequential
through the body in accordance to the hypothesis 3 leads to the reconstruction that the
extent of rotation or ‘hunch’ of the body bullet with trajectory marked 5 had pierced the
(DiMaio, 1999). window glass at a height of 1.25 m in a down-
ward and northward direction as evidenced by
Reconstruction the eccentricity in the crater in the exit hole on
The trajectory of the bullet wound inside the that glass. According to the autopsy report, the
body is indicated by the entry point on the left bullet that entered on the left back had taken
back and lodging in the anterior of the neck. a diagonal trajectory ending at the front of the
When the aforementioned trajectory was aligned neck. The plausible posture of the deceased while
with the trajectory of the bullet that was fired sustaining the bullet wound was reconstructed
through the window glass, the plausible posture by aligning the trajectory inside the body with
of the deceased at the time of sustaining the bul- the trajectory inferred for the bullet that pierced
let injury is inferred to be the one exposing his the window glass.
left back to the bullet’s trajectory as shown dia-
grammatically in Figure 13.27. Postscript
This case illustrates the relevance of connecting
Conjoined reconstruction the entry holes, marks of ricochet, and the points
Sequential hypotheses 1 and 2 reconstruct the of impact using thread lines to demonstrate bul-
trajectories of the bullets 1 and 2 fired on the let trajectories in a scene of shooting. It is also
front door and bullets 3 and 4 fired on the partly shown that bullet hole in glass, when studied for
eccentricities in the crater, can offer cue to the with the trajectory of the injury described in the
direction of travel of the bullet. In addition, this autopsy report for reconstructing the plausible
case indicates the possibility to deduce the trajec- posture of the victim when sustaining the bullet
tory of a bullet and then aligning that trajectory injury.
CASE 13–3: RECONSTRUCTING ACCIDENTAL INJURY—RICOCHET BASED
THE CASE extension of the narrow end of the hori-

On being interrupted by the police, the occupants zontal mark demonstrated by the par-
of a car drove away after firing in air. While chas- allel paper arrow held in Figure 13.28.
ing the car, the police fired two rounds, and the There was no evidence of perforation on
occupants of the car escaped abandoning the car. the metal body of the car.
Subsequently, an individual standing on the road-
side was found to have sustained a bullet injury Accepted (major) premises
in his left upper arm. The injured individual was a) Horizontally linear dent at a height of
treated, and the bullet was retrieved. The car and about 72 cm on a metal target indicated
the recovered bullet were examined to recon- grazing hit by a bullet fired from behind
struct the sequences in the shooting incident. the car, its possible flight path as indi-
cated by the paper arrow in Figure 13.28.
PRIMARY HYPOTHESIS Lack of perforation on the metal sheet
The bullet fired at the car straightaway hit the
victim who was standing by the roadside.
The bullet fired at the car hit the car, ricocheted,
and then hit the victim who was standing by the
roadside.
A ricocheting bullet when hitting on a metal sur-
face leaves characteristic marks on the target.
Observed premises
a) The paint missing area on the curved
metal body of the rear right of the car
revealed a horizontally linear dent of
about 3.5 cm in front of the rear lamp
and of about 72 cm above ground level
when the tire was flat (Figures 13.28 and
13.29).
b) The dent was about 6.5 cm in length,
initially appearing as a narrow streak
and widening as it progressed forward
with the metal appearing dark and shiny
forming a ‘lead-in-mark’ zone of about
1 cm in width (Figures 13.30 and 13.31). FIGURE 13.28 Paint-
missing area on the rear
During reconstruction, the flight path of right side of the car revealing a horizontally lin-
the projectile could be shown as being an ear dent.
FIGURE 13.29 Diagrammatic representation of the damages in the rear right of the car shown in
Figure 13.28.

the lead-in-mark.
hitting the car, the trajectory of the bullet had
been ricocheted toward the right side of the tar-
get, the car.
FIGURE 13.30 Close-up view of the dent show- SEQUENTIAL HYPOTHESIS 2

ing the lead-in-mark.
The bullet retrieved from the arm of the injured
of the car indicated that the bullet had individual had hit a metal target before causing
ricocheted. the injury on that individual.
b) When a bullet hits a metal target, con-
tact traces of the bullet are left on the Observed premises
metal surface. The lead bullet retrieved from the injured indi-
vidual revealed impressions of lands and grooves
Reconstruction along with cannelure markings on one side
The dent on the car could have been caused by a (Figure 13.32). On the opposite side, the same
bullet fired from behind the car on a level parallel bullet indicated loss of the impressions of lands
to the linear dent on the rear right of the car. On and grooves and disfigurement in the shank of
FIGURE 13.33 Opposite side of the same bullet

FIGURE 13.32 Bullet recovered from the victim shown in Figure 13.32 indicating disfigurement
showing the details of lands and grooves on one due to shaving off the metal in the shank along
side. with loss of the impressions of lands and grooves.
FIGURE 13.34 Illustration demonstrating the similarity between lead-in-mark in the dent on the car
and the disfigurement in the shank of the bullet.
the bullet along with shaving off of the metal of the lands and grooves on the shank of the bul-
core toward the base (Figure 13.33). The metal let and the presence of shaved off and stretched
toward the base had stretched shelving down- disfigurement in the bullet are also ricochet char-
wardly. Figure 13.34 illustrates the relationship acteristics on a bullet.
between the ‘lead- in-
mark’ in the car (white
arrow) and the shaved off and stretched disfig- Reconstruction
urement in the bullet (gray arrow). The correspondence between the ricochet
characteristics on the metal sheet of the target
Accepted (major) premises including the ‘lead-in-m ark’ and the stretched
‘Lead-in-mark’ on a metallic target is a ricochet disfigurement on the shank of the bullet toward
characteristic indicating hit and ricochet by a bul- base indicate that the bullet retrieved from the
let in an acute angle. The loss of the impressions injured individual had hit the metal target in an

a) Incident (critical) angle is determined by
the nature of the surface, and in acute
incident angles, bullets tend to rico-
chet (DiMaio, 1999; Haag and Haag,
2011).
b) The location of the entrance wound
must be at a commensurate level in the
body (Yong, 2017).
Reconstruction
The bullet fired from behind the car had hit the
rear right side of the car on a convex surface at
an acute angle and had ricocheted rightward
toward the right side of the road. The location
FIGURE 13.35 Diagrammatic representation of of the impact in the car at 72 cm height when
the likely process of the bullet hitting the car and the tire is flat is commensurate with the wound
ricocheting. sustained on the upper arm (the precise height of
the wound has not been noted).
acute angle and had ricocheted before causing
the injury on that individual.
The characteristics in the dent on the car indi-
cated that it had been hit by a horizontally
travelling bullet at an acute angle which had
A bullet hitting a convex metal target at an acute then ricocheted toward the right side of the
angle is likely to ricochet and change its course car. The bullet retrieved from the injured indi-
and cause injuries at a level commensurate with vidual indicated evidence of hit on a metal-
the level of impact causing the ricochet. lic object at an acute angle before causing the
injury. The convex metal surface of the car
Observed premises with an acute angle had ricocheted the bullet
a) The surface bearing the hit mark by the rightward. The alternative hypothesis that the
bullet was on the convex lateral side of bullet fired at the car hit the car, ricocheted,
the car (Figures 13.28, 13.29, and 13.35). and then hit the victim who was standing by
The angle of incidence was roughly cal- the roadside is seen to be sustained. As a limi-
culated as 5º (diagrammatically shown tation, it is noted that ricocheting bullets may
in the sketch ‘A’ in Figure 13.35). tumble in their pathway and that their trajec-
b) The injury sustained by the victim was tories after ricochet cannot be predicted pre-
on the left upper arm. cisely (DiMaio, 1999).
13.4 DISCUSSION test cartridges (Bonfanti and De Kinder,

2016).
13.4.1 Myths and Facts Relating to Observations in ii. Myth: Water surface can serve as a ricochet
Firearm-Related Cases target.
Fact: True. When surface of water forms
i. Myth: The distance, in inches, from the cen- a ricochet medium, it is not possible to
ter of the pellet pattern to the point where retrieve evidence indicating impact (Yong,
the wads hit the target gives the range of 2017).
firing. iii. Myth: Hollow-point bullets cause extensive
Fact: False. Pellet dispersion may offer damage mutilating organs.
some clue on range of fire. To be reliable, Fact: False. The injuries caused by hollow-
range of fire has to be calculated by firing point bullets do not differ from those caused
by solid-nose and all lead bullets (DiMaio, in a rifle barrel, commonly referred to as
1999). rifling.
iv. Myth: Accidental discharge of shoulder Grooves: The area between the lands in the
arms (rifles and shotguns) is rare compared bore of a rifled firearm. The grooves are cut
to handguns (revolvers and pistols). or impressed into the bore’s surface.
Fact: True. Shoulder arms are less prone to Muzzle: The end of a firearm barrel from
accidental discharge (DiMaio, 1999). which the bullet or shot emerges.
v. Myth: A loaded gun may discharge by Choke: The constriction in the muzzle end of
itself. the barrel of a shotgun to reduce the spread
Fact: Guns do not discharge by themselves of shot as it leaves the gun to increase its
when kept loaded. Someone has to operate effective range.
the trigger (DiMaio, 1999). Round or Cartridge: A single, complete round
of ammunition. Modern cartridge normally
consists of a case, bullet, primer, and a
13.4.2 Terminology Useful During Discussion on powder charge.
Firearms Cartridge case: The container for all compo-
nents that make up a cartridge, also referred
The terminology that is considered more relevant to simply as case, shell, casing, and hull.
for understanding and interpreting firearm-related Perforate: Passage of a bullet all the way
observations in crime scenes is defined here follow- through an object.
ing authors like Brenner (2004) and Haag and Haag Penetrate: Entry of a bullet into a target and
(2011). remaining inside it after striking.
Trajectory: The path described by an object or
Small arms: Those carried by an individual— body moving in space; the path of a pro-
include hand guns (revolvers and pistols) jectile (bullet) after leaving the muzzle of a
and shoulder arms (rifles and shotguns). firearm.
The inside of the barrels may be ‘smooth Deflect: A change in the direction of the bullet
bored’ or ‘rifled’. pathway between entry and exit.
Shotgun: A smooth- bore shoulder firearm Ricochet: The continued flight of a rebounded
designed to fire shotshells containing projectile and/or major projectile fragments
numerous pellets or sometimes a single after a low-angle impact with a surface or
projectile. Examples: Single Barrel Breech object.
Loading (SBBL) gun, Double Barrel Breech Fragment: A bullet breaking up in to smaller
Loading (DBBL) gun, Single Barrel Muzzle pieces due to impact.
Loading (SBML) gun, Double Barrel Primary impact: The location of first contact
Muzzle Loading (DBML) gun. in a ricochet.
Rifle: A firearm having rifling in the bore and Secondary/tertiary impact: Second or third
designed to be fired from the shoulder. location of contact of a bullet in a ricochet.
Pistol (automatic, semi- automatic, single Terminal point: The location where the bullet
shot): A small firearm having a stock that comes to final rest.
fits in the hand and contains a short barrel. Powder stippling: Small hemorrhage marks
Firearm designed to be fired with one hand on the skin produced by the impact of gun
and with a chamber that is integral to the powder particles.
barrel. Powder tattooing: The embedding of partially
Revolver: A type of pistol with a revolving cyl- consumed or unconsumed powder particles
inder in the breech chambered to hold sev- in the skin with accompanying hemorrhage
eral cartridges so that the revolver may be marks associated with living skin.
fired in succession without reloading.
Chamber: The rear part of the barrel bore in
any firearm that has been formed to accept 13.4.3 Care in Handling the Weapons
a specific cartridge. Revolver cylinders are
multichambered. As a rule, a full description of the weapon must
Lands: The raised portion of a bore remaining be written before the weapon can be taken in the
after the cutting or forming of the grooves hand. Gross (1906) recognized hasty deeds such as
cocking the weapon, blowing down the barrel to Such recognition would be better when one of the
see if it is unloaded, or inserting a finger into the two barrels such as in a DBBL gun has been used for
muzzle end to verify recent firing as actions of lesser firing since the inside of the barrel that had not been
importance and as acts likely to create difficulties used for firing would be comparatively more gleam-
for the future. A better approach would be to adopt ing. In an allegation that a DBBL gun was used for
a thoughtful and slow attitude focusing on observ- firing, an examination of the inside of the barrel
ing evidence of verdigris, dust, cobweb on the cap indicated cobweb (arrow in Figure 13.36) support-
or the barrel and recording them before handling ing that the gun had not been fired recently.
the weapon. At all times, first the possibilities for
lifting latent fingerprints prior to touching a firearm
should be considered. When handling the weapon, 13.4.5 Range of Fire and Gunshot Wound
one should always imagine that it is loaded even Patterns
when one is sure it is not. The barrel should always
be held pointing to an area that is safe. Instead of When a shot is discharged, in addition to the pro-
inserting a finger, a small piece of twisted paper can jectiles that travel longer distances, many other
be introduced into the muzzle end of the barrel to residues termed collectively as ‘gunshot residues’
see if it gets blackened—an indication of recent fir- (GSRs) are also released. GSRs consist of the prod-
ing. One can proceed to open the chamber to look ucts of discharge of a cartridge viz. unburned or
for the spent or live cartridges in the chamber. These partially burned propellant particles, soot (burned
must be removed carefully and preserved. For the propellant powders), nitrates and nitrites, particles
SOCOs, a practically beneficial approach would be of primer residue (oxides of lead, antimony and bar-
to liaise with the investigation officers for ensuring ium), and particles of bullet or bullet jacket (Rowe,
proper preservation of the evidence in the weapon 2000-b). The range of fire can be judged from the
that would be useful for future laboratory analysis. effects of the GSRs on the target. The relevance of
range to the manner of death can be summarized as
given in the next sections.
13.4.4 Evidence Indicating Recent Use of a
Firearm
13.4.5.1 Range of Fire and Gunshot Wound
Patterns Likely in Both Suicides and
In a recently discharged firearm, the inside of the
Homicides
barrel will indicate deposition of the gunshot resi-
due (GSR) which would render the barrel less shiny.
Contact shot: Shots fired with muzzle in con-
tact with the target. ‘Hard contact’ causes
‘stellate’ or star-shaped injuries on the skin,
covering bony plates like vault of the skull,
an effect attributed to the propellant gases
creating a pocket between the soft tissue
and bone and then escaping with tearing
force. In ‘loose contact shot’, GSR is blown
out along the surface of the skin or clothing.
Near-contact shot: Muzzle does not touch the
target but remains close enough for the GSR
pattern to be more concentrated around the
injury. Singeing effect in the skin or cloth is
also evident.
Close or intermediary range shot: Here, evi-
dence characterizing contact or near con-
tact shots are absent, but still GSR reaches
the target. The range can be a few inches for
hand arms and up to a few feet for shoul-
der arms. Singeing is absent in shots fired
FIGURE 13.36 Cobweb inside the barrel of a gun in intermediary ranges. Typically, tattooing
(arrow) supporting that the gun had not been fired occurs on the area of the skin not covered
recently. by clothes or hair.
DiMaio (1999) notes that to a degree, hair and powder usually does not produce powder tattooing
clothing prevent powder from reaching the skin and through clothing or dense hair (DiMaio, 1999).
that in centerfire cartridges, ball powder readily per-
forates hair and clothing at close and medium ranges
causing tattooing. Figure 13.37 illustrates an entry 13.4.5.2 Range of Fire and Gunshot Wound
hole on the shirt of the deceased, and Figure 13.38 Patterns More Likely in Homicides
shows the corresponding entry wound on the body
with stippling and tattooing on the skin area covered Distant shot: It is a shot fired from such a distance
by the shirt in a case where 9-mm centerfire cartridges that no GSRs reach the target surface. Evidence of
had been fired from a close range inside a jewelry tattooing or stippling would be absent. The bullet or
shop. It has been noted that except at close range, flake the pellets alone cause the injuries. In case of bullet
injury, an abrasion collar or contusion ring would
be evident.
The possibility of accident as the manner in
gunshot wound has to be concluded on the basis of
a comprehensive study of the crime scene circum-
stances. For more details on wound characteristics,
readers may refer authors like DiMaio (1999) and
Dodd (2005).
13.4.5.2.1 Pellet Dispersion as Range Indicator In

shot gun discharges, the density of pellets dispersed
on the target can be used for estimating the range
beyond the intermediate range. However, factors
such as the type of barrel (extent of choke or cylin-
der), barrel length, the type of pellets, and the type
of wads in the cartridge are known to influence the
extent of dispersion (Arslan et al., 2011; Bonfanti
and De Kinder, 2016). In general, it can only be
stated that at a range of 1 m, the pellets are still
FIGURE 13.37 Entry hole on the shirt of the travelling as a compact mass, and at distances of
deceased. about 3 m, buckshot pellets cause isolated impacts
and disperse further as the distances increase. In
practice, a small target such as a human body
does not offer the sufficient area for the entire pel-
let dispersion to be represented as injuries. Thus,
it is impossible to obtain the whole pattern for
estimating the range. However, the possible range
estimated on the basis of partial pellet dispersion,
such as the one described in Case 13–1 discussed
earlier, may be sufficient to clarify the different
hypotheses—such as discharge from a distance
close enough to apprehend physical assault versus
discharge from a longer distance—that may crop
up during crime scene investigation. Bonfanti and
De Kinder (2016) suggest that partial pellet pat-
terns sometimes allow the examiner to position the
victim within the void characterizing the pellet pat-
tern present on the crime scene. A reliable method
for range estimation is to use the weapon and
similar cartridges concerned in a case to conduct
FIGURE 13.38 Entry wound on the body with stip- a series of test shots so as to reproduce the pattern
pling and tattooing on the skin area covered by the of pellet dispersion observed in that case (Bonfanti
shirt. A 9-mm centerfire cartridge had been fired. and De Kinder, 2016).
13.4.6 Characteristics of Entry and Exit Gunshot be useful for suggesting the possibility of suicidal or
Wounds homicidal or accidental nature of the discharge. For
more examples illustrating entry and exit wounds
Entry wounds are smaller in diameter and typically readers may refer to authors like DiMaio (1999) or
reveal an abrasion collar (arrow in Figure 13.39), Dodd (2005).
while the exit wounds are larger in diameter (arrow At times, a bullet hitting the skull may, instead
in Figure 13.40). Appropriate recognition of the of causing distinct entry and exit wounds, shatter
entry and exit wounds during autopsy would enable the skull irregularly as indicated by the arrows in
reconstructing the posture of the victim at the time Figure 13.42, especially when the bullet hits the
of sustaining the bullet wound—whether facing skull at an acute angle.
the shooter or facing away from the shooter. Note The distribution of pellet wounds as well as the
the absence of shored abrasion in the exit wound stippling and tattooing on the body parts would
(Figure 13.40), an observation indicating that the offer clues on victim’s posture at the time of receiv-
back was not supported on the ground (such as ing the gunshot injuries as shown in Case 13–1. In
in the supine posture) when sustaining the injury. addition, such a study of shadow effects would also
Once the entry and exit wounds are identified,
the SOCOs can use some improvised probes
(Figure 13.41 shows a probe made by the author by
tying together a few rachises of coconut leaf used
to make broom) to insert into the wound trajec-
tory after the autopsy is completed. Trajectory of
the bullet inside the body can also shed light on
intent when discharging a gunshot and hence may
FIGURE 13.41 Probe illustrating the wound trajec-

tory after the completion of autopsy.
FIGURE 13.39 Entry wound (arrow) on the back

of the deceased revealing abrasion collar.
FIGURE 13.40 Exit wound (arrow) on the chest of FIGURE 13.42 Shattered bone edges of the cra-
the deceased. Note the relatively larger diameter. nium caused by a bullet fired from a rifle.
TABLE 13.1 Characteristics of Entry and Exit Wounds

Character In entry wound In exit wound
1 Singeing on the surface (thermal effect) Present Absent
2 Smoke deposit around the wound Present Absent
3 Evidence of stippling and tattooing Present Absent
4 Shape of the defect Circular Nondescript
5 Edges of the wound More regular and inverted Irregular and everted
6 Micro-splitting along the edges Absent Present
7 Complex lacerations Absent Present
8 Maximal diameter Similar to or marginally in excess Greatly in excess of that
of that of the projectile of the projectile
9 ‘Shored’ abrasions (in bullet injuries) Absent Present
10 Pellet injuries (in shotgun injuries) Present Mostly absent
indicate if the victim was in a defensive attitude Pinch point: A small area of surviving paint
when being shot at (Dodd, 2005). that was pinched between the initial con-
The typical characteristics manifesting in entry tact point of a low-incident angle projectile
and exit wounds are tabulated here for offering and a painted sheet metal surface or wood
basic assistance for the SOCOs to identify these surface. The pinch point establishes the
wounds at crime scene level (Table 13.1). entry side of the ricochet mark.
Bow effect: The flow pattern of abrasive mate-
rials in soil, sods, etc., around the nose,
13.4.7 Relevance of Ricochet in Shooting Incident ogive and bearing surfaces of a bullet gen-
Investigations erated during penetration into and ricochet
from such materials. This is most noticeable
In simple terms, ricochet is the deflection of a pro- on the ogive of the bullet but may extend
jectile after impact on a target. In indoor shooting back along the bearing surface as well.
incidents in which single projectiles are discharged, Lead-in-mark: The dark elliptical transfer of
ricochet becomes inevitable because of the enclosed material from the bullet (usually lead) as it
and limited space and the mundane household items makes its initial contact with the surface at a
in the scene. The relevance of ricochet is twofold; low incident angle. The lead-in-mark estab-
first, a study of ricochet evidence in the scene enables lishes the entry side of the ricochet. This
the SOCO in accounting for the multiplicity in the phenomenon is a type of bullet wipe involv-
impact sites in the scene; second, ricochet evidence ing the contact side of the bullet alone.
in a scene can explain the morphological differences ‘Chisum’ trail: Named after Criminalist Jerry
in the injuries caused by such ricochet bullets since Chisum who described it, this mark occurs on
these injuries, whether of penetrating or perforating a flat unyielding surface as the bullet departs
nature, may not exhibit the typical morphological it. It is caused by the right or left edge of a
characteristics attributable to entry injuries caused flattened bullet remaining in contact with the
by bullets in regular flight path. surface after the main body has lifted off.
Ricochets occur when the range of fire is suf- Lead splash: The impactive spatter and vapor-
ficiently longer; in very close ranges, intermediary ization of lead with its subsequent deposi-
objects are not likely to form obstructing targets for tion in the case of nonorthogonal impact
a ricochet to occur. The major factors that influence angles. This is typically associated with
ricochet are the angle of incidence and the nature lead and semijacketed bullets possessing
of the target, especially its hardness (Yong, 2017). exposed lead points.
A ricochet bullet causes marks on targets that are
characteristic in indicating contact of the bullet on A bullet ricocheting from a hard surface such as
the target and hence form useful observable evi- concrete and steel is flattened on the side of contact.
dence during reconstruction. Haag and Haag (2011) Such a flattened surface will be rough and striated
describe the following characteristics as being use- when the ricocheting target is a concrete wall (Case
ful in indicating a ricochet. 13–2; Figure 13.15). When the target is a smooth
metal sheet such as a body of a car, the contact area and the other as physical evidence for establishing
in the bullet is smooth showing signs of shoving of origin. Crime scene reconstruction is based on frac-
the metal core of the bullet (Case 13–3; Figure 13.33). ture studies in glass that are mostly conducted at the
The side of the bullet that had contacted the target scene of crime. Establishing the origin may involve
during ricochet does not yield details of striation evaluative techniques such as physical matching or
characteristics and hence is not useful for microscopic ‘fracture matches’ and other analytical techniques
examination. However, the opposite side, the one that which assess the physical properties of glass. The
had not contacted the target during ricochet, retains SOCOs are reminded that conclusive opinions on
details of the impression of the lands and grooves origin is possible in evaluative techniques like physi-
(Figures 13.14 and 13.32) which, when examined cal matching that are principally conceived at the
under a microscope, can yield striation characteris- crime scene although the laboratory may confirm it
tics. When more than one impact site is known, the later. The analytical facilities available in the labora-
angle of incidence in a ricochet can be measured tory for glass examination, however, would generate
between the thread lines connecting these impact sites results indicating probable origin from a source on
and the wall surfaces (Figure 13.11). Ricochet bullets a statistical basis. The readers are suggested to refer
that cause injuries can be recovered from the victims’ to descriptions by authors like Kirk (1974), Svensson
body, and the damages on them can be studied. et al. (1981), Saferstein (2000), and Curran et al.
(2000) for the fundamental principles relating to
glass fractures and the analytical techniques avail-
13.4.8 Class and Individual Characteristics of able in the laboratory. In as much as glass fractures
Bullets and Cartridge Cases are to be studied in the crime scene before the scene
is disturbed, the scope and principles involved in
Consequent to firing a cartridge, the bullet that fracture studies are outlined as given here.
emerges from the barrel and the empty cartridge Fracture studies enable suggesting the follow-
case bear both ‘class characteristics’ and ‘indi- ing: (a). Direction of force that caused a fracture;
vidual characteristics’. The class characteristics (b). Sequence of force in fractures (damages); and
include the indications regarding the make, diam- (c). Entry, exit, and angle of impact—in bullet holes.
eter, number, width and twist of the impressions of
lands and groove on the fired bullets, etc. Individual
characteristics are those imparted on the bullet or 13.4.9.1 Direction of Force That Caused a
cartridge cases due to imperfections that are con- Fracture
sidered specific for the particular firearm. The sur-
face of the bullets acquires these characteristics ‘Flexion type’ breakages occur when a force is
from the barrel, and it is held that no two barrels, applied on a sheet of glass causing the glass to bend
even those made consecutively by the same tools, beyond its threshold. Such fractures are useful in
will produce the same surface markings on a bul- diagnosing the direction of force and the sequence
let. The cartridge cases and the primer caps acquire of force (fractures or damages). Regarding the direc-
individualizable markings from the base, the firing tion of force, the “four Rs” rule is to be followed.
pin, and extractor of the firearm (DiMaio, 1999; Ridges on Radial cracks are at Right angles to the
Rowe, 2000-c). The important question whether Rear (Curran et al., 2000). The concept of this rule
a questioned bullet or a cartridge recovered from is illustrated in Figure 13.43. ‘Four Rs’ rule is unre-
the crime scene was fired from a particular firearm liable on laminated glass. The opposite holds good
is answered by comparing these individualizing for diagnosing the direction of force in a concentric
striation marks using comparison microscope. The fracture (Figure 13.43). However, the side of impact
SOCOs are responsible for collecting spent bullets is usually obvious in laminated glass due to the fact
and cartridges from the crime scenes and preserving that it remains deformed after breakage.
them appropriately so that the laboratory capability
for comparing these minute striation marks is fully
utilized for the benefit of solving the crime. 13.4.9.2 Sequence of Force in Fractures
(Damages)
13.4.9 Evidentiary Value of Glass Fractures In relation to identifying the sequence of force,
the rule is that the first (existing) fracture always
Examination of glass evidence serves two major stops the cracks of the second fracture (Kirk, 1974).
purposes, one enabling crime scene reconstruction The spectacular example of sequence identification
It is possible that holes may be caused on glass

by projectiles such as small stones or other metal
objects. In one occasion, the glass door of a house
facing the road side was found damaged although
there was no sign of shooting. The entry hole
(Figure 13.44) and the crater formed on the exit side
(Figure 13.45) were similar to those formed when a
bullet pierces the glass (readers may compare with
FIGURE 13.43 Diagnosing the direction of force in

glass fractures.
in fractures caused by an iron horse- shoe strik-

ing at three points on a sheet of glass illustrated
in Figure 58 (p. 140) by Gross (1906) would help
SOCOs in appreciating the significance of sequence
identification in fractures.
To examine fractures, the broken pieces of glass
must remain in the frame, and the inside and outside
should be labeled immediately. Gross (1906) recom-
mends pasting a sheet of strong paper of the same
size on the fractured glass supporting the palm on FIGURE 13.44 Entry side of a hole in the glass of a
the opposite side on which the paper is to be applied. door possibly caused by a missile like a stone. Note
The pieces fallen on the ground should be collected the relatively regular edge of the circumference of
and replaced at once on the frame like mosaic, a the hole and the fewer numbers of radial fractures.
tedious job but worth all trouble (Gross, 1906).
13.4.9.3 Entry, Exit, and Angle of Impact—in

Bullet Holes
‘Percussion cone’ breakages occur when small,

high- velocity, and dense object like a bullet or
sling shots strike glass possibly piercing it. Flexure
breaks, essentially radial cracks, form first, and
then the percussion cone or crater is driven through
to the rear side. The cratering effect is also variously
described as shelving or beveling or coning. Because
the projectile piercing the glass ‘carry away the last
scales (so to speak) which it has touched’ (Gross,
1906), the effects of cratering show the direction of
the shot. If the shot has been fired at right angles to
the glass plate, the cratering will be evenly round
the opening. If the shot has been fired at an angle, FIGURE 13.45 Exit side of the hole shown in
e.g., from the right, then there will be more splinter- Figure 13.44. Although the entry and exit sides can
ing on the left side (Gross, 1906). The eccentricity be assessed on the basis of the crater, the missile,
in the crater or the angle at which a bullet pierced such as a bullet or a stone, could not be located in
a pane of glass can help identify the position of the the scene. It is also possible that the missile caused
shooter (Girard, 2011). the hole but did not perforate the glass.
the Figures 13.22 and 13.23) except that the edge DiMaio, V. J. M. Gunshot Wounds Practical Aspects
circumference of the hole appeared more regular, of Firearms, Ballistics, and Forensic Techniques,
and there were fewer numbers of radial fractures. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1999.
Oftentimes, glass fragments are recovered from Dodd, M. J. Terminal Ballistics, Boca Raton, FL:
suspects’ clothing in house-breaking cases or vic- CRC, Taylor & Francis, 2005.
tims’ clothes in vehicular accidents. Such fragments Girard, J. E. Criminalistics Forensic Science, Crime,
can be compared with broken pieces of glass from and Terrorism, Sadbury, MA: Jones & Bartlett
the crime scene or from motor vehicles to estab- Learning, 2011.
lish origin. The methods used are based on density Gross, H. Criminal Investigation: A Practical
comparisons or refractive index determinations Handbook for Magistrates, Police Officers and
using Becke line, a function of how light behaves Lawyers, Adam, J. and Adam, J. C. (Trans.)
at the boundary between two components with Madras: Krishnamachari, 1906.
different RIs as well as determination of elemental Haag, M. G. and Haag, L. C. Shooting Incident
compositions. At the crime scene, the garment has Reconstruction, Amsterdam: Academic Press,
to be examined for the presence of minute glisten- 2011.
ing pieces of glass, and when such fragments are Kirk, P. L. Crime Investigation, New York: John
observed, the clothes are to be folded and packed Willey & Sons, 1974.
in such a way that the fragments are not lost during Rowe, W. F. Firearm: Range, in Encyclopedia of
transit to the laboratory. Forensic Science, Siegel, J. A., Knuper, G. and
Saukko, P. (Eds.) London: Academic Press,
2000a, 949–995.
REFERENCES Rowe, W. F. Firearm: Residues, in Encyclopedia of
Forensic Science, Siegel, J. A., Knuper, G. and
Arslan, M., Hakan Kar, H., Bülent Üner, B. and Saukko, P. (Eds.) London: Academic Press,
Çetin, G. Firing distance estimates with pellet 2000b, 953–961.
dispersion from shotgun with various chokes: Rowe, W. F. Firearms: Laboratory analysis, in
An experimental, comparative study, J Forensic Encyclopedia of Forensic Science, Siegel, J.
Sci., 56 (4) (2011): 988–992. A., Knuper, G. and Saukko, P. (Eds.) London:
Bonfanti, M. S. and De Kinder, J. Shotgun ammu- Academic Press, 2000c, 944–949.
nition on a target, in Firearm and Toolmark Saferstein, R. Criminalistics: An Introduction to
Examination and Identification, Houck, M. M. Forensic Science, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2000.
(Ed.) London: Academic Press, 2016, 35–40. Svensson, A., Wendel, O. and Fisher, B. A. J.
Brenner, J. C. Forensic Science: An Illustrated Techniques of Crime Investigation, New York,
Dictionary, Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2004. NY: Elsevier, 1981.
Curran, J. M., Hicks, T. N. and Buckleton, J. S. Yong, Y. A systemic review on ricochet gunshot inju-
Forensic Interpretation of Glass Evidence, ries, Legal Medicine, 26 (2017): 45–51.
Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2000.
Chapter 14
of Explosions
14.1 INTRODUCTION thus can offer scientific confirmation on the involve-

ment of the particular suspect or outfit.
The challenges involved in the investigation of Discussion includes the importance of safety
explosions in civilian contexts are unique in that the measures when visiting scenes of explosion, the role
explosive devices used are mostly improvised by the of bomb disposal squad when dealing with objects
offenders themselves for the fabrication of which suspected to be unexploded explosive devices, and
imagination is the limit. In many cases, the offend- the relevance of pitted damages in diagnosing the
ing outfits declare their involvement, while in some directionality of travel of the fragments from the
instances the identity of the offenders may remain epicenter of explosion. In view of an individual-
undisclosed. Two fundamental discoveries that can ization achieved by physical matching in a case of
only be made at the crime scenes and which can explosion described in this chapter, a discussion on
narrow down the offender identification process are the relevance of uniqueness-based individualization
locating the epicenter or seat of explosion and rec- in forensic science is also included.
ognizing the nature of components that have gone The flowchart (14.2 Flowchart) on the meth-
into the making of the improvised explosive devices odology and the diagram illustrating methods for
(IEDs). Fixing the seat of explosion enables narrow- recording direction-damages in scenes of explosions
ing down the suspects to those who have access to would offer the fundamental guidance for the field
that location. Identifying the type of materials used investigators involved in scene investigation in cases
for making the explosives can enable recognition of of explosions.
similar materials in the premises of the suspects and
DOI: 10.4324/9781003267096-14 275

14.2 FLOWCHART
FOR FOR INVESTIGATINGSCENES
SCENES OF EXPLOSIONS
OF EXPLOSIONS
276
CRIME SCENE
OBSERVATIONS
SKETCH PHOTOGRAPHY
SOC
SOLID EXPLOSIVES GASEOUS VICTIM SUSPECT PREMISE OVER-ALL SOC
EXPLOSIONS SOC
EPICENTER/CRATER INJURIES RAW MATERIALS - Ground plan VICTIM
- Diameter, depth DISPLACEMENT - Elevation view
- Objects – in crater CONTAINER - Isometric view POSTURE OVER ALL
EVIDENCE LACERATED/OTHERS
- Absence of – if so - Shutters PORTIONS
- Front EPICENTER/CRATER
Objects/swab for analysis - Walls - Metal pieces - Include cardinal INJURIES
- Back - Depth
- Others - Cardboard directions - Extent
- Sides
DEVICE/CONTAINER - Others - Direction - Diameter
- Arms /legs
Intact device/Disposal squad - Other features
Exploded/remnants SOURCE WIRES/SWITCHES FOREIGN OBJECTS
- Broken—not sheared - Cylinders etc. - Electric wires HIGHLIGHTS SHRAPNEL/MISSILE
Damages in clothes
- Shattered—sheared - Other supply - Fuses DAMAGES IN DISTRIBUTION
and correspondence
sources - Switches - Seat of explosion CLOTHING - Pitted marks
to injuries
IGNITION - Scaled photos - Others
- Electric - wires IGNITION TOOLS - Direction Damage
Extent
FOREIGN OBJECTS IN
- Non-electric - fuse - Electric—wires - Cutting tools in diagram CHAR/BURN IN DISPLACEMENTS
Direction
INJURIES
- Throw down type - Flames - Others CLOTHING - Door frames
- Others - Evidence of pitting - If any - Other objects
RECONSTRUCTION OF - Directionality
CHAR EVIDENCE EXPLOSIVES RELATED
- Burn/smoke patterns POSTURE - Chemicals - Evidence of
displacement OTHER DEBRIS
- Plastic explosives
- Building related
STRUCTURE DAMAGES - Detonators
- Pattern of debris - Vehicle related
- Over-all: wall/doorsetc. - Packing materials
Distribution - Miscellaneous
- Brisance: pitted marks
- Direction damage DELAY DEVICES
CUES FOR RECONSTRUCTION - Others BLOODSTAIN
- Focalize with thread lines - Electrical
PATTERNS – if any
- Post-blast; rummaging - Mechanical
• Study the pitted marks and focalize Include
measurements
them using thread lines towards the INSULATORS

FLOWN OBJECTS TRACE EVIDENCE
crater when framing hypothesis to - Plastic sheets wherever possible
- Shrapnel/laterite etc.
suggest the seat of blast. - Tapes
- Along obstructions
• When suggesting the seat of blast, - Others
also consider the directionality in the IMPRINT EVIDENCE –
BLOODSTAINS ETC. displaced objects such as door frames etc. SCALED PHOTOS
- Spatter type
- Other trauma • Consider the components of OTHERS
explosive device in the scene to
IMPRINT EVIDENCE compare with source objects in
- Tire patterns etc. suspected premises.
- Others
Investigating Cases of Explosions 277
CASE 14–1: RECONSTRUCTING THE SEAT OF EXPLOSION

An explosion that occurred in a building resulted The epicenter of explosion was in the ground
in the collapse of the roof of ground and first floor floor and thus limited the suspects to be among
in the main part of the building (Figure 14.1). those having access to the ground floor.
The debris that piled up was rummaged out using
a bulldozer in which course the base of the build- ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS
ing in the ground level was also rummaged out in The epicenter of explosion was in the first floor
the portico and the hall of the building. and thus limited the suspects to be among those
The walls on the four sides of the verandah having access to the first floor.
and hall collapsed bringing down the roof of the
ground floor in the hall area (marked ‘Roof-GF’ in
Figures 14.2 and 14.3) and the first floor (marked
‘Roof-F F’ in Figures 14.2 and 14.3) revealing a In spite of the loss of the base of the building, the
gaping damage measuring about 9.10 m north– floor level that existed prior to rummaging can
south and 8 m east–west (Figure 14.4) directions. be reconstructed using the available floor level in
In the first floor level, the side walls on the the areas of the interior of the building.
northern and southern side were intact (marked
‘Side wall-F F’ in Figures 14.2 and 14.3). In the Observed premises
second floor, the asbestos cement- sheeted roof On clearing the debris in the interior of the
revealed a loss of asbestos sheet and cracks building, the floor area could be recognized
(‘Roof-SF’ in Figure 14.3). (‘A’ in Figure 14.5) and that level was extended
Rummaging operation resulted in the loss of to arrive at the floor level (‘B’ in Figure 14.5)
the base of the building in the floor level, and hence that existed prior to rummaging the debris in
it was not possible to identify any sign of a crater the area where the base of the building had
that can indicate the epicenter (seat) of explosion. been lost.
FIGURE 14.1 Photograph taken of the damaged building immediately after the blast.
FIGURE 14.2 Photograph of the building taken after the rummaging operations. Note the damaged
ground floor roof (Roof-GF) and the first floor roof (Roof-F F).
FIGURE 14.3 Extent of structural damages on the ground floor roof (Roof-
GF), first floor roof
(Roof-F F), and second floor roof (Roof-SF). The side walls of the first floor are marked.
Accepted (major) premises reconstructing the floor level prior to rummaging

The knowledge on the floor level of the build- in the areas where the floor and base of the build-
ing that existed prior to the blast is fundamental ing had been lost due to rummaging operations.
for reconstructing the event sequences during the
blast. SEQUENTIAL HYPOTHESIS 2
Brisance of an explosive leads to a shattering
Reconstruction effect causing the fragments to hit and leave pit-
The thread line extending the level of the floor ted marks on obstructing surfaces such as the
in the available area of the building enabled walls. Absence of evidence of pitting on the side
FIGURE 14.4 An isometric view showing the diagrammatic representation of the structural damages
in the building.
FIGURE 14.5 Method used for assessing the floor level that existed prior to rummaging the debris.
The available level of the floor in the interior (arrow ‘A’) was extended to the rummaged area (arrow
‘B’), and the height was measured.
walls in the first floor indicated that the epicenter northern and southern sides (marked ‘Side wall—
of explosion was not on the first floor level. FF’ in Figures 14.3 and 14.6).

The evidence of pitting or damages due to frag- Brisance of an explosive causes the fragments
ments shattered from an explosion were absent and splinters to fling all around from the epicen-
on the side walls of the first floor area on the ter leaving pitted damages on walls and other
FIGURE 14.6 Pitted marks were absent on the side walls of the first floor (‘Side wall—FF’).
FIGURE 14.7 Splashes of bloodstains were seen on the side wall in the room in the ground floor on
the southern side (white arrow). These marks were seen restricted to the area of wall exposed to the
doorway and were absent in the other areas (black arrow).
structures that obstruct such fragments (Stoffel, when extended toward their origin, focalize at
1972; Thurman, 2011). the location of the epicenter (seat) of explosion.
Reconstruction Observed premises

The absence of pitting on the side walls of the a) In the ground floor, the southern wall
first floor indicated that the epicenter of explo- in the room, south of the hall, revealed
sion was not in the first floor level. spatter-
t ype blood splashes (white
arrows in Figures 14.7 and 14.8 and area
SEQUENTIAL HYPOTHESIS 3 marked A-A’ to X-X’ in Figure 14.9) and
Evidence of pitting, damages, and impact-type pitted marks (Figure 14.10) caused by
blood spatter patterns on the walls and pillars, fragments flung due to the brisance of
FIGURE 14.8 Distribution of blood splashes in the areas exposed to the doorway (white arrows) and
their absence on the walls in other regions (black arrow).
References Legend for numbers

Direction of travel of missiles Sl. no. Directionality in damage
Direction of damage in structures 1 Door planks broken
Extent of spatter-type blood splashes 2 Window shutter broken

with pitting on the southern wall
A–A’ to
X–X’
References Legend for numbers

B–B’ Extent of pitting in northern wall 3 Window shutter and bars thrown
to
Y–Y’ 4&5 Door frames broken
C Evidence of pitting on pillars 6, 7 & 8 Window shutter broken

D Evidence of pitting exposing the bricks 9 Door frame broken
E Evidence of pitting on the compound 10 Window shutter broken
wall
11 Window glass panes broken
O Plausible seat of explosion 12 Door planks broken
R1 to R10 Series of rooms 13 Window glass panes broken
14 Window shutter broken
15 to 20 Door planks broken
21 Window thrown out along with frame
and bars
22 Window displaced along with frame
23 Door planks broken
FIGURE 14.9 Isometric view sketch of the building illustrating the observable evidence useful for sug-
gesting directionality in the blast force and direction-damages. The explanations for the symbols used
are provided in the legend.
explosion. These marks were restricted splashed with force on a surface (Bevel
to the area of the wall exposed to the and Gardner, 2002).
hall through the door of the room and b) Brisance of an explosive causes the frag-
were absent in other areas such as ments and splinters to fling all around
those indicated with black arrows in from the epicenter causing pitted dam-
Figure 14.7. ages on walls and other structures that
b) In the ground floor, the northern wall in obstruct such fragments (Stoffel, 1972;
the room north of the hall revealed pit- Thurman, 2011).
ted marks (arrows in Figure 14.11 and c) During an explosion, the trajectories
area marked B-B’ to Y-Y’ in Figure 14.9) of the fragments that are flung would
caused by fragments flung due to the bri- continue to pass through passages such
sance of explosion. as doorways that do not obstruct the
c) Furthermore, in the ground floor, the pathway.
eastern face of the pillars west of the hall
(Figure 14.12 and areas marked ‘C’ in Reconstruction
Figure 14.9) also revealed pitted marks The distribution of the pitted marks on the walls
(Figure 14.13) caused by fragments flung in the rooms south and north of the hall and
due to the brisance of explosion. on the pillars west of the hall indicated trajec-
tories of fragments from a common focal point.
Accepted (major) premises Extending such trajectories focalized at the cen-
a) Spatter-t ype bloodstain patterns indicate ter of the hall indicated that location (marked
the occurrence of ‘impact’ when blood is ‘O’ in Figure 14.9) to be epicenter of explosion.
(Legend in boxes as shown here)

FIGURE 14.11 Enlarged view of the blood

splashes and the pitted marks (white arrows) on
FIGURE 14.10 Enlarged view of the blood the northern wall exposed to the doorway in the
splashes and the pitted marks (white arrows) on northern room in the ground floor.
the southern wall exposed to the doorway in the
southern room in the ground floor.
The directionality of displacement in the fixed
objects in the structure of the building such as
doors and windows indicates the direction of
travel of the blast force.
Observed premises
The wooden fixtures such as the door frames
(Figure 14.14) and windows in the rooms and the
hall area were found broken and displaced away
from the center of the hall as shown by the white
arrows in Figure 14.15 and solid black arrows
marked 1 to 5 and 9 to 23 in Figure 14.9.

Blast force from the epicenter would shove off
fixed objects away from the epicenter (Stoffel,
1972; Thurman, 2011).
Reconstruction
The directionality in the damages in the fixed FIGURE 14.12 Eastern face of the pillars west of
wooden structures (shown by solid black arrows the hall revealing pitted marks.
FIGURE 14.13 Enlarged view of the pitted

marks (black arrows) on the eastern face of the
pillars west of the hall.
FIGURE 14.15 Enlarged view of the displaced

door frame showing the direction of travel of
force (arrows).
marked 1 to 5 and 9 to 23 in Figure 14.9) indi-
cated the travel of blast force from the epicenter
of explosion that focalized toward the hall.
The thread line extended from the available floor
level indicated the level of the floor that had been
rummaged and lost. The lack of pitted marks on
the side walls of the first floor indicated that the
seat of blast was not in the first floor. The pitted
marks on the walls in the rooms south and north
of the hall and on the pillars west of the hall indi-
cated trajectories of fragments from a common
focal point that focalized at the center of the hall
(marked ‘O’ in Figure 14.9). The directionality
in the damages in the wooden structures also
FIGURE 14.14 Evidence of displacement in the supported the epicenter of explosion to be in the
wooden fixtures such as the door frames. hall.
Postscript ‘direction-damage’, is shown to offer reliable evi-

In this case, as a matter of fact, both the hypoth- dence for reconstructing the epicenter by a sort
eses proposed, one that the epicenter of explo- of reverse tracing of the directionalities in such
sion could be in the ground floor and the other damages. In addition, the pitted marks caused
that epicenter could be in the first floor, were by the objects flown by the explosive force, when
contemplated initially since the roof of both converged to a focal point using thread lines,
the floors had collapsed due to the blast force. enabled deducing the epicenter. These techniques
The impact of explosive force on the surround- can be useful when the crater formed during an
ing objects such as doorframes etc. leading to explosion had been destroyed due to rescue and
the displacement of those objects in tune with rummaging activities as had happened in the
the direction of travel of that force, described as case described earlier.
CASE 14–2: ESTABLISHING THE LOCATION OF FABRICATION

OF AN IMPROVISED EXPLOSIVE DEVICE (IED)
THE CASE The parapet wall above the southern-

A portion of a road bridge across a river was most span of the bridge was found blasted
exploded before the scheduled visit by a national (Figures 14.16 and 14.17) gaping to an extent of
level dignitary, and the sabotage was claimed by about 6’9”. Down below the blasted area, on the
a group that was thither-to unknown. riverbed were found the brick and mortar debris
FIGURE 14.16 Aerial view sketch of the scene diagrammatically incorporating the relevant
observations.
FIGURE 14.18 Brick and mortar debris and

FIGURE 14.17 View of the blasted parapet wall
burnt safety fuses found below the blasted area.
of the bridge along with the unexploded impro-
vised explosive device (IED) that remained inside
the water outlet hole with the safety fuse hanging.
along with two burnt safety fuses, one 10’1” long

and the other 4’1” long (Figure 14.18).
Inside the first water outlet hole of the bridge
was found an unexploded improvised explosive
device (IED) (the location marked ‘Live IED’ in
Figures 14.16 and 14.17) with part of the safety
fuse looped (Figure 14.19) and with the other part
measuring about 14’7” freely dangling toward
the riverbed (Figure 14.17). A closer examination
of the free end of the fuse revealed the evidence
of limited charring of the outer sleeve with an
intact inner core. On the riverbed down below
the dangling fuse were found seven match sticks,
four of them burnt and three intact.
Nearby the free end of the fuse, the soil on
the river bed revealed tire marks of a bicycle
(Figure 14.20) revealing tire pattern similar to
that in Dunlop Roadster tires. Impression of
the rear stand of the bicycle was also seen on
the sand indicating that the bicycle was parked
in that location. These tire impressions could be
traced eastward on the riverbed and southward
to the main road (Figure 14.16). Plaster casts of FIGURE 14.19 Close-up view of the unexploded
the tire impressions were made. IED found in the water outlet hole.
FIGURE 14.20 Marks of Dunlop Roadster bicycle tires found on soil in the riverbed.
The unexploded IED was defused by the been simply inserted into the detonators without
designated officers. In the IED, gelatin dynamite any crimping. The dynamite was disposed of by
was found packed inside an improvised tin sheet burning. On verification, the safety fuse burned
folded into a container measuring about 28.7 at a rate of about 130 second per meter.
× 6.7 × 5.0 cm covered on one side with a tin The outer surface of the tin sheet of the IED
piece and on the other side with the paper wrap- container revealed dirty black greasy deposits
per of gelatin dynamite through which the safety (Figure 14.21 and black arrows in Figures 14.24
fuse had been inserted (‘A’ in Figure 14.21). The and 14.25) along with die-cast impressions. Along
paper wrapper had the printed marking “SG-90 the edges as well as the fold, the tin container
GOMIA 130 gms”. The tin sheet was seen to revealed a series of cut impressions (white arrows
be secured with binding wires (Figure 14.21A). in Figure 14.24 enlarged in Figure 14.25), some
Inside the container, two detonators were found on a straight line and some broken in between,
connected to the looped safety fuse all embed- the sizes of which indicated the possible use of a
ded in dynamite weighing about 1.325 kg cutting tool similar to a chisel with a sharp edge
(Figures 14.22 and 14.23). The safety fuse had width of about 1 inch.
FIGURE 14.21 Diagrammatic representation of the unexploded IED (A) and the surface characteris-
tics seen on the tin sheet that formed the cover (B). Note the binding wire in ‘A’ that had been used to
hold the tin sheet in the form of a container.
FIGURE 14.22 View of the partly unfolded tin FIGURE 14.23 View of the tin sheet cover,
sheet cover, the lid, and the detonators retrieved dynamite, and the safety fuse retrieved from the
from the defused IED (adapted from Jayaprakash, defused IED.
2013 with permission from Elsevier).
SEQUENTIAL HYPOTHESIS 1 Observed premises

The tin sheet in the unexploded IED had been a) The tin sheet of the IED revealed mea-
cut from a tin container popularly termed ‘15 kg surements and die- cast impressions
oil tin’. (Figure 14.26) characteristic of tin
FIGURE 14.24 Characteristics observable on

the outer surface of the tin sheet cover of the FIGURE 14.25 Enlarged view of the surface
IED included dirty black greasy deposits (black characteristics on the tin sheet. Note the width of
arrows) and a series of cut impressions (white the cut marks that measured about 1 inch.
arrows).
FIGURE 14.26 Diagrammatic representation of the tin sheet that formed the container of the IED in
relation to the structure of an oil tin that is commercially used.
FIGURE 14.27 Diagrammatic representation of the tin pieces and other physical evidence observed in
the premise of a suspect.
containers of 15 kg capacity used for recovered from the unexploded IED, it could be
storing oil, etc. hypothesized that cut and discarded pieces of tin
b) The surface of the tin sheet of the IED sheets and the tools used for cutting the tin sheet
revealed dirty black greasy deposits can be found in the place of manufacture of the
(black arrow in Figures 14.24 and 14.25) IED.
usually found in tin containers regularly
used for storing oil. Observed premises
a) A search of a premise belonging to a
Accepted (major) premises suspect (Figure 14.27) led to the recov-
a) The die-cast impressions in tin contain- ery of cut pieces of tin sheets of varied
ers are class characteristics for tin con- sizes. Three of these tin sheet pieces
tainers of 15-kg capacity used for storing (marked 1, 2, and 3 in Figures 14.28,
oil. 14.29 and 14.30) revealed cut edges that
b) The dirty black greasy deposits are usu- physically matched in certain portions
ally found on the surface of tin contain- enabling a reconstruction (Figure 14.31)
ers regularly used for storing oil. that formed a vacant area roughly cor-
responding to the size of the tin sheet
Reconstruction retrieved from the unexploded IED (dia-
The tin sheet in the unexploded IED could have grammatically shown in Figure 14.32).
been cut from a tin container of 15 kg capacity b) Subsequent comparison of one of the cut
formerly used for storing oil. edges of the tin sheet of the IED marked
‘A’ (Figure 14.33) with the cut edge
marked ‘B’ of the tin piece ‘1’ recovered
from the suspect’s premises indicated
Considering the surface area of tin in a tin con- complementary physical match all along
tainer and the size of the tin sheet that has been the two matching edges (Figure 14.33
FIGURE 14.28 A cut piece of tin sheet (‘1’) along FIGURE 14.31 Reconstruction of the pieces of
with a mesh of wires lying in the suspect’s prem- tin sheets from the suspect’s premises revealing a
ise (adapted from Jayaprakash, 2013 with per- missing area corresponding to the size of the tin
mission from Elsevier). sheet recovered from the IED
from Elsevier).
with inset showing details of a portion

in enlargement).
c) A chisel with 2-inch sharp edge width
(Figure 14.34) was found in the suspected
premise, and the chisel revealed a dent
in the middle of the sharp edge (arrow
in Figure 14.35) separating the cutting
edge into two halves, each about 1 inch
in width (Figure 14.35). The length of
the dents described along the folds in
the tin sheet container (white arrows in
Figures 14.24 and 14.25) corresponded
FIGURE 14.29 Another cut piece of tin sheet
to the width of the cutting-edge width
(‘2’) lying in the suspect’s premise.
of the chisel (shown with chisel image as
inset in Figure 14.36).

a) Size correspondence between the missing
portion formed when joining the three
tin pieces recovered from the suspect’s
premise and the size of the tin sheet that
formed the container of the IED indi-
cate the possible source of the tin sheet
of the IED and the tin sheet pieces in
the suspected premise from the same tin
container.
b) Physical matching demonstrates indi-
vidual characteristics that are unique.
Physical matching along the comple-
FIGURE 14.30 A third cut piece of tin sheet (‘3’)
mentary edges of cut piece of tin sheet
lying in the suspect’s premise.
FIGURE 14.32 Diagrammatic representation of the reconstruction made using the three tin sheets
showing the correspondence between the size of the missing area and the size of the tin sheet retrieved
from the unexploded IED.
FIGURE 14.33 Physical matching between the cut edge of the tin sheet that formed IED container
(A) and the cut edge in one of the tin sheet pieces (B) recovered from the premises of the suspect. Inset
shows details of complementariness in enlargement (adapted from Jayaprakash, 2013 with permission
from Elsevier).
and the tin sheet from the IED indicates

conclusive origin of the matching pieces
from the same source.
b) The tool marks can be compared with the
tools (Van Dijk, 2000), and the marks in
the tin sheet retrieved from the IED can
be compared with the tools that caused
these marks. Laboratory analysis of the
tool marks on the tin sheet confirmed
the chisel to be the tool that caused those
marks.
FIGURE 14.34 Chisel with 2-
inch sharp edge Reconstruction
width recovered from suspect’s premise.
Physical match, an individualistic feature, estab-
lished between the cut edge in the tin sheet that
formed the IED container and the cut edge in
the piece of tin sheet recovered from the sus-
pect’s premise indicated a conclusive source of
origin of the container of the IED and the cut tin
piece in the suspect’s premise from the same tin
container, an evidence indicating the suspect’s
premise as the place of manufacture of the IED
container. Laboratory analysis that confirmed
the tool marks of the chisel on the tin sheet
pieces, also an individualizing feature, offered
conclusive evidence that the chisel was the tool
used for fabricating the tin container of the IED.
FIGURE 14.35 Close-

up view of the chisel SEQUENTIAL HYPOTHESIS 3
revealing a dent in the middle of the cutting-edge The bicycle tire mark recorded from the riverbed
(arrow) separating the edge into two halves, each can be compared with the tire pattern in the tires
about 1 inch in width. of the suspected bicycle for suggesting the origin.
FIGURE 14.36 Illustration of the correspondence between the cut marks in the tin sheet and the cut-
ting edge width of the chisel (inset).
FIGURE 14.37 Tire pattern in the tire in the FIGURE 14.38 Control tire marks produced on
bicycle found in the house of the suspect. the soil surface by the tires seen fitted in the bicy-
cle found in the house of the suspect.
Observed premises
but would not be sufficient to establish conclu-
A bicycle found in a room inside the house of the sive attribution of the tire in the bicycle as the
suspect had tires of the Dunlop Roadster brand source of the tire print in the scene.
(Figure 14.37) which produced tire pattern on
the soil (Figure 14.38) that was similar to the tire Conjoined reconstruction
pattern found on the riverbed in the crime scene
The tin sheet in the unexploded improvised
(Figure 14.20).
explosive device (IED) had been cut from a tin
of 15-kg capacity possibly used for storing oil
and had been fabricated in the suspect’s prem-
Tire patterns in bicycle tires are class character- ise from where the discarded pieces of tin sheets
istics that are common for that particular brand were recovered. Physical match between the
of tires. cut edge in the tin sheet which formed the IED
container with the cut edge in the discarded tin
Reconstruction sheet recovered from the suspect’s premise indi-
Class characteristics enable assigning a print to cated conclusive origin of these tin sheets from
the same source among a ‘class’ and would not the same source, viz. the same tin container. The
enable individualization. The similarity between laboratory confirmation of the tool marks of the
the pattern in the tire impression in the riverbed chisel on the tin sheet pieces offered conclusive
and the pattern in the tire of the bicycle would evidence that the chisel was the tool used for
only include the bicycle tire as a possible source fabricating the improvised container of the IED.
Tire pattern being a class characteristic, the simi- marks and the tool that caused the marks, cut
larity between the pattern of the tire of the bicy- pieces of tin sheets that exhibited physical match,
cle recovered from the suspect’s house and the etc. In addition, there were also document evi-
pattern in the tire impression would only include dence in the form of hand-written posters. The
the bicycle tire from the suspect’s house as one value orientation of individualizable evidence
among the class of tires that can produce similar that demonstrated physical match between
tire patterns and would not enable individualiza- the cut edges of tin sheets in comparison with
tion, i.e., would not offer evidence establishing the class level evidence, the matching patterns
conclusive attribution of the tires in the bicycle in the tire mark, demonstrates the supremacy of
as the source of the tire print in the scene. individualization as a tenet of forensic science.
The discussion includes the relevance of The crime scene being in the open, the entire
individualization in forensic science. efforts put forth during crime scene search as
well evidence gathering were all exposed for view
Postscript by the bystanders which may influence the sub-
sequent behavior of the suspects—unusually, the
The need for the field scientist to be generalist bicycle involved in this case was seen kept locked
competent in multiple fields as against the bench inside a room in the house of the suspect possibly
scientist specialized in one area was indicated because it was within the knowledge of all the
earlier. Traditionally, it is customary to antici- bystanders that tire patterns have been recorded
pate a particular type of evidence for a specific from the scene. In regard to preserving the scene,
case type—such as bloodstains in a traumatic as mentioned in Chapter 3, this case particularly
homicide, semen stain in sexual assault case, demonstrated that appropriate training to the
and residue of explosive in a case of explosion. police constables can ensure better scene preser-
The case described before exemplifies a situa- vation—because the constables had been trained
tion wherein multiple clues that are apparently suitably, those who were the first to arrive at the
unrelated to explosion being found in relation to blast site arranged such effective barricading that
an explosion—the range of which includes tire the multiple tire marks on the river bed remained
marks and the tires that caused those marks, tool undisturbed.
CASE 14–3: SCENE INVESTIGATION IN PIPE BOMB EXPLOSION
THE CASE ceiling, in their inner sides, revealed many pitted

On an early night, witnesses heard two blasts marks that appeared as small craters.
in a temple, and on initial verification, evidence The damage on the floor and the radiating
pitted marks on the wall enabled locating the
of explosion was found in the second praharam
epicenter of blast and pattern of distribution of
(corridor in a Hindu temple) of that temple.
the pitted marks in the anteroom, and sanctum
In the second praharam, the auxiliary temple
sanctorum was studied in relation to the epicen-
faces east (Figure 14.39) with a collapsible iron ter. Metallic fragments collected were identified
gate in front followed by an anteroom meant for as being parts of an exploded pipe bomb. The
devotees (Figure 14.40). The sanctum sanctorum observations clarified the location of blast and
measuring about 6’6” × 6’3” housing the deity is excluded the proposition that a throw-down type
situated west of the anteroom. of explosive had been used. Metal fragments and
In the inner aspect, the side walls of the ante- burnt match sticks that were collected from the
room and sanctum sanctorum had been built scene supported the explosive to be a pipe bomb.
with granite blocks. The ceiling in the anteroom
had granite slabs while the sanctum sanctorum PRIMARY HYPOTHESIS
had Madras roof (brick mortar work supported Pipe bomb/bombs planted in the anteroom on
on wooden rafters). The side walls as well as the the inner side of the iron-gate had exploded.
FIGURE 14.39 Topography of the temple showing the anteroom where the blast occurred.
FIGURE 14.40 Ground plan of the scene of blast.

Throw-down type bomb/bombs hurled into the
anteroom/sanctum sanctorum had exploded.
The epicenter (seat) of explosion is indicated by
the location of damage on the floor and the con-
vergence of the radiating damages on the adja-
cent wall caused by the fragments flung due to
the blast force.
Observed premises
Linear and radiating pitted marks (marked ‘1’ in
Figures 14.41 and 14.42) aligning eastward (indi-
cated by the paper arrow in Figures 14.41 and
14.42) were seen on the side wall of the thresh-
old adjacent to the damage on the granite floor
(arrow ‘O’ in Figures 14.41 and 14.42) on the
inner side of the entrance fitted with the col-
lapsible iron gate. These pitted marks focalized
at the damage on the floor immediately west of
the threshold of the iron-gate (Figures 14.40 to
14.42).

FIGURE 14.41 Linear and radiating pitted Epicenter of an explosion is indicated by the
marks (1) on the northern face of entrance and location where the directions indicated by the
hit mark (2) on the collapsible iron gate in rela- hit marks of the fragments focalize (Thurman,
tion to the damage on the granite floor (O) in the 2011).
anteroom.
FIGURE 14.42 Another view of the pitted marks (1) indicating the direction of travel of the missiles
from the damage on the granite floor (O).
Reconstruction
The epicenter of explosion was on the western
side of the collapsible iron gate in the location
indicated ‘O’ in the anteroom of the temple.
The damages caused by the fragments and splin-
ters that are flung due to brisance of an explosion
converge and focalize at the epicenter of explo-
sion. The point of convergence of the marks of
pitting arrived at by extending thread lines would
indicate the epicenter of explosion.
Observed premises
a) The collapsible iron gate revealed on
its inner side sheared damages (black
arrow in Figure 14.43) as well as pitted
damages on its surface (white arrow in
Figure 14.43) indicating it was hit by
metallic fragments which travelled east-
ward. Evidence of pitting was observed
on the wooden doors kept alongside the
northern wall of the anteroom (black
arrows in Figure 14.44), on the granite
surface of the ceiling (white arrows indi-
cating marks circled in Figure 14.45), on
the lower side of the lintel in the entrance
FIGURE 14.43 Close-
up view of the sheared to the sanctum sanctorum (black arrows
damages on the inner aspect of the collapsible in Figure 14.46), and on the western wall
iron door (black arrow and white arrow) caused of the sanctum sanctorum (arrows in
by missiles. Figure 14.47).
FIGURE 14.44 View showing the relationship between the damage on the granite floor (O) and pitted
marks on a door (black arrows) laid on the side.
FIGURE 14.45 Pitted marks (arrows) on the granite ceiling of anteroom.
FIGURE 14.46 Pitted marks on the lintel in the

entrance into the sanctum sanctorum (black
arrows) along with pitted marks on the ceiling of
anteroom (white arrows).
b) When connected using thread lines, the

aforementioned pitted damages were
found to converge and focalize at the
seat of blast (Figures 14.48 to 14.50).

Brisance of an explosive causes the fragments
and splinters to fling all around from the epicen- FIGURE 14.47 Pitted marks (arrows) on the
ter leaving pitted damages on walls and other western wall of sanctum sanctorum.
FIGURE 14.49 Photograph showing the con-

FIGURE 14.48 Photograph showing the conver- vergence of threads from the pitted marks in the
gence of threads from the pitted marks seen in sanctum sanctorum.
the northern part of anteroom.
structures that obstruct such fragments (Stoffel,

Observed premises
1972; Thurman, 2011).
a) The metal fragments recovered from the
Reconstruction scene (Figure 14.51) revealed curvature
with some portions indicating threaded
The distribution of pitted marks and other dam-
areas. Linear and parallel grooves with
ages on the iron gate, wall, ceiling, etc., indicated
interdistance varying from 3 to 7 mm
the trajectories of travel of the fragments during
were found on the outer surface of many
the explosion. The focalizing point of these tra-
of these fragments (black arrows in
jectories demonstrated by extending thread lines
Figure 14.52). These grooves were rough
from the aforementioned pitted marks indicated
and appeared to have been made by a
the location of the epicenter (seat) of explosion
hack-saw blade-like instrument.
to be on the western side of the iron gate in the
b) In different parts of the same fragment,
anteroom.
the metal thickness widely varied from
about 1 to 2 mm with intermediary mea-
SEQUENTIAL HYPOTHESIS 3 surements. In addition, the metal frag-
The nature of damages and disfigurement of the ments revealed sheared edges.
metal that formed the container of the IED can c) Irregularly torn and twisted pieces of
indicate the type of explosive that had caused the aluminum (Figure 14.53) were also
brisance effect. recovered from the scene.
FIGURE 14.50 Isometric view sketch of the scene of blast showing the convergence of pitted marks at
the seat of blast [direction-damage study].
FIGURE 14.51 Metallic fragments that had been collected from the scene of blast.
FIGURE 14.53 Close-up photograph of frag-

ments of aluminum recovered from among the
debris.
FIGURE 14.52 Close-up photograph of the charged with a high explosive had exploded
metallic fragments showing the grooves with at the seat of blast. The presence of aluminum
variable interdistance (arrows). pieces and burnt match sticks in the scene sup-
port that the device was initiated using an ordi-
Accepted (major) premises nary detonator connected to a safety fuse.
a) The curvature in the metal fragments
indicated the possible origin from a cylin- Conjoined reconstruction
drical metal pipe. Portions of threaded The convergence of the trajectories from the pit-
areas supported the origin from a pipe. ted marks in the scene demonstrated by extend-
The crude grooves with varying inter- ing thread lines from the aforementioned marks
distances indicated that these could have indicated the epicenter (seat) of explosion to be
been cut to increase fragmentation effect on the western side of the iron gate in the ante-
so that the cut pieces would act similar room. The device used was an improvised explo-
to shrapnel during the explosion. sive device (IED) of the pipe bomb type initiated
b) The inconsistency in the thickness of the by ordinary detonator and safety fuse. The
fragments and the sheared edges sug- grooves on the metal fragments indicated inten-
gested that these fragments had been tion to increase shrapnel effect. The evidence
subjected to shattering and shearing collected indicated explosion of a single impro-
forces characteristic of brisance of a high vised explosive device, and thus the two blasts
explosive. reportedly heard on the night of occurrence could
c) Aluminum jacket is characteristic of be attributed to possible echo effect in a lengthy
ordinary detonators that are initiated by structure like a temple praharam (walkway).
safety fuses.
Postscript
Reconstruction
Apart from the sensation that the explosion
The type of metallic fragments indicated that an described earlier occurred inside a place of wor-
improvised explosive device (IED), a pipe bomb, ship, the statement in the first responder’s report
that there were two explosions caused confusion. were reportedly heard could be clarified as pos-
The observations in the scene and the location sibly due to echo, a usual phenomenon within the
of a single epicenter established that there was lengthy and enclosed structures like the temple
only one explosion. The two loud reports that praharam.
14.4 DISCUSSION the field of forensic science. The role of the SOCO
starts only in a scene where an explosive device
14.4.1 Myths and Facts Relating to Observations had already exploded or had been defused by the
in Explosions appropriate authorities. Personnel belonging to
forensic science specialties do not have the exper-
i. Myth: The materials needed for preparing tise to defuse or dispose or handle any type of
explosive mixtures are special chemicals unexploded bombs, whether improvised explosive
not easily available in market. devices (IEDs) or military explosive devices (MEDs)
Fact: No. The materials needed for prepar- or in initiating rendering safe procedures in relation
ing explosive mixtures are locally available to dealing with objects suspected to be explosive
and are intended for many of the civilian devices. The SOCOs should visit the scene where
uses that are normal. suspicious looking objects are found and should
ii. Myth: An individual making an improvised visually examine such objects to ascertain if they
explosive device (IED) is an expert with could be parts of contrivances such as weather bal-
special training to construct bombs. loons. In the case the nature of the object cannot be
Fact: Making an improvised explosive confirmed by visual inspection, the services of the
device (IED) does not require expertise or bomb disposal squad must be sought. When visit-
special training. ing scenes of explosion, the SOCO may remember
iii. Myth: Unexploded improvised explosive that it is safer to inspect a site with a distinct crater
device (IED) found in public places can be on the ground level rather than examine a heap of
transported to the nearest police station fallen debris to explore for evidence. The upper lay-
and kept in safe custody. ers of any accumulated debris would be of little use
Fact: No. Any object suspected to be an in generating clues relating to the explosive device,
explosive device should not be disturbed, and it is also possible that multiple devices had
and the trained personnel from Bomb been planted and only one had exploded. A better
Defuse and Disposal group should alone approach is to assist during the rummaging opera-
handle such devices. Until then, the local tions and to observe for evidence after the debris
people must be evacuated from the scene. had been cleared.
iv. Myth: The liquid exudation from stored
gelatin can be wiped off using absorbent
tissue and disposed. 14.4.3 Role of SOCOs When Coordinating With
Fact: No. The liquid exudates from nitro the Bomb Disposal Squad
glycerin are highly sensitive to friction, and
such dynamite should be disposed of by The SOCOs are to advice the investigation officers
burning under appropriate supervision. to request the Bomb Disposal Squad to preserve
v. Myth: Water is sprayed on objects suspected components of the defused explosive device such as
to be bombs to make them wet and safe. the containers, bags, boxes, and suitcases as well
Fact: Under the supervision of the Bomb as the inner content like the mechanical or electri-
Disposal Squad, objects suspected to be cal switches, tapes, ropes, glued materials, rubber
bombs and to be wetted are placed in water or plastic items and shrapnel such as nails, pellets,
to wet, soak, and sink in water. glass pieces. These items are likely to be useful as
physical evidence for establishing a link between
the suspects’ premises and the explosive devices.
14.4.2 Safety Measures in Scenes of Explosions Scaled photographs of all the components must be
taken highlighting the marks and impressions avail-
The SOCOs must bear in mind that handling an able, if any. The services of the fingerprint expert
object suspected to be a bomb does not belong to must be utilized for developing latent prints from
those objects that have surfaces that can retain such the epicenter may be obvious. However, alterna-
prints. When bombs are defused, a sample of about tive propositions on the epicenter may come about
250 g of the main charge used as the explosive may in situations similar to the one described in Case
be preserved in an airtight container for foren- 14–1 where the possibility of the first floor being
sic analysis. In cases where the IEDs are disposed the epicenter had to be excluded. Furthermore,
of by blasting, the metallic remnants may be col- there can be instances where multiple devices have
lected both manually and using a magnet in addi- been exploded, and a conclusion is necessitated.
tion to collecting the soil sample. When IEDs are Nevertheless, determining the epicenter immedi-
defused, the electric detonators recovered are not to ately in the crime scene serves two major purposes—
be brought nearer to any source of static electric- the accessibility to the epicenter limits the possible
ity such as television or radio sets or other devices number of suspects to those who can reach the loca-
operating on direct current. Unexploded IEDs espe- tion, and locating the seat of explosion enables col-
cially those of ‘throw down’ type are not to be dis- lection of samples with greater concentration of the
played on elevated objects like a table for purposes explosive and/or shrapnel used. When dealing with
such as inspection and photography since these are explosives planted in motor vehicles, locating the
likely to roll down and explode. Photographs must seat of explosion enabled retrieving components of
be taken only when the devices are displayed on the the motor vehicle embedded deep inside the crater
floor level. which offered clue to the location of the explosive
device inside the car. In one case, a piece of pinion
was retrieved from the crater (Figure 14.54) indicat-
14.4.4 Epicenter of Explosion ing that the explosive device had been planted inside
the car above the pinion.
Understandably, the necessity to arrive at the epi- In cases where throw-down type of explosives
center of explosion on a scientific basis may not had been used, the seat of explosion (Figures 14.55
be required in all investigations—in most cases, and 14.56) enables collection of swab that can
FIGURE 14.54 Diagrammatic sketch of a scene of explosion involving explosive planted in a car. A piece
of pinion was found buried inside the crater. Also note the evidence of pittings on the wall and the trees
exposed to the blast force.
indicate the chemical components used for making

the device.
14.4.5 Relevance of Recognizing Pitted Damages
In firearms, the trajectory is produced by a single

projectile, and its pathway enables locating the
position of the shooter. In explosions, the trajec-
tories are multiple generated by the fragments that
are flung from the epicenter causing damages on
obstructing surfaces like walls and pillars. Once
these pitted damages are identified, focalizing these
trajectories enables one to locate the seat of explo-
sion. In addition, the fragments causing these pitted
damages are those emanating from the explosive or
from near the explosive and thus can indicate the
type of component that have gone into the making
of the explosive device. Such possibilities are more
when the secondary damages due to explosion are
limited, and the pitted damages on the walls are
attributable to the fragments from the explosive
itself as had happened in Case 14–3. The sheered
type of damages in the recovered fragments may
indicate the nature of explosive used as shown in
Case 15–3. The SOCOs may search the locations
below the wall or obstructions, and in one instance
such a search led to the recovery of the main spring
FIGURE 14.55 Pattern of smoke deposition in the of an alarm clock indicating the time device used in
seat of explosion of a country-made throw-down the IED.
type explosive.
14.4.6 Uniqueness-Based Individualization as a
Tenet of Forensic Science
‘Nothing in biology makes sense except in the

light of evolution’ stated the biologist Theodosius
Dobzhansky (1973). Evolution, a theory devoid of
proof, is accepted to be foundational for biology
because of the increasing evidence supporting that
theory. Similarly, nothing in forensic science makes
sense except in the light of uniqueness. Uniqueness
as a theory remains unprovable; but yet with
increasing evidence supporting it. Individualization,
a tenet of forensic science and a fallout of the the-
ory of uniqueness, has remained robust in its value
orientations during crime investigation during the
past for more than a century (Jayaprakash, 2013).
However, there has been some debate on individu-
alization—chiefly that the theory of uniqueness is
FIGURE 14.56 Close-
up view of the chemical unprovable (Saks and Koehler, 2008; Cole, 2009;
deposition and pitted marks caused by the solid Kaye, 2009; Page et al., 2011) and that, in the
components such as laterite stones packed inside absence of probabilistic quantification, the evalu-
throw-down-t ype explosives. ational conclusion during individualization is not
acceptable (Cole, 2006; Page et al., 2011). For scho- that a principle used in forensic science should
lastic sake, the grounds that annul these criticisms have gained prior acceptance in the field to which
deserve a brief discussion [an elaborate discussion is that principle originally belonged—a clause that
available in Jayaprakash (2013)]. enabled morphological comparison of pattern
Seeking confirmation to the theory of unique- matches in forensic science. However, the Daubert
ness by demanding proof to the exclusion of every ruling (Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharm., Inc., 509
other object in the world (Saks and Koehler, 2008; U.S. 579, 586 & n.4 (1993)), by adding falsifiabil-
Cole, 2009; Kaye, 2009; Page et al., 2011) is argu- ity criteria, prompted authors to seek proof to the
mentative rather than being scientific. Cumulative exclusion of all other ‘patterns’ in the world, say,
inductive knowledge indicates that among the when admitting evidence that has been accepted as
number of fingerprints studied so far, no two veri- individualistic such as fingerprint. On the basis of
similitude fingerprints have been found and that Daubert ruling, Judge Pollak rejected fingerprint
generation of fingerprints involves causal pathways evidence in a murder trial, and, yet, subsequently
that are indeterminable (Jayaprakash, 2013). These reversed his orders concluding ‘I have changed my
facts cannot be rejected on the argument that all mind’ (Specter, 2002). Similar Daubert decision-
the fingerprints in the world have not been tested related inconsistencies effecting the acceptance of
against each other. To cite an analogy by Boeree individualizable evidence like fingerprint and hand-
(1999), the melting point of a metal would become writing continue in the courts in the United States
unacceptable if one insists on the proof that every (Fradella et al., 2004). In contrast to Daubert rul-
bit of that metal in the world melts only at that ing, the UK court, in relation to footwear evidence,
temperature. which is also founded on the premise of unique-
Probabilistic quantification does not befit ness, ruled that no attempt could realistically be
individualizations concluded by matches that are made in the generality of cases to use a formula to
visual and/or evaluational such as physical match- calculate the probabilities. Furthermore, this ruling
ing. Because probabilistic interpretation is not made it clear that the use of probabilistic analysis
possible for physical matching, one cannot dismiss in footwear patterns had no sound basis as it was
the realistic and obvious fact that physical match clear from settled law that outside the field of DNA,
occurs between broken edges that are related. In Bayes theorem and likelihood ratios should not be
Case 14–2, the conclusion on the origin of the used (R. v. T [2010] All ER (D) 240 (Oct); [2010]
tin sheets from the same source becomes obvious EWCA Crim 2439).
due to the demonstrable physical match shown in As a paradigm befitting the practice of forensic
Figure 14.33. It would be an affront on human science, uniqueness forms the nucleus around which
intelligence to ignore such an obvious conclusion individualization as well as class-level identification
simply because the application of probabilistic cal- revolves as two major forensic activities (Figure 2.1).
culation is not feasible. Regarding the insistence Individualizations enable conclusive source attri-
on statistical models for interpreting morphologi- butions and thus provide definitive leads during
cal matches, there are authors who are forthright an investigation. Class-level attributions, whether
that Following DNA quantitative model may be based on visual evaluation (e.g., tire-print patterns;
foolhardy for the other disciplines . . . (Budowle pollen comparison) or on physico-chemical analy-
et al., 2009). When comparing the morphology ses (e.g., fiber or glass comparisons), would offer
of patterns in the state of nature, visual percep- only a corroboration that would not be equable to a
tion evaluates every bit of discernible detail in the conclusive lead for the investigator. Physical match-
two patterns instead of limiting to the number of ing has been demonstrated in multifarious objects,
characteristics (Ashbaugh, 1999). Authors have and it has been found possible among two cut pieces
defended specific observational methods such as of tin sheets (Figure 14.33) or between two broken
in firearm and tool mark analysis (Nichols, 2007; edges of bones recovered from different locations
Bunch et al., 2009), glass comparison (Bottrell, (Figures 5.67 and 5.68). De Forest et al. (1983) rec-
2009), handwriting examination (Harrisonet al., ognize two types of physical matching, one direct
2009), hair comparison (Oien, 2009), fingerprint in which the two torn edges are fitted with each
identification (Peterson et al., 2009), footwear other, and the other indirect where the edges in
analysis (Smith, 2009), and radiographic patterns juxtaposition are examined for surface charac-
(Hashim et al., 2015). teristics that match (as shown in Figure 4.84). In
The Frye’s criteria (Frye v. United States, 54 either case, the match would be a virtual certainty.
App. D.C. 46, 293 F. 1013 (1923)) prescribed Examples of side-by-side pattern matching leading
to conclusive attribution of source include match Cole, S. A. Is fingerprint identification valid?

between the contours of Wormian bone recorded in Rhetorics of reliability in fingerprint propo-
X-rays (Figures 5.81 and 5.82), between the dental nents’ discourse, Law Policy, 28 (1) (2006):
patterns in a face image and a skull (Figures 5.74– 109–135.
5.77), and between contour patterns caused by Cole, S. A. Forensics without uniqueness, conclusions
dripping paint in between two metal surfaces without individualization: The new epistemol-
(Figures 16.16 and 16.17). ogy of forensic identification, Law Probabil.
While uniqueness enables individualizations, it Risk, 8 (2009): 233–255.
does not vouch for eliminating errors. Introducing De Forest, P. R., Gaensslen, R. E. and Lee, H.
a system component that ensures the involvement of C. Forensic Science: An Introduction to
a co-expert as a necessity during the process of con- Criminalistics, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1983.
cluding a match may check exaggerated claims by Dobzhansky, T. Nothing in biology makes sense
lone experts. Similarly, it is the responsibility of the except in the light of evolution, The American
analyst to record and maintain demonstrative illus- Biology Teacher, 35 (3) (1973): 125–129.
trations so that the match conceived can be verified Fradella, H. F., O’Neil, L. and Fogarty, A. The impact
by suitably qualified experts including those from of Daubert on forensic Science, Pepp L Rev., 31
the defense for acceptance (Jayaprakash, 2013). (2) (2004): 323–361.
Since possibilities for physical matching and other Harrison, D., Burkes, T. M. and Seiger, D. P.
pattern matching are conceived at the crime scene Handwriting examination: Meeting the chal-
level, SOCOs are prompted to seek objects and evi- lenges of science and the law, Forensic Sci
dence that have the potential for physical match or Commun., 4 (2009): 11.
pattern match during scene investigations to main- Hashim, N., Hemalatha, N., Thangaraj, K.,
tain individualization as a tenet of forensic science.
Kareem, A., Ahmed, A., Hassan, N. F. N. and
Failure to uphold individualization as a tenet of
Jayaprakash, P. T. Practical relevance of pre-
forensic science may signify a slow death to the field
scribing superimposition for determining a
of forensic science in the future.
frontal sinus pattern match, Forensic Sci Int.,
253 (2015): 137.e1–137.e7.
Jayaprakash, P. T. Practical relevance of pattern
REFERENCES
uniqueness in forensic science, Forensic Sci Int.,
231 (1–3) (2013): 403.e1–403.e16.
Ashbaugh, D. R. Quantitative—Qualitative Friction
Kaye, D. H. Identification, individualization and
Ridge Analysis, Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press,
1999. uniqueness: What’s the difference? Law
Bevel, T. and Gardner, R. M. Bloodstain Pattern Probabil. Risk, 8 (2009): 85–94.
Analysis With an Introduction to Crime Scene Nichols, R. G. Defending the scientific foundations
Reconstruction, Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, of the firearms and tool mark identification
2002. discipline: Responding to recent challenges, J
Boeree, C. G. Epistemology, 1999. Available at: Forensic Sci., 52 (3) (2007): 586–594.
http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/epist.html. Oien, C. T. Forensic hair comparison: Background
Bottrell, M. C. Forensic glass comparison: information for interpretation, Forensic Sci
Background information used in data interpre- Commun., 11 (2) (2009).
tation, Forensic Sci Commun., 2 (2009): 11. Page, M., Taylor, J. and Blenkin, M. Uniqueness in
Budowle, B., Bottrell, M. C., Bunch, S. G., Fram, R., the forensic identification sciences—fact or fic-
Harrison, D., Meagher, S., Oien, C. T., Peterson, tion? Forensic Sci Int., 206 (2011): 12–18.
P. E., Seiger, D. P., Smith, M. B., Smrz, M. A., Peterson, P. E., Dreyfus, C. B., Gische, M. R., Hollars,
Soltis, G. L. and Stacey, R. B. A perspective on M., Roberts, M. A. and Ruth, R. M. Latent
errors, bias, and interpretation in the forensic prints: A perspective on the state of the science,
sciences and direction for continuing advance- Forensic Sci Commun., 11 (4) (2009).
ment, J. Forensic Sci., 54 (4) (2009): 798–809. Saks, M. J. and Koehler, J. J. The individualization
Bunch, S. G., Smith, E. D., Girouz, B. N. and Murphy, fallacy in forensic science evidence, Vanderbilt
D. P. Is a match really a match? A primer on Law Review, 61 (1) (2008): 199–219.
the procedures and validity of firearm and tool- Smith, M. B. The forensic analysis of footwear
mark identification, Forensic Sci. Commun., 11 impression evidence, Forensic Sci Commun.,
(3) (2009). 11 (3) (2009).
Specter, M. Do fingerprints lie? The gold standard of Thurman, J. T. Practical bomb scene investigation,
forensic evidence is now being challenged, The 2nd ed., Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2011.
Van Dijk, T. M. Pattern evidence—Tools, in
New Yorker, May 27, 2002.
Encyclopedia of Forensic Science, Siegel, J.
Stoffel, J. F. Explosives and Homemade Bombs, A., Knuper, G. and Saukko, P. (Eds.) London:
Springfield: Charles C. Thomas, 1972. Academic Press, 2000, 1216–1228.
Chapter 15
Scheme for Investigating Structure Fires
15.1 INTRODUCTION (2014a) state that it implies to observe, hypothesize,

and conclude.
The challenges involved in the investigation of The observable patterns that are left in fire
structure fires are twofold; first, the effect of fire scenes may generate information on the location
itself is destructive enough to alter or destroy the of greater intensity of fire, the locations that were
available physical evidence, and, second, the fire- occupied by objects that may have caused protected
fighting operations lead to further alterations which spaces, the possibility of electricity or the electri-
are unavoidable since the interests of the fire fighter cal appliances as the cause of the fire, etc. The case
to save life and property do not coincide with the examples described include some of the aforemen-
interests of the scene investigator which are to pre- tioned observations that enabled framing hypoth-
serve the evidence and to reconstruct the circum- eses and drawing conclusions.
stances that prevailed when the fire initially started. The flowchart (15.2 Flowchart) offers the basic
However, the development and behavior of the fire course of action in a fire scene that is fundamental
are fairly predictable in that its effects on the struc- for locating the greater intensity of fire and for rec-
ture of the building and its content can still be recognizing the different fire scene patterns. The case
ognized despite the destructive effects. Clarifying illustrations depicting some of the fire scene pat-
that scientific investigation of a fire scene does not terns and the sketches would be useful for guiding
mean analyzing things in a laboratory or replicating the field investigators involved in structure fire scene
a fire scene in a computer model, DeHaan and Icove investigations.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003267096-15 309

15.2 FLOWCHART INVESTIGATING FIRE SCENES
310
15.1. FLOWCHART
FOR FOR INVESTIGATINGSTRUCTURE
STRUCTURE FIRE SCENES
CRIME SCENE
SOC: DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIOR OF FIRE OVER-ALL SOC OVER ALL SOC
- Ground plan FIRE SOURCE

IGNITION ACCELERANTS IN THATCHED HOUSES SOC: FIRE SCENE PATTERNS
- Elevation view - Matches/Match box
- Isometric view - Others
STRUCTURE RELATED - Burn in thatches SMOKE PATTERNS
- Closed/open/others VOLATILE LIQUIDS From inside AND DIRECTIONALITY LOCATION OF OVEN
- Time—day/night EXTERIOR WALLS - Include cardinal
- Downhill flow From outside IN THATCHED HOUSES
- Recent activities - From windows/doors directions
- Seams and cracks
- Wind direction - Height of burning - From crevices BURN IN ROOF ETC.
Access from outside - Fan or ‘V’ shaped SMOKE PATTERNS
PRIMARY IGNITORS SPALL EVIDENCE - From windows etc.
LESS VOLATILE ACCELERANT
- Matches/Match box - Country oven - Smoke stained Directionality
LIQUIDS - Container—remnant
- Burnt or unburnt Location - Not smoke stained Density
- Carpet soaking - Burned tracks
- Lighters/Candles Burning or not
- Halo damages—
- Others CHAR PATTERNS SPALL EVIDENCE
center undamaged SMOKE PATTERNS
- Ventilation - Low burning - Smoke stained - Directionality
BURNING FRAGMENTS Wind direction - Depth of char-wood - Not smoke stained - Density
- Country Ovens - Ghost marks/adhesives
INCENDIARY ITEMS
- Smoking—cigarette - Others
- Crackers ELECTRICAL
- Fire places/Chimneys
- Explosives BOARDS/FUSES AND
- Trash burning/Bonfires HIGHLIGHTS
- Flammable liquids BURNT APPLIANCES WIRES
- Hot metals—rare
- Others - From outside/from within
- Others Location of
PROTECTED AREAS
Fire initiation
ELECTRICAL ORIGIN DISPLACED OBJECTS - Oven
FUSES AND WIRES - Flash over effects CHAR PATTERNS
- Electrical
- Spark/arc - Fallen objects/others Appliances
- Globules/sleeve effect BURN PATTERNS
- Liquid spills
SERVICE APPLIANCES PROTECTED AREAS
- Incendiary items
Others - Legs of furniture GHOST MARKS
- Base of objects
Protected areas –
NATURAL SOURCES - Others GLASS FRACTURES
• Consider evidence indicating extended their distribution
- Lightning burning, smoke and char patterns and
- Sun light—rare GLASS FRACTURES
evidence of spall to narrow down seat of - Others
- Mechanical
fire.
AUTOIGNITION—RARE Radial—concentric
• Scrutinize observations relating to Include
- Haymow fire/bagasse - Heat related/Crazed
electrical causes for acceptability when measurements
- Drying oils/charcoal - Blow out in bulbs
hypothesizing electricity as cause of fire. wherever possible
dust
Alterations due to
firefighting tasks
Scheme for Investigating Structure Fires 311
CASE 15–1: STRUCTURE FIRE SCENE INVESTIGATION—

BRICK MASONRY PUBLIC STRUCTURE
THE CASE The relative intensity of burning was studied

Smoke was seen emanating from an antique pub- by examining the extent of char in the wooden
lic office building, a brick masonry structure, rafters and beams that were either found fallen or
in the midst of a night on a Sunday, and subse- intact in different locations. Spalling of plaster on
quently flames were observed together with the the walls was studied, and the evidence of smoke
noise of falling materials, shattering of glasses, deposition on the bricks exposed after the spall was
etc. The police were informed, and the fire was recorded. In addition, the extent of smoke-staining
controlled the next morning after firefighting in exit points such as ventilators and doorways was
operations throughout the night. The areas dev- recorded, and the directionality in the staining as
astated by the fire included the ground and first well as its intensity was noted by diagrammati-
floors of the building. cally representing in arrows of varying breadth as
shown in Figure 15.1. Burnt electrical appliances,
FIGURE 15.1 Aerial view sketch of the scene of fire diagrammatically representing the direction and
intensity of smoke-staining by arrows of varying breadth.
blown fuse elements, and melted ends of electrical ignition to be located in the northern part of the
wires were also studied for exploring the possibili- building.
ties of electrical source of fire.
Painting work had been stated to be in Observed premises
progress since about five weeks prior to the fire. a) Brick work on the wall exposed after
Painting of the internal structures of the build- spalling of plaster in the northern part
ing being the last activity that was reported on of the building revealed deeper smoke-
the Sunday preceding the fire, the possibility of staining on the surface of the bricks
autoignition was also considered. in the area of spall in the lower level
(Figure 15.2).
POSSIBLE HYPOTHESES b) Char depth in the wooden rafters in the
1. Accidental initiation of fire due to electri- form of alligator patterns was deeper and
cal causes such as short circuit or due to intense in the northern half of the build-
ing (arrows in Figure 15.3, an enlarge-
other natural causes such as autoignition.
ment of the boxed area in Figure 15.2).
2. Initiation of fire by deliberately setting
fire to the content in the building or due
to negligent human activities like dis-
carding burning ends of cigarettes. a) Plaster subjected to heat may spall expos-
3. Fire cause decided as indeterminable. ing the underlying brickwork provid-
ing some evidence which can be used in
deciding the fire seat location (DeHaan
SEQUENTIAL HYPOTHESIS 1 and Icove, 2014-a, 2014-b; Koussiafes,
The northern part of the building revealed greater 2004). The area of spall while the fire
heat flux and charring supporting the point of was still continuing would indicate
FIGURE 15.2 Areas of wall showing the spalling of plaster. Note the smoke-staining on the brick
surfaces that had occurred after the spall of plaster. Charred wooden rafters are also seen (box).
FIGURE 15.3 Enlarged view of the alligator

pattern of charring seen on the wooden rafters
shown in the boxed area in Figure 15.2.
smoke- staining on the surface of the

bricks exposed due to spall.
b) The greater the heat flux, the more rapid
the rate of charring (DeHaan and Icove,
2014-a, 2014-b; Sheppard, 2004).
Reconstruction
Smoke-staining on the lower level of the wall with
gradual decrease on the higher level on the north-
ern part of the building indicated sustained burn-
ing and greater heat flux after the spall of plaster
in that area. The deeper charring of wooden raf- FIGURE 15.4 View of the extent of smoke-
ters in that area endorses sustained fire in that staining on the exterior walls.
location. These observations support the seat of
fire to be in the northern part of the building. Reconstruction
The pattern of smoke-staining on the exterior
SEQUENTIAL HYPOTHESIS 2 walls corresponded to the extent of greater fire
The extent of smoke- staining on the exterior destruction on the interior of the northern side
walls oftentimes corresponds to the extent of fire of the building. Influence of wind direction on
destruction on the interior structures. smoke-staining had been minimal as the doors
remained closed.
Observed premises
The extent of smoke-staining was greater on the SEQUENTIAL HYPOTHESIS 3
northern wall (Figure 15.4) and north eastern Electrical appliances that cause fire would indi-
outer wall of the building corresponding to the cate evidence of internal heating.
ventilators and arches as shown by the broader
arrows in the sketch in Figure 15.1. The doors of Observed premises
the building remained locked. Many electrical wax heaters were found among
the debris (Figure 15.5), and none of them
Accepted (major) premises revealed evidence of internal melting which can
The intensity of smoke-staining in the points of be attributed to electrical short circuit and initia-
escape indicates the intensity and level of burn- tion of fire. Furthermore, these wax heaters were
ing. The smoke-staining to the walls may also found gathered in a particular location indicat-
indicate the direction of the wind prevailing at ing that they were not regularly used by the staff.
the time of the fire (DeHaan and Icove, 2014-b). Although not electrical, a few mini gas cylinders
FIGURE 15.5 Electrical wax melters found in the scene.
FIGURE 15.6 Mini gas cylinders found in the scene.
that were found among the debris (Figure 15.6) the damage would be internal when the cause
did not reveal any evidence of explosion. of fire is from the appliance (DeHaan and Icove,
2014-c).
When fire is caused by a faulty electrical appli- Reconstruction
ance, the interior of the appliance is usually sig- Wax heaters are the common electrical appli-
nificantly hotter than its surroundings. Thus, ances used in post offices. Lack of evidence of
b) Severance of fuse elements with globule

formation and charring of sleeve along
with blistering on the globules in elec-
trical wires are consequences of heating
effect such as those produced during a
fire. Absence of demarcation line between
the globule and the unmelted wire and
the absence of typical sleeve effect were
indications that did not support electri-
cal origin of fire.
Reconstruction
The globule formation in the ends of wires
reveals heating effect, and the sleeve effect is
FIGURE 15.7 Heat-
severed ends of electrical
absent. As such, the available evidence did not
wire revealing globule formation.
support electrical origin of fire.
internal heating in any of the electrical appli- SEQUENTIAL HYPOTHESIS 5

ances indicated that electrical appliances could Structure fire investigation needs to consider
not have been the possible cause of fire. The fact other factors and human activities that might
that these wax heaters were found gathered in have caused the fire.
one room supported that they were not plugged
in when fire progressed. The mini gas cylinders Observed premises
that had been burnt did not reveal evidence of
a) The building was locked in the evening
explosion.
by known witnesses, and the fire was
noticed during the night time. Samples
SEQUENTIAL HYPOTHESIS 4 of burnt debris from 35 locations were
Electrical origin of fire can be diagnosed by loop collected for analyzing the presence of
impedance and by examining the fuse elements inflammable or spontaneously combus-
and the globule formation in the ends of electri- tible materials.
cal wires in cases of structure fires. b) It was known that painting work was
under progress. There is a likelihood of
Observed premises piling up of rags of drying oils, a situ-
a) The main switch had been turned off. ation that required consideration of the
Verification of the earth loop impedance possibility of autoignition or spontane-
by the team of electrical engineers indi- ous combustion.
cated it to be within the limits. c) Some of the painters as well as the postal
b) Laboratory examination of the fuse ele- employees were known to be smokers, a
ments that have been blown indicated situation that required consideration of
severance with globule formation. The the possibility of fire being caused due
exposed and severed ends of electri- to negligent disposal of burning stub of
cal wires revealed charring of the outer cigarettes.
sleeve along with globule formation d) There was no evidence of rain or light-
(Figure 15.7) revealing blistering and ning on the night the fire occurred. Burnt
bubbling. firework flower sticks as well as unburnt
sparklers were found in one location.
a) Earth loop impedance that was within Accepted (major) premises
limits did not support short circuit- a) Since the building was last locked by
ing including those caused by rodent known witnesses, and the fire was
activities. noticed late during that night, the
likelihood for deliberate initiation of fire drying oils does not appear possible as revealed
does not appear supported. Inflammable by experimental verification. The possibility of
or spontaneously combustible materials fire due to negligent human activities such as
were not detected in any of the 35 sam- discarding a smoldering cigarette end, however,
ples that were collected and analyzed. remained equivocal.
However, it was a limitation that the
entire burnt debris could not be collected Conjoined reconstruction
and analyzed. Smoke-staining on the wall in the northern part
b) The possibility of autoignition or sponta- of the building and deeper charring of wooden
neous combustion in the local conditions rafters in that area indicated sustained fire in that
required experimental verification since location. The pattern of smoke-staining on the
paint-soiled rags may have been left in exterior walls and charring of wood described
piles by painters. However, instances of
in sequential hypotheses 1 and 2 support greater
autoignition are seldom reported in the
heat flux in the northern area of the building.
local conditions in which painters work.
Sequential hypotheses 3 and 4 indicate lack of
Experiments conducted simulating near-
evidence for electrical origin of fire either from
actual conditions in the local forensic
electrical appliances or due to electrical short
science laboratory failed to initiate spon-
circuit. While experiments do not indicate spon-
taneous combustion of paint-soiled rags.
taneous combustion as being feasible, the pos-
c) There were general assertions by the
sibility of fire to have been caused by negligent
staff as well as other workers that none
human activities such as discarding a smoldering
of them was in the habit of smoking
cigarette end remained equivocal. The precise
inside the office premises even during
cause of fire could not be suggested, and the fire
holidays. Such statements cannot be
relied on as being absolutely truthful cause was treated as ‘undetermined’ since there
since it is an unwitting human tendency was no scientific basis to arrive at any specific
to discard office norms especially when cause.
people work on holidays or after regular
working hours. As such, experimental Postscript
verification indicated that a discarded This case exemplifies the challenges in structure
cigarette end (without filter) with smol- fire investigation especially when the structure
dering tip can propagate smoldering fire is massive, the content is highly combustible,
in paint-soiled cotton rag. the fire is being noticed after the regular work-
d) Lightning as a cause of fire is ruled out ers had left the building and when the building
since there was no rain or lightning. remained locked, and, in addition, the scene
Crackers were reported to have been was being examined after the completion of
stored for distribution to the employ- prolonged firefighting operations. The building
ees for a celebration. Burnt products of being a public post office, the proposition of the
crackers were observed in the locality owner aiming financial compensation/benefit
where they had been stored. Crackers are by way of insurance claims does not arise. The
not capable of spontaneous ignition and observations relating fire patterns and damages,
can contribute to fire only as secondary by themselves, could not be relied on for diagnos-
participants. ing the cause of fire. The human-behavior-related
negligence remained circumstantial without any
Reconstruction scientific support. Authors generally classify the
Inflammable or spontaneously combustible cause of fire into three major categories—natural,
materials had not been detected during labo- incendiary, and undetermined and suggest that
ratory analysis of the samples of burnt debris. the classification ‘undetermined’ may change at
While the evidence of crackers and sparklers in some later time if additional evidence developed.
a fire scene may appeal to be intriguing, crack- The classification of ‘suspicious’ is discouraged
ers by themselves cannot contribute to fire. by authors since it is not an actual description of
Spontaneous combustion from rags soaked in fire cause (Almirall and Furton, 2004).
CASE 15–2: STRUCTURE FIRE SCENE INVESTIGATION—THATCHED STRUCTURE
THE CASE vi) The wind direction and the openings in

A thatched cottage reportedly caught fire sud- the cottage that permit wind flow.
denly, and the fire was put out by the wit-
nesses resulting in partial damage to the cottage POSSIBLE HYPOTHESES
(Figure 15.8). The scene was examined with ref- 1. Fire spread from inside the cottage from
erence to the following aspects. sources such as burning oven or some
trash—possibility of accidental fire.
i) Extent of burning in the internal thatches 2. Fire was initiated by intent— possibility
versus the thatches on the exterior to of arson or mischief.
evaluate the side that burned for a longer
duration. SEQUENTIAL HYPOTHESIS 1
ii) Proximity of the location of burning to
The extent of charring in thatches and bamboo
the sources of fire initiation inside the
rafters in the cottage can indicate the side in
cottage such as the country oven and
which intensity of burning was greater.
lamps.
iii) The minimal and maximal evidence
Observed premises
of burn area in the partially burnt cot-
tage to evaluate the feasibility of human a) Extent of burning was greater on the out-
hand-reach from the ground level. side as indicated by the degree of char-
iv) Presence of incriminating material evi- ring of the bamboo rafters on the outer
dence near the scene which could have aspect compared to the inner aspect.
been used for ignition purposes. b) The partial fire had been noted on the
v) Pathways permitting human access to side of the cottage, while the country
the location of burning in the thatches. oven was seen located on the far end of
FIGURE 15.8 View of the partly burnt thatched cottage.

the cottage. Reportedly, the oven was

not being used when the fire was noticed,
and there was no evidence of any other
source of fire inside the cottage. The cot-
tage had a single entry point, and wind
flow was minimal since there was no exit
point for the free flow of air.

a) When burning is initiated from inside the
cottage, the inner aspect of the thatched
structure including the bamboo rafters
would reveal significant charring effect.
b) The location of fire destruction on a FIGURE 15.9 The empty bottle smelling of ker-
thatched structure would be in proxim- osene (without screw cap) and the box of matches
ity to the sources when it is initiated by found in the scene.
active flame or spark from country oven
or trash burning inside the cottage.
Reconstruction
The initiation of the fire had been on the outer
side of the thatches of the cottage.
Presence of sources of ignition in the scene sup-
ports intentional initiation of fire from outside
the cottage.
Observed premises
a) An empty bottle smelling of kerosene
without screw cap and a box of matches
(Figure 15.9) were both found on the ground
FIGURE 15.10 Metal screw cap (arrow) found in
below the burnt region of the thatches. the threshold loft inside the cottage.
b) The burnt region in the thatches was
within hand-reach from the ground level. supported intentional setting fire to the thatches
from outside the cottage.
a) A bottle smelling of kerosene and the SEQUENTIAL HYPOTHESIS 3
box of matches are known sources of A screw cap that revealed bridge points match-
ignition. ing with those on the integral band in the bottle
b) Evidence of burning of the thatched indicated possible origin of source of the screw
structure in areas within hand-reach sup- cap from that bottle.
ports the possibility of sprinkling that
area with kerosene-like inflammable liq- Observed premises
uids and then setting fire to that location. A metal screw cap was found in the threshold loft
part of the cottage (arrow in Figure 15.10). The
Reconstruction screw cap fitted with the thread in the mouth of the
The presence of kerosene smelling bottle and the bottle. In addition, the screw cap revealed bridge
box of matches in the scene and the location of points (arrows in Figure 15.11) that matched
burn in the thatches in an area within hand-reach the bridge points on the tamper-evident integral
FIGURE 15.11 Close-

bridge points (arrows) in the screw cap.
FIGURE 15.13 Illustration of match between the

bridge points in the screw cap and on the integral
band on the bottle (arrows).
screw cap and the integral band can reveal indi-

vidualizing features indicating such matching.
Reconstruction
The presence of the screw cap of the bottle inside
the cottage and its fit with the thread in the bottle
mouth and the match between the bridge points
in the screw cap and the integral band in the bot-
tle support the origin of the screw cap from the
kerosene- smelling bottle.
FIGURE 15.12 Close-
bridge points (arrows) on the integral band in the
empty kerosene bottle. Sequential hypotheses 1 and 2 indicated the pos-
sible use of kerosene from the bottle to set fire
to the outside of the thatches of the hut using
band on the bottle (arrows in Figures 15.12 and match sticks. Sequential hypothesis 3 supported
15.13). the possible source of the bottle from inside the
hut. As such, the possibility of accidental causes
Accepted (major) premises leading to fire was not indicated. However,
As class characteristic, the bridge points in a the reconstruction supported the possibility of
screw cap and those in the tamper-evident inte- intentional or mischievous setting of fire with
gral band match with each other. Further micro- the involvement of one or other inmates of the
scopic examination of the tear pattern in the cottage.
15.4 DISCUSSION on these subjects. Some of the common sources that

commonly crop up during fire scene investigations
15.4.1 Myths and Facts Relating to Observations in are briefly described here.
Structure Fire Scenes
Electrical causes: Scholarly authors consider
i. Myth: One of the most common causes for electrical sources to be the most misun-
structure fires is electrical fault. derstood cause for fires. If electrical appli-
Fact: Studies have shown that electrical- ances and electricity supply are present at
fault-
related structure fires are rare, a fire scene, any diagnosis of an electrical
accounting to only about 2% (Twibell, cause should only be made after the follow-
2004). ing factors have been carefully considered.
ii. Myth: Structure fires spread in an abnor- In electrical appliances, the interior of the
mally fast rate. appliance will have been significantly hot-
Fact: Fires within buildings are rarely seen ter than its surroundings if the fire was due
at the time of ignition or during the smol- to faulty appliances. However, when the
dering stages. They are seen after the fires appliances had been in close proximity with
have grown and thus give an impression of combustible materials, the cause would be
fast rate of burning. interpreted as being due to the misuse of
iii. Myth: The smoldering end of a lighted cig- electrical appliances. Evidence of electrical
arette, when discarded or left unattended, sparks or arcing may not by itself provide
will be put out in due course. proof that the fire was electrical in origin,
Fact: Lighted filter-tipped cigarettes of stan- although it may be taken as evidence that
dard length would smolder unattended for the conductors were live during or after the
between 10 and 20 minutes, with exposure fire.
to air currents tending to accelerate the rate Role of hot and burning fragments: Fragments
of burning (Daéid, 2004). from trash fires or from country ovens may
iv. Myth: Structure fires may lead to explosive be carried upwards in tune with the air cur-
bursts spreading fire to nearby buildings. rent and cause ignition. Trash burners and
Fact: The furniture and synthetic fabrics bonfires are also likely to produce airborne
burning inside a building release very high burning fragments especially when the
amount of heat leading to flashover within material used is lighter such as cardboard.
a few minutes. Flashover includes rollover Such ignition is a possibility in houses with
or sudden flaming out which gives the thatched roofs wherein country ovens are
impression of an explosive effect. used for cooking purposes. Consequently,
v. Myth: Dried hay in a haymow oftentimes the location of ignition would be related
leads to spontaneous combustion. to the wind direction, the openings in
Fact: Bacterial activity in a haymow having the house that permit wind flow, and the
suitable moisture range leads to an increase area of the thatches that are exposed these
in temperature; but such bacterial activity directions.
may cease to exist once the temperature Smoking as a fire source: There is no ques-
is increased to about 70°C. Beyond this tion that many fires were started by smok-
temperature, further chemical oxidation is ers. A glowing end of a cigarette increases
required for ignition to occur (DeHaan and in temperature, while smoke is drawn.
Icove, 2014-d; Maguire, 2004). A lighted cigarette end that is thrown can
create a smoldering fire which can burst
into flame after due time lapse (Maguire,
15.4.2 Possible Sources of Ignition in Fire Scenes 2004; Daéid, 2004).
Autoignition or ‘spontaneous fire’: The most
The sources of ignition and fire scene patterns are popular occurrence of spontaneous fires
vast subjects, and a detailed discussion on these is the haymow fire. If the hay is in the
subjects is not within the scope of this field guide. required moisture range, significant bacte-
Interested readers may refer to authors like DeHaan rial activity can develop, causing a rise in
and Icove (2014a-d), Almirall and Furton (2004), temperature. A moderate increase in tem-
and Daéid (2004) for more complete information perature can promote further bacterial
growth, with a consequential rise in tem- Spalling of plaster: Plaster subjected to heat
perature. However, the limit to temperature may spall from the underlying brickwork
increase as a result of bacterial activity is of walls providing evidence on heat flux in
around 70°C, the upper limit for most bac- that region. The area of spall while the fire
terial growth. At or above this temperature, was still continuing would indicate smoke
chemical oxidation can further increase the deposition on the surfaces of the bricks
temperature, which can then lead to even- that have been exposed. However, the sud-
tual ignition. Another possibility of spon- den cooling effect due to fire-fighting water
taneous fire is that mentioned in products jets may also spall plaster from brickwork,
containing drying or semidrying oils such although eventual smoke-staining would be
as linseed oil, which are susceptible to self- unlikely.
heating through chemical oxidation and Low burning as the seat of fire: Since fires
polymerization. Finely divided, readily oxi- spread predominantly in upward direction,
dized materials such as charcoal and coal the lowest region of burning might rea-
dust have also been indicated as having the sonably be supposed to be the seat of the
potential for self-heating. fire. However, burning materials can drop
down and start other fires, and, in addition,
a well- developed fire may possibly burn
15.4.3 Fire Scene Patterns through a floor, causing damage at a lower
level. If liquid fire accelerants have been
The examination of the physical patterns left at a used, they may leak through joints between
fire scene may provide evidence indicating the point floorboards causing characteristic burning
of ignition, areas of greater heat flux, directional patterns. During the course of the flow, the
effects of the fire, etc., provided that there has not liquid seeps into the seams and cracks in the
been too much disturbance. floor forming a reservoir. While very vol-
atile liquids flash off quickly, less volatile
Exterior walls: The smoke- staining to the fuels such as kerosene may produce char
walls may indicate the direction of the wind effect. On carpets, initial ignition of any
prevailing at the time of the fire, although liquid fuel will produce a ring or halo of
it should be borne in mind that the wind damage pile leaving the center of the pour
direction could have changed during the undamaged until the liquid is consumed.
period that the building burned.
Location of point of ignition: The assump- Among the smoke patterns, ‘funnel patterns’
tion is that where the fire has been ignited, are characteristic of localized fires such as those
it is likely to burn for the longest time, from trash cans or low-level fires occurring near
producing the greatest amount of dam- walls. Principally, funnel patterns indicate localized
age. However, in complex fires involving fuel loading and thus would also result when com-
an unequal distribution of fuels or variable bustible materials drop and burn in events subse-
ventilation, the fire scene patterns indicat- quent to fire. ‘Ghost marks’ are produced when the
ing fuel load may also manifest variably. tarry adhesive used in walls and floors burn inter-
Depth of charring of wood: The rate of char- nally causing patterns on the underlying concrete or
ring of wood will depend on the type of other surfaces.
wood involved and the amount of radiant
heat flux to which it has been subjected. Impact of fire on glass and bulbs: Glass frac-
The greater the heat flux, the more rapid tures can occur due to heat, and such frac-
the rate of charring. This effect can be used tures can be distinguished from fractures
to establish where the greatest heat has due to mechanical impact by their crazed
been involved by comparing charred wood pattern. Bulbs exposed to fire tend to “blow
in different parts of the building. Beveled out” toward the direction of the flame.
burn patterns occur in wooden objects Structural displacement during fire: Furniture
subjected to burning from one side which and partitions walls may be displaced dur-
is best seen in window frames and rafters. ing the fire due to the explosive effect of
Note that the terms beveling, shelving, or the defused vapor air mixture. This effect,
funneling are synonyms. known as ‘flash over’, is said to occur when
all the fuels in a closed room burst into smoke- staining along its periphery offer-
flaming combustion. The flash over period ing definite proof that combustion contin-
is marked by enormous turbulence and ued in the particular location (Figures 7.17
can cause disturbance in the objects in the and 7.18). When a victim continues to burn
room. After the flashover, a post blast over after resting on a surface, as found in Case
steady state of burning continues for some 7–2, protected areas are seen in the areas of
time after which the fire decays leading to contact of the body (Figure 7.23).
extinguishment.
Protected area and their use in fire scene
reconstruction: Apart from flash over, REFERENCES
structure fire normally involves distur-
bance to articles in the interior due to fire- Almirall, J. R. and Furton, K. G. (Eds.). Analysis and
extinguishing operations. Recognition of Interpretation of Fire Scene Evidence, Boca
the ‘protected areas’ enables reconstruct- Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2004.
ing the locations occupied by objects prior Daéid, N. N. (Ed.). Fire Investigation, Boca Raton,
to the disturbance. Protected areas mean FL: CRC Press, 2004.
areas that have not been damaged by the DeHaan, J. D. and Icove, D. J. Introduction, in Kirk’s
flames because they were occupied by some Fire Investigation, DeHaan, J. D. and Icove, D.
objects such as chairs, tables, and benches J. (Eds.) Harlow, Essex: Pearson, 2014a.
all of which have the legs which rest on DeHaan, J. D. and Icove, D. J. Structure fires and
the floor providing a protected area to the their investigations, in Kirk’s Fire Investigation,
floor. Protected areas are important since DeHaan, J. D. and Icove, D. J. (Eds.) Harlow,
the locations of the objects are definitely Essex: Pearson, 2014b.
determined by the less smoke-stained areas DeHaan, J. D. and Icove, D. J. Electrical causes of
that reveal the type of the object in that fires, in Kirk’s Fire Investigation, DeHaan, J. D.
location. Cardboard cartons kept on the and Icove, D. J. (Eds.) Harlow, Essex: Pearson,
floor provide protected areas. In fires that 2014c.
have approached the flash over, dislocation DeHaan, J. D. and Icove, D. J. Sources of ignition,
in the furniture can be made out by study- in Kirk’s Fire Investigation, DeHaan, J. D. and
ing the protected areas. Trash can fire or Icove, D. J. (Eds.) Harlow, Essex: Pearson,
waste basket fire can also be diagnosed by 2014d.
the protected area occupied by the trash DeHaan, J. D. and Icove, D. J. (Eds.). Kirk’s Fire
can or the waste basket. Furthermore, a Investigation, Harlow, Essex: Pearson, 2014.
fan-shaped char pattern will occur on the Koussiafes, P. M. The interpretation of data gen-
wall just over the trash container with its erated from fire debris examination: Report
lower boundary at the height of the trash writing and testimony, in Analysis and
container itself. Apart from the well-known Interpretation of Fire Scene Evidence, Almirall,
use of the ‘protected areas’ to reconstruct J. R. and Furton, K. G. (Eds.) Boca Raton, FL:
the locations occupied by objects prior CRC Press, 2004.
to any disturbance, these areas can also Maguire, C. Fires from causes other than electrical
be used for ascertaining the locations malfunctions—Theory and case studies, in Fire
of objects that have been subjected to Investigation, Daéid, N. N. (Ed.) Boca Raton,
the effect of flames in cases of death due FL: CRC Press, 2004.
to burns. Readers may recall Case 7–1 Sheppard, D. T. Fire dynamics, in Analysis and
wherein protected areas occupied by a ker- Interpretation of Fire Scene Evidence, Almirall,
osene can (Figure 7.4) and by a match box J. R. and Furton, K. G. (Eds.) Boca Raton, FL:
(Figure 7.6) have been shown to be useful CRC Press, 2004.
when reconstructing scenes involving death Twibell, J. D. Electricity and fire, in Fire Investigation,
due to burns. Furthermore, the combustible Daéid, N. N. (Ed.) Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press,
material itself leaves protected areas with 2004.
Chapter 16
Scheme for Investigating Vehicle-Related
Incident Scenes
16.1 INTRODUCTION human beings are hit still require studies relating to
human positions and locations of personal injuries.
During the investigations of incidents involving Vehicle-related incidents may include collision
vehicles, the essential issue to be solved is whether between two vehicles moving at right angles, two
the incident is really an accident or is due to omis- vehicles moving in the same or opposite directions,
sions on the part of individuals who are negligent. or between one vehicle with a cyclist or motorist or
As with other crime scenes, reconstructing the a pedestrian as well as alteration in the identifica-
scene forms the major goal in vehicle-related inci- tion details in a vehicle that is stolen, etc. Examining
dents also. The common sources of information for the vehicle for defects which could be the cause for
establishing the sequence of events in vehicle-related an incident is an important area that forms part of
incidents include the tire marks, scrapes, and gouges the inquiry. In India, this responsibility rests with
left by the vehicles in the road before, during, and the motor vehicle inspectors of the road transport
after the impact; position of the vehicle; hit marks department.
on the vehicles; human positions; personal inju- The flowchart (16.2 Flowchart) offers the plan
ries, etc. Photographs and sketches are invaluable of action for investigating vehicle-related incidents
during reconstruction, and one is not a substitute in general. Although limited, the case illustrations
for the other (Steffan, 2000; Rudram, 2000). Rail would offer examples which can be useful for
investigations are different from road investigations the field investigators involved in vehicle- related
(Whent, 2000) although the incidents in which investigations.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003267096-16 323

324
16.2 FLOWCHART FOR INVESTIGATING VEHICLE-R ELATED INCIDENT SCENES
CRIME SCENE
VEHICULAR ACCIDENT THEFT OF VEHICLE SKETCH PHOTOGRAPHY
OBSERVATIONS OVER-ALL SOC OVERALL SOC
COLLISION BETWEEN COLLISION BETWEEN VEHICLE AND - Ground plan SCRAPES/GOUGES

VEHICLE
VEHICLES PEDESTRIAN/CYCLIST - Elevation view - Relation to vehicle
IDENTIFICATION
- Isometric view - Directionality
POINT OF IMPACT ON THE ON THE VICTIM SKID/TYRE MARKS

VEHICLE/BICYCLE TAMPERING OF - Include cardinal
directions - Type/Length
SCRAPES/GOUGES NUMBERS - Skew etc.
- Type - Erasing numbers
DAMAGES EXTERNAL INJURIES
- Relation to vehicle - Punching numbers DEBRIS/MUD FLAKES
- Height -Type SCRAPES/GOUGES
- Punches - Location
- Type - Measurements - Relation to vehicle
SKID/TYRE MARKS - Others
- Height from heel - Directionality
- Type/Length GLASS/PAINT
- Skew etc. LOSS/TRANSFER
- Windscreen/Head
OF PAINT REMOVAL OF
INTERNAL INJURIES lamp/ Others
DEBRIS/MUD FLAKES - Location NUMBER PLATES
FROM AUTPOSY REPORT HIGHLIGHTS - Flakes; smears
- Type/location - Shape - Evidence of removal
-Type - Paint missing area in
- Location - Others - Skid marks vehicle
GLASS/PAINT BLOODSTAINS
- Tire marks
- Windscreen/head - Location
- Mud flakes ACCESSORIES
lamp/ others - Pattern PAINT EVIDENCE
CLOTHING - Glass - Rear view mirror
- Flakes/smears - Damages and types - Flaking - Paint flakes; smears - Horn
- Paint missing area in FIBERS - Smearing - Accessories - Others
vehicle - Location TRACE EVIDENCE - Capillarity related - Bloodstains - Plastic/rubber
- Plastic/rubber - Type - Glass pieces - Additional layers - Fibers and hairs
- Paint etc. - Others - Damages on vehicle BLOODSTAINS ETC.
DAMAGES IN VEHICLE - Others - Bloodstains

- Location HIT MARKS
- Hairs
- Height from road - Location PATTERNED
Include - Fibers
level - Type EVIDENCE
measurements
- Postcrash - Contact patterns
wherever possible PATTERNED EVIDENCE
- Impressions
CUES FOR RECONSTRUCTION - Contact patterns
- Two-way pattern
ACCESSORIES IN SOC - Impressions
match
- Rear view mirror • Relate observations indicating the point of - Others
- Others
- Horn and others impact (POI), skid/tire marks when framing
hypotheses to locate the relative positions of the INJURIES
vehicles at the time of collision. - External
BLOODSTAINS ETC.
• Consider the damages on the vehicle in relation
- Location/type
to the injuries on victims when reconstructing hit
- Hairs/fibers/others
on pedestrians.
Vehicle-Related Incident Scenes 325
CASE 16–1: COLLISION BETWEEN BUSES MOVING AT RIGHT

ANGLES: RELEVANCE OF SKEWED SKID MARKS
THE CASE SEQUENTIAL HYPOTHESIS 1

Two passenger buses, one ‘A’ on the main road pro- When two vehicles collide with each other in an
ceeding from west to east and another ‘B’ on the intersection, the resultant force would depend
byroad proceeding from south to north, collided on the direction of the vehicle that had higher
with each other at a 90º intersection, and, after col- momentum.
lision, the bus ‘B’ ran over individuals on the road-
side killing three of them on the spot. Two more Observed premises
injured victims died subsequent to initial treatment. a) The two front tires of bus ‘A’ have left
In bus ‘A’, the front windshield glasses were straight skid marks each measuring
found shattered, and the damages on the front 3.4 m and 2.6 m, indicating that the
right side included crush damage to the rubber course of the bus had been eastward
beading at a height of 1.15 m from road level. until the initiation of the skewed course
Mud flakes were found lying on the road behind indicated as ‘point of impact (POI)-F ’ in
both the rear tires of bus ‘A’. Figure 16.1.
In bus ‘B’, the damages were prominent in b) Both the aforementioned straight skid
the front grill and bumper that were found col- marks have skewed northwardly termi-
lided against a flag post and its pedestal on the nating with the two front tires showing
roadside. In addition, the metal sheet of the body that the resultant force had deflected the
near the front exit on the left side was found torn bus ‘A’ toward north, viz. direction of
with streaks of black rubber at a height of about travel of bus ‘B’ (Figures 16.1 and 16.2).
1.14 m from road level.
On the road surface, skid marks of the fol- Accepted (major) premises
lowing descriptions relating to bus ‘A’ were noted.
a) Skidding meant the wheels locking up
due to driver braking and the vehicle
i) A straight skid mark measuring 2.8 m
then sliding, not rolling, until com-
with a 40-cm long skew that terminated
ing to rest (Batterman and Batterman,
with the rear left tire
2000). Skewed skid marks indicate that
ii) A straight skid mark measuring 3.4 m
the vehicle had been deflected when the
with a 3.5-m long skewed skid mark that
wheels were still locked.
terminated with the front right tire
b) In situations of right angle (90º) inter-
iii) A straight skid mark measuring 2.6 m
section collision of two vehicles, the
with a 3.5-m long skewed skid mark that
deflection in the course of the vehicles
terminated with the front left tire
after collision would be decided on
the basis of Newton’s Second Law of
Another straight skid mark running north-
Motion where the resultant force (F)
south and measuring 1.9 m in length was found
acting on the particle (a body) is equal
on the road to the south of the beginning of the
to the product of its mass (m) times the
skewed mark traceable to the front right tire of
acceleration (a) of the particle (a body)
bus ‘A’ (Figure 16.1).
or F = ma (where vectors are indicated
in boldface symbol) (Batterman and
PRIMARY HYPOTHESIS
Batterman, 2000).
Bus ‘A’ had been moving with greater momentum
and had, on collision with bus ‘B’, deflected the Reconstruction
course of bus ‘B’.
After the right angle collision in the intersection,
bus ‘A’ had been deflected northwardly, and thus
ALTERNATE HYPOTHESIS
the northward travelling bus ‘B’ had a greater
Bus ‘B’ had been moving with greater momentum momentum at the time of collision.
and had, on collision with bus ‘A’, deflected the Due to the limitation that the skid marks
course of bus ‘A’. have been skewed and have terminated abruptly,
FIGURE 16.1 Aerial view sketch of the scene representing the relative locations of the two buses and
the skewed skid marks caused by bus ‘A’.
the speed of the vehicle could not be calculated
since, under such conditions, the energy dissipa-
tion would be greatly influenced (Steffan, 2000).
Considering the point of impact, bus ‘A’ was in
the eastern half of the intersection.
Observed premises
a) The beginning of the skew in the skid
mark of the front tires of bus ‘A’ indi-
cated the location of those tires at the
point of impact (‘POI’ in Figure 16.1).
The distance between the center of the
front wheel and the bumper in bus ‘A’
was 1.6 m.
FIGURE 16.2 Photograph of the skewed skid b) The debris, mud flakes, had fallen on the
mark. road from the rear tires.
c) The height of damage to rubber beading had traversed much of the intersection toward
in bus ‘A’ corresponds to the height at east when the collision occurred.
which the transferred traces of rubber is
seen on bus ‘B’. Conjoined reconstruction
Bus ‘A’ had been deflected northwardly, and
Accepted (major) premises thus the northward travelling bus ‘B’ had a
a) The beginning of the skew in the skid greater momentum (product of velocity and
mark indicates the point of impact that mass) at the time of collision. At the time the col-
has deflected the course of the movement. lision occurred, bus ‘A’ had traversed much of
b) The debris deposited on the mudguard the intersection toward east. Thus, the alternate
may fall down during the force of impact hypothesis is supported.
and thus can be used to deduce the point Due to the postcrash deflection of the course
of impact. of bus ‘A’ and due to the partial skid marks left
c) When two vehicles collide, vehicle crush by bus ‘B’, the speed of the vehicles could not be
damages occur in locations that can be calculated.
related (Batterman and Batterman, 2000).
Note
Reconstruction Skid marks as evidence enabling the calculation
The point of impact had been about 1.6 m east of speed of travel of vehicles have become popu-
of the point at which the skid mark caused by the lar in accident investigations. However, in real-
front right tire of bus ‘A’ had skewed. This loca- life case situations, complete skid marks are rare,
tion corresponds to the location of the rear tire and hence the evidentiary value of skid marks
of bus ‘A’ at the point where mud flakes are seen appears more relevant for diagnosing the appli-
(Figure 16.1). It is also seen that the rear left tire cation of brakes rather than for calculating the
had not slid eastward after the collision. Bus ‘A’ speed as indicated in the discussion.
CASE 16–2: COLLISION BETWEEN A LORRY AND A BICYCLE:

HOMICIDE SIMULATED AS ACCIDENT
THE CASE a smear of paint similar to the paint in the bum-

A male individual aged 24 years reportedly per of the lorry was found.
assaulted by multiple suspects died of blunt force As such, the rear of the bicycle carrier
injuries. It was also averred that the deceased, revealing the paint smear (Figure 16.6 enlarged
while riding his bicycle, was hit by a lorry and in Figure 16.7) and the height of the hit mark
was run over sustaining the injuries. The accident in the lorry bumper (Figure 16.3 enlarged in
was suspected as a staged one, and the lorry and Figure 16.8) could not be correlated since the
the bicycle were examined. bicycle’s height had shortened due to cramming
The front bumper of the lorry on its left end of the frame (Figure 16.9); the carrier level of the
revealed a hit mark where paint was missing bicycle was below the level of the bumper of the
(arrow in Figure 16.3). This damage was 83.0 cm lorry (Figure 16.9). Hence, another bicycle of the
high from the road level (Figure 16.4). same brand with the same type of carrier, etc.,
The damages in the bicycle included jam- was secured and studied as a model. When that
ming of the rear wheel, carrier unit, and chain model bicycle was left to rest on its tires, the
guard with the parking stand crammed in a height of its carrier frame reached only 77.0 cm
downward angle (Figure 16.5); damages in the from the ground level which was below the level
seat and related parts, and evidence of hit in the of the bumper and about 6.0 cm lesser than the
rear end of the carrier frame (Figure 16.6) where hit mark on the bumper (Figures 16.10 and 16.4).
FIGURE 16.5 View of the damaged bicycle.

Note the jammed rear wheel, carrier unit, chain
guard, and the downwardly crammed parking
stand.
FIGURE 16.3 Hit mark revealing missing of

paint (arrow) in the front bumper of the lorry.
FIGURE 16.6 Location of the paint smear on

the rear of the bicycle carrier (arrow).
ALTERNATE HYPOTHESIS
FIGURE 16.4 Diagrammatic illustration of the The bicycle was parked on its stand when it was hit
height of the hit mark on the lorry bumper in
by the lorry—possibly simulation of an accident.
relation to the paint smear seen on the carrier of
the bicycle.
However, when the same bicycle was parked on The bumper of the lorry collided with the carrier
its stand, the height of the carrier frame reached of the bicycle.
the level of the bumper and about the level of the
hit mark that was 83.5 cm above the ground level Observed premises
(Figures 16.11 and 16.4). The front bumper of the lorry on its left end
revealed a hit mark where paint was miss-
PRIMARY HYPOTHESIS ing (Figure 16.3 enlarged in Figure 16.8). The
The bicycle was hit by the lorry when the victim bicycle carrier frame revealed a smear of paint
was riding on the bicycle, i.e., when its tires were (Figure 16.6 enlarged in Figure 16.7) that was
rolling on the road—possibly an accident. similar to the paint in the bumper of the lorry.
FIGURE 16.7 Close-up view of the paint smear

on the rear of the bicycle carrier (arrow).
FIGURE 16.9 Illustration indicating the prob-

lems in relating the height of the bicycle carrier
and the height of the hit mark in the lorry bum-
per due to crammed bicycle frame.
Observed premises
a) When using the model bicycle, its carrier
frame reached a height of 77.0 cm when
its tires rested on the road, and this level
was below the level of the lorry bumper
FIGURE 16.8 Close-up view of the hit mark on
and was 6.0 cm lesser than the hit mark
the bumper of the lorry.
seen on the bumper (Figures 16.10 and
Accepted (major) premises 16.4). However, when the same bicy-
cle was parked on its stand, the height
Transfer of paint traces occurs in the form of a
of the carrier frame reached 83.5 cm
smear during contact between a metal object and
which correlated with the bumper level
a painted surface.
and the height of the hit mark on the
bumper from ground level, viz. 83.0 cm
Reconstruction
(Figures 16.11 and 16.4).
Evidence of smear of paint on the rear end of b) The stand of the bicycle was seen down-
the bicycle carrier frame and the similarity of wardly crammed (Figures 16.5 and 16.9).
this paint with the paint seen in the hit mark on
the surface of the bumper of the lorry indicate Accepted (major) premises
that there had been contact between these two
a) When two objects collide with each
objects.
other, the points of contacts can be cor-
related by their related placement in their
SEQUENTIAL HYPOTHESIS 2 elevation.
The bicycle was parked on its stand when the col- b) The downwardly crammed stand of the
lision occurred between its carrier frame and the bicycle supported that the stand was
bumper of the lorry. downward when the cramming occurred.
FIGURE 16.10 View of another bicycle of simi-

lar model as the crammed bicycle parked resting
on its tire in relation to the bumper of the lorry.
Note the carrier frame height failing to reach the FIGURE 16.11 When the same bicycle shown
level of the hit mark on the lorry bumper. in Figure 16.10 was parked on its stand, the
height of its carrier frame reached the level of the
Reconstruction bumper.
The downwardly crammed stand of the bicycle
supported that the bicycle had been parked on
its stand when cramming happened. The acces-
sibility for the carrier to reach the bumper height its stand when its carrier frame collided with
only when the bicycle was on its stand further the bumper of the lorry. The cramming of the
indicated that the bicycle had been parked on its frame of the bicycle with the stand downwardly
stand when the collision occurred between the directed further supported that the stand of the
carrier of the bicycle and the bumper of the lorry. bicycle was downward when cramming occurred.
In as much as the reconstruction does not sup-
Conjoined reconstruction port collision when the bicycle was rolling on its
Sequential hypotheses 1 and 2 support the alter- tires, the incident is indicated as a staged one to
nate hypothesis that the bicycle was parked on simulate an accident.
CASE 16–3: ALTERING IDENTITY OF A STOLEN VEHICLE
THE CASE bodies were left near the highway to decompose.

A micro- bus used as a taxicab went missing The suspect took possession of the micro- bus
along with its driver and his assistant. A year (Figure 16.12) and altered the serial numbers of
later, a suspect confessed to have hired the said the engine and the chassis and wrote the registra-
micro-bus for travelling to a city about 300 km tion numbers to correspond to those of another
away and on the way administered powered micro-bus owned by the suspect which was in
‘Calmpose’ tablets mixed in brandy to the driver disrepair with its body and chassis (Figure 16.13)
and assistant and then killed them both. The dead dumped in a yard.
FIGURE 16.12 The micro-bus that was reportedly stolen and subsequently found in the possession of
the suspect.
FIGURE 16.13 The micro-bus in disrepair, the registration details of which corresponded to the micro-
bus in the possession of the suspect.
During the course of investigation, the micro- PRIMARY HYPOTHESIS

bus in possession of the suspect and the engine, The identity of the micro-bus in the possession of
chassis, and body of the micro-bus in disrepair; the suspect has been altered to match the identity
the dye set used for punching the engine num- of the micro-bus in disrepair.
bers; etc., were examined. The micro-bus in the
possession of the suspect and the body and chas- ALTERNATE HYPOTHESIS
sis of the micro-bus in disrepair were observed
The identity of the micro-bus in the possession
for evidence to relate them both.
of the suspect is unrelated to the identity of the
The serial number of the engine and chassis
micro-bus in disrepair.
impressed on the plates seen fitted on the micro-
bus in possession of the suspect (Figure 16.14)
corresponded to those on the registration records SEQUENTIAL HYPOTHESIS 1
in the name of the suspect. In the micro-bus in The similarities between the patterns on the
disrepair, the location where the engine and chas- rear of the serial number plate found fitted on
sis number plates were fixed was vacant, and the the micro-bus in the possession of the suspect
location of engine serial number plate revealed a and the patterns on the body of the micro-bus in
dried track of trickled paint running downward disrepair would indicate a two-way transfer sup-
(Figure 16.15). When the engine serial number porting the origin of the serial number plate from
plate in the fitted on the micro-bus in the posses- the micro-bus in disrepair.
sion of the suspect was removed, its rear surface
revealed the mirror image of the course of the Observed premises
trickled paint (Figure 16.16). a) The trickled track of paint in the micro-
bus in disrepair revealed areas of uneven
FIGURE 16.15 Dried track of trickled paint

(arrow) seen in the body of the micro-bus in dis-
repair in the location pertaining to the missing
FIGURE 16.14 Plates displaying the serial num- chassis registration plate
ber of the engine and chassis that were seen fitted (adapted from Jayaprakash, 2013 with permission
on the micro-bus in possession of the suspect. from Elsevier).
the engine number plate found fitted on

the micro-bus in the possession of the
suspect.
c) The terminal end of the trickled track
of paint in the micro- bus in disrepair
revealed two impressions on its surface
area (marked C in Figure 16.17). These
impressions were found to be the nega-
tive reproduction of the raised out areas
of the embossed letters ‘S D” on the rear
side of the engine number plate found fit-
ted on the micro-bus in the possession of
the suspect (marked C’ in Figure 16.18).

a) When two panels in contact were
removed from each other, the capillaries
in surface coatings may not break evenly
thereby allowing one half to adhere to
one panel and the other half to adhere
to the other panel. Where this occurred,
the part of the pattern that could be seen
on one panel would be mirrored on the
opposing panel (Gummer and Walsh,
1996).
b) When a panel was in contact with
another panel and the gap between the
panels allowed capillaries of the surface
coating to form, the patterns that were
FIGURE 16.16 Sinuous contact pattern due to
formed could be seen on both of the
capillarity and punch marks seen on the rear sur-
vehicle parts as a mirror image (Gummer
face of the chassis registration plate removed from
and Walsh, 1996).
the micro-bus in the possession of the suspect
c) A tool mark may be briefly described
(adapted from Jayaprakash, 2013 with permission as the mark left by an instrument or an
from Elsevier). object composed of a harder substance
coming in contact with and leaving some
breaks in the patterns caused by capillar- characteristic mark or impression on a
ity (marked A in Figure 16.17). The mir- softer medium. Such marks may show a
ror image of the aforementioned uneven negative reproduction of the tool itself or
breaks was seen on the rear side of the a series of parallel striations caused by
engine number plate found fitted on the dragging the tool or instrument across
micro-bus in the possession of the sus- the surface of the softer medium (Jones,
pect (marked A’ in Figure 16.18). 1959). Acceptable similarity between the
b) The sinuosity in the course of the trickled patterns in two objects supports a two-
track of paint on the body of the micro- way transfer of patterns due to physi-
bus in disrepair marked B in Figure 16.17 cal contact between these surfaces (Van
(flipped for enabling visual appraisal) as Dijk, 2000).
well as the overall course of the track of
the paint was a mirror image of the sinu- Reconstruction
osity (marked B’ in Figure 16.18) and the Two-way pattern match between the paint track
overall course in the impression of the in the engine number plate found fitted in the
track that was found on the rear side of micro-bus in the possession of the suspect and
FIGURE 16.17 Correspondence between the FIGURE 16.18 Correspondence between the
contact patterns in the trickled track of paint contact patterns in the trickled track of paint
revealing the impression of the bevels of the revealing the impression of the bevels of the
punch marks seen in the body of the micro-bus punch marks seen in the body of the micro-bus
in disrepair (‘A’, ‘B’, and ‘C’ in Figure 16.17) and in disrepair (‘A’, ‘B’, and ‘C’ in Figure 16.17) and
the sinuous contact pattern and punch marks on the sinuous contact pattern and punch marks on
the rear surface of the chassis registration plate the rear surface of the chassis registration plate
(‘A’, ‘B’, and ‘C’ in Figure 16.18) found fitted in (‘A’, ‘B’, and ‘C’ in Figure 16.18) found fitted in
the micro-bus in the possession of the suspect the micro-bus in the possession of the suspect
(adapted from Jayaprakash, 2013 with permission (adapted from Jayaprakash, 2013 with permission
from Elsevier). from Elsevier).
the pattern in the paint track seen in the micro- Observed premises
bus in disrepair indicates physical association The match in the patterns illustrated between
between that engine number and the micro-bus the paint trickle in the body of the micro-bus in
in disrepair. disrepair and the impression in the rear of the
engine serial number plate found in the micro-
SEQUENTIAL HYPOTHESIS 2 bus in the possession of the suspect indicated
The patterns involved in the two-way transfer features that are generated by multiple and inde-
illustrated in Figures 16.17 and 16.18 are unique terminable causations.
and thus conclusively associate the engine serial
number plate fitted in the micro-bus in the pos- Accepted (major) premises
session of the suspect with the body of the micro- Indeterminable causations in physical processes
bus in disrepair. generate pattern uniqueness in paint coatings
due to random capillary action of two contact- the possession of the suspect and the body of
ing surfaces. Such patterns have been shown to the micro-b us in disrepair conclusively associ-
be useful in matching vehicle parts back to the ated and connected the micro-b us in the pos-
vehicle (Gummer and Walsh, 1996). The prac- session of the suspect with the body of the
tical relevance of such patterns in establishing micro-b us in disrepair which was otherwise
association on a conclusive basis has been indi- unidentifiable. Thus, the primary hypothesis
cated (Jayaprakash, 2013). that the identity of the micro-b us in the pos-
session of the suspect has been altered to match
the identity of the micro-b us in disrepair is seen
Reconstruction to be sustained.
The two- way transfer of patterns between the
engine number plate found in the micro-bus in
the possession of the suspect and the body of the
micro-bus in disrepair offered conclusive evidence Postscript
connecting these two objects since the patterns are
At present, the engine and chassis numbers are
unique. Evidence for altering the serial numbers
etched on the metal body itself. However, the
(Pettered, 2000) was brought out during labora-
capillarity-related two-way transfer of impres-
tory analysis of the engines of the two vehicles.
sions/patterns still occurs between accessories
such as rear view mirrors and enables con-
Conjoined reconstruction clusive attribution of origin of such broken
The two-way transfer of patterns between the parts recovered from the scene with suspected
engine number plate found in the micro-b us in vehicles.
16.4 DISCUSSION damage depends on the change in the speed

brought about by the collision.
16.4.1 Myths and Facts Relating to Observations v. Myth: In vehicle-related incidents, reaction
in Vehicle-Related Incidents time calculation can indicate omissions on
the part of the driver.
i. Myth: Vehicle-related incidents are caused Fact: Although reaction time plays an
due to omissions of someone. important role in vehicle-related incidents,
Fact: Vehicle-related incidents may be due it is difficult to actually measure reaction
to omissions of someone or due to accidents time. Furthermore, the effect of expecta-
either unavoidable or for which the cause tion of an incident should not be over-
may not be precisely identifiable. looked such as a driver on a multi-lane dual
ii. Myth: An eye witness may provide infor- carriageway may not expect a pedestrian to
mation on the course of a vehicle or of a cross (Rudram, 2000).
pedestrian.
Fact: It must be remembered that certainty
is no guarantee of accuracy in witness 16.4.2 Tire and Skid Marks and Their Significance
recall. in Reconstruction
iii. Myth: Location of bloodstains on the road-
way offers reliable evidence on point of Tire and skid marks are useful in deriving both
impact (POI). qualitative and quantitative information about the
Fact: Location of mud flakes or fallen piece incident. Tire marks may present as residue prints
of paint offers more reliable evidence on caused due to contact with oil, dirt, blood, etc., or
the point of impact since these inert objects may be left as sunken impressions on mud, loose
tend to fall instantaneously when a hit soil, etc. These marks indicate the course taken by
occurs. the vehicle and their tread pattern may be useful in
iv. Myth: The extent of damage to a vehicle is connecting the vehicle in hit-and-run cases.
an indication of its speed during collision. Skid marks are caused when the brakes have been
Fact: Vehicle damage alone will not enable applied with such efficiency that the wheels could be
the estimation of speed since the extent of locked leading to sliding of the vehicle on the roadway
to a distance which depends on the momentum of the c) To assume that a vehicle stopped after gen-
vehicle at the time the brakes were applied. When the erating complete skid marks, the skid marks
skid marks are complete, it may be possible for the must terminate on the precise location of
investigator to calculate the speed of the vehicle. This the wheels on the roadway where the vehi-
calculation uses Newton’s Second Law of Motion cle came to rest. The skid distance measured
that the resultant force (F) acting on the particle (a from such a skid mark alone can be useful
vehicle) is equal to the product of its mass (m) times for calculating the speed of the vehicle.
the acceleration (a) of the particle (a vehicle). d) Once the skid mark is deflected due to getting
Assuming that the tires generally available are hit with another vehicle or due to any other
all subject to the same design constraints, the major obstruction, there will be additional dissipa-
variables that determine the distance a car takes tion of energy, and the speed calculation will
to skid to a halt are speed and the nature of the be influenced by such dissipated energy.
road surface. Thus, if the coefficient of friction (µ) e) Any skew or change in the direction of the
between the tires and the road surface can be mea- skid mark indicates the point of impact
sured, then the estimated speed can be calculated (POI) or collision of the vehicle while it was
on the basis of the skid distance using the following still skidding.
formula (Rudram, 2000): f) After causing a skid mark, the vehicle may
still move, and application of brakes may
v = √ (2 µgs ) still be continuing until the vehicle rolls to
rest well beyond the end point of the skid
Where v = velocity; µ = friction coefficient between mark. In such instances also, the unknown
energy dissipated when braking without
the tires and the road surface; g = acceleration due
causing any skid mark would influence the
to gravity; and s = the skid distance.
speed of the vehicle.
A simplified formula that uses a constant for
g) The coefficient of friction between the tires
gravity is (Chen, 2015):
and the roadway is heavily dependent on
the type of the road surface. It can vary
v = √ 30 µs, from about 0.52 on smooth ice to about
1.0 on new sharp concrete paving (Cook,
µ = drag factor or coefficient of friction of the road 1963). As such, it would be safe to calculate
has to be calculated for the type of the road con- the coefficient of friction for the roadway
cerned and is normally assumed as 0.8 for bitumen concerned in the incident.
top roads.
The major limitation in relying on skid mark When collisions occur between two vehicles
distances for calculating speed is that the skid travelling at right angle (90º) such as in an inter-
marks left in crime scenes are seldom complete, i.e., section, skewed skid marks are likely to occur due
the vehicles do not reach the rest position leaving to one vehicle being deflected from its course. The
a skid mark until the end, i.e., the location where beginning of the skew would indicate the point of
the tires came to rest; instead, oftentimes the vehi- impact (POI) (Case 16–1; Figure 16.2).
cles leaving skid marks hit another vehicle or some
other objects such as a concrete median thereby
dissipating the residual or postcrash energy that is 16.4.3 Importance of Mud/Paint Flakes in
unknown (Batterman and Batterman, 2000). Locating the Point of Impact (POI)
Regarding the significance of skid marks, it may be The moment of any impact on a moving vehicle is
noted that characterized by damages to the metal sheet accom-
panied by a jolting force that can lead to dislodg-
a) Skid marks indicate the point on the road- ing and fall of mud and paint flakes on the road.
way at which the wheels of the vehicle get This effect of impact is so instantaneous that the
locked and start sliding on the roadway as location of mud and paint flakes on the road offers
a consequence of braking. a reliable clue to diagnose the point of hit in cases
b) Skid marks are not produced in all instances involving vehicle collision. In addition to locating
of braking—braking in routine driving the point of hit, mud flakes that have fallen on the
does not lead to locking of wheels but still road due to impacting force can be useful in con-
stops wheel motion and vehicle movement. necting the vehicle in cases of hit-and-run accidents.
Pertinently, the composition of soil deposited in the vehicles are involved in a collision, the nature and
mudguard of a vehicle remains more specific as it position of the damages may indicate the points of
depends on the frequency with which that vehicle initial impact between the vehicles, the direction of
traverses particular roadways. the applied force, and the relative movements of the
vehicles. In general, collision between two vehicles
will lead to heavy damages, and the crime scene
16.4.4 Significance of Paint as Forensic Evidence investigator will have to identify the damages sus-
tained during the point of initial impact by studying
Paint as evidence occurs in two forms, one as chips the damage sequences.
or flakes and the other as smears. Chips or flakes In accidents involving pedestrians, the dam-
are seen in automobile collision where the coating ages in the vehicle may be limited such as minor
of paint, composed of multiple layers, is shed from dents in the body sheet or breakage of headlamp
the vehicle surface due to the impact. Being solvent glass. Although minor, these damages would be
based, layers of automobile paint are more prone to useful in relating with the injuries on the victim
chip off in the form of flakes. Scholarly authors have and for reconstructing the position of the victim at
mentioned the possibility to conclusively show that the time of hit. Wherever relevant, the possibility
the paint chips recovered from a crime scene came of matching vehicle parts back to the vehicle must
from a specific location of the vehicle if the chips be explored and utilized (Gummer and Walsh,
recovered are large enough and the edges can be fit- 1996).
ted together in a jigsaw puzzle fashion on the paint
missing area of the vehicle (Svensson et al., 1981).
Saferstein (1974) illustrated the match obtained by REFERENCES
fitting the paint chips collected from a scene of hit-
and-run accident with the paint missing portions in Batterman, S. C. and Batterman, S. D. Accident
the fender of the auto responsible for the act. Other investigation: Motor vehicle, in Encyclopedia
than physical matching, the techniques applied for of Forensic Science, Siegel, J. A., Knuper, G. and
paint comparison include layer match studies using Saukko, P. (Eds.) London: San Diego, 2000,
cross sections of paint chips and composition stud- 33–42.
ies employing suitable instrumental analyses. Chen, P. Motor Vehicle Accident Reconstruction Skid
Smears of paint are transferred to objects to Rest, 2015. Available at: https:pdhonline.
which come into contact with sufficient force with com/course/g513content.pdf. Accessed on
painted surfaces including those coated with oil- 20.01.2021.
based paints. Such objects may include tools used Cook, D. I. Speed calculations and the expert wit-
on doors, etc., for gaining entry or any other object ness, Neb L Rev., 42 (1) 1963): 100–126.
such as the bicycle carrier contacting the lorry bum- Available at: https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/
per described in Case 16–2 before. nlr/vol42/iss1/4
In addition to the flakes and paints, impressions Fisher, B. A. J. Techniques of Crime Scene Investigation,
caused by contacting surfaces that receive coatings Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2004.
of paint are known to leave marks caused by capil- Gummer, T. and Walsh, K. Matching vehicle parts
larity, and such marks, as the one shown in Case back to the vehicle: A study of the process,
26–3, are also individualistic enabling source attri- Forensic Sci Int., 82 (1996): 89–97.
bution. These capillarity- related impressions and Jayaprakash, P. T. Practical relevance of pattern
marks are usually found in contacting surfaces of uniqueness in forensic science, Forensic Sci Int.,
accessories and have been shown to be useful in 231 (1–3) (2013): 403.e1–403.e16.
matching broken accessories found in a scene of Jones, L. V. Scientific Investigation and Physical
accident with suspected automobiles. Readers may Evidence, Springfield: Charles C. Thomas,
refer to authors like Saferstein (1974; 2019) or 1959.
Fisher (2004) for more details on the utility of paint Pettered, C. Pattern evidence—Serial number, in
evidence. Encyclopedia of Forensic Science, Siegel, J.
A., Knuper, G. and Saukko, P. (Eds.) London:
Academic Press, 2000, 1205–1210
16.4.5 Relevance of Damages in Vehicles Rudram, D. Accident investigation: Determination
of cause: Overview, in Encyclopedia of Forensic
The damages sustained by the vehicles also provide Science, Siegel, J. A., Knuper, G. and Saukko, P.
qualitative and quantitative information. When two (Eds.) London: Academic Press, 2000, 9–16.
Saferstein, R. Crime Investigation, New York: John Svensson, A., Wendel, O. and Fisher, B. A. J. Techniques
Wily & sons, 1974. of Crime Investigation, New York: Elsevier, 1981.
Saferstein, R. Forensic Science: From the Crime Van Dijk, T. M. Pattern evidence—Tools, in
Scene to the Crime Lab, 4th ed., New York: Encyclopedia of Forensic Science, Siegel, J.
Pearson Education, 2019. A., Knuper, G. and Saukko, P. (Eds.) London:
Steffan, H. Accident investigation: Determination Academic Press, 2000, 1216–1228.
of cause: Reconstruction, in Encyclopedia of Whent, P. Accident investigation—Rail, in
Forensic Science, Siegel, J. A., Knuper, G. and Encyclopedia of Forensic Science, Siegel, J.
Saukko, P. (Eds.) London: Academic Press, A., Knuper, G. and Saukko, P. (Eds.) London:
2000, 16–24. Academic Press, 2000, 42–47.
Chapter 17
Epilogue
A customary revisit to the title and objectives when illustrated in the case examples, the observations-
writing the epilogue conveyed the impression that based reconstructions made immediately in the
the assortment of observations described in the vari- crime scene acquiesce to only one hypothesis and
ous chapters in this manual and field guide could thus promptly preclude propensities to guessti-
have been more encompassing—there appeared mate other propositions. The value orientation of
scope for adding more observations, some variants the reconstructions presented in this field guide, as
of those described and some rather discrete. While judged by the responses of the user agencies, viz.
the volume considered optimal for a field guide was the police, is one of ready and immediate accep-
one of the limiting factors, yet the following contri- tance when the reconstructions pertain to crime
butions in this book appear fairly satisfying. scene circumstances such as deducing the posture
First, this book prescribes, with illustrations, of death based on the directionality of drained body
a novel method of observations- based hypothesis fluids like saliva and urine in dead bodies (Cases
testing and reconstruction that had been success- 4–1, 4–4), attributing the source of ligature mate-
fully applied in routine crime investigation which is rial from victim’s personal clothing (Cases 4–7,
likely to prove a ground-breaking new addition to 4–15), explaining unaccounted bloodstains (Cases
the future techniques of crime scene reconstruction. 4–8, 4–9) and additional antemortem injuries (Case
Regarding the significance of crime scene observa- 4–10), establishing access to make the knot (Case
tions, Chisum (2006), while describing the relation- 4–1), suggesting movement of a body (Case 4–12) or
ship of bloodstains in different locations in a crime of the victims (Cases 7–1, 7–2) or of suspects in
scene, recognized that such patterns have to be crime scenes (Cases 5–1, 5–4), deducing the posture
observed and cannot be packaged and brought to of the victim (Case 13–1) or trajectory of bullet (Case
the laboratory for examination. However, popular 13–2) or the epicenter of explosion (Case 14–1),
books on crime scene investigation (Kirk, 1974; De or place of manufacture of an IED (Case 14–2).
Forest et al., 1983; Horswell, 2004; Becker, 2005; Furthermore, the importance of observations-based
Beaufort-Moore, 2009; Sutton and Trueman, 2009; reconstructions would be readily evident by the fact
Langford et al., 2010; Fisher and Fisher, 2012; that many of these reconstructions, especially those
Zannin and Huber, 2018; Saferstein, 2019) are seen pertaining to equivocal deaths such as due to hang-
to deal with physical evidence and their collection ing, electrocution, burn injuries, fall from heights
more elaborately compared to observing the scenes etc., would not be possible when solely relying on
and generating reconstructions based on such physical evidence analysis. On the whole, it is fairly
observations. Filling that space and expounding the anticipative that this book will serve as a working
relationship between observable manifestations and manual and field guide and as a useful professional
crime scene reconstruction (Figure 2.3), easy-to- resource material for SOCOs and police officers to
follow flowcharts are prescribed in this field guide frame observations-based hypotheses and test them
for guiding the scene investigators to recognize at the crime scene level thereby paving the way for
relevant observations in major types of crimes. In reconstructing crimes on a scientific basis.
addition, the new approach presented for utilizing Second, this manual and field guide brings out
the observable evidence as the basis for framing a the imperative need for a generalist for crime scene
series of sequential hypotheses and reconstructions investigation. Real-life case examples illustrated in
and then considering them collectively to derive the this field guide affirm that it would be impractical
conjoined reconstruction enables arriving at strong to assume that the police officers routinely trained
inferences supporting either the primary hypothesis to collect physical clues or even the bench scientists
or the alternate hypothesis. More importantly, as customarily deployed for crime scene investigation
DOI: 10.4324/9781003267096-17 339

are adequately qualified to observe and interpret also noted that, as a matter of routine, the SOCOs
crime scene manifestations. The observations in involved in crime scene investigation are required to
crime scenes pertain to varied disciplines in foren- assist the investigating officers in the collection and
sic science, the range including such as bloodstain preservation of physical clues rather than to make
patterns, burn patterns, pellet dispersion patterns, reconstructions. The measures desirable to be initi-
glass fractures, and body posture suggesting cadav- ated by those managing forensic science laboratories
eric spasm. The assortment of observations mani- include arranging suitable pre-deployment as well as
festing in crime scenes and the correspondingly in-service training for the SOCOs so that observing
varying Accepted (major) premises drawn from and reconstructing crime scenes would also become
different fields relating to forensic science practice obligatory responsibilities of the SOCOs during inte-
such as chemistry, physics, biology, explosives, bal- gral scene investigations. Any reconstruction by the
listics, and forensic medicine would make it evident SOCO should be based on the observations made in
that the SOCO must be a generalist with optimal the scene of crime by the SOCO himself and/or on
competence in multiple areas of forensic science the analysis of physical evidence in the forensic sci-
compared to a bench scientist specializing in a par- ence laboratory. The SOCO making the reconstruc-
ticular branch or division in the laboratory. Thus, tion must offer a record of provenance that he really
the need for deploying generalists for crime scene visited the scene/observed the evidence; in forensic sci-
investigation is urged through this book. Inevitably, ence practice, it is well known that the evidence items
any generalist drawn from a forensic science labo- removed from a crime scene should be cross-referred
ratory would belong to a specific branch of foren- back to sketches, photographs, and plans made of
sic science, and, when deployed afresh, he cannot the scene (Busuttil, 2003). In the aforementioned
wait for serious crimes to occur and then to learn regard, this manual and field guide may form a useful
by experience. The minimum prerequisites for guid- resource material for training.
ing such generalists are schematic plans for exam- Fourth, methodical integration of crime scene
ining different crime scenes and a compendium of observations and reconstruction with the autopsy
resource materials relating to observable manifesta- findings for deducing the manner of death is reiter-
tions in crime scenes. In this regard, this manual ated as being desirable to prevent confusions such
and field guide would form a useful pre-deployment as mistaking suicides for murders. Authors have
resource book containing the essentials abstracted cautioned that postmortem findings alone are not
from the various branches of sciences relevant for sufficient to discriminate all suicidal cases from
crime scene investigation and reconstruction. homicidal action and that the evidence gathered
Third, the compelling institutional need for a from the crime scenes are imperative to resolve the
manual and guideline is indicated for benefitting both manner of death (Maxeiner and Bockholdt, 2003;
practitioners and trainees endeavoring to involve Shkrum and Ramsay, 2007; Saukko and Knight,
in crime scene investigation and especially crime 2016). Achieving this objective requires, in the first
reconstruction. This author’s experience as a teacher place, appropriate recognition of evidence, observ-
addressing policemen as well as university students able and collectable, from crime scene and then spe-
has shown such audience to be convincingly assertive cific efforts by the investigation officer to integrate
about the importance of observing the scene and, at the those with the autopsy findings for arriving at the
same time, be utterly confused in distinguishing what manner of death. It has also been noted that if the
to observe and how to interpret those observations crime scene investigator fails to recognize evidence,
when making reconstructions. Although crime recon- spurious murder investigations may result (Saukko
struction is considered to be integral during crime and Knight, 2016) or crimes may remain unsolved,
scene investigation in countries like New Zealand or the wrong person may be charged (Zannin and
(Sharman and Eliot, 2000) and the UK (The Forensic Huber, 2018). Proclivity to mistake suicide for
Science Regulator, 2012; Saukko and Knight, 2016), homicide has been shown to be possible in equivo-
field guides and manuals for scene investigation and cal death investigations such as hanging (Case 4–9),
reconstruction continue to be rare. Also, the impor- death due to burns (Cases 7–1 and 7–2), fall from
tant forensic areas that were identified for strength- height (Case 8–2), and electrocution (Case 9–3).
ening in Indian forensics included human resources, Mistaking suicide for homicide is not unknown else-
training, and facilities for crime scene investigation, where; Wrongly Convicted Group, UK, lists many
and, additionally, the areas for which manuals were instances of wrongful convictions in cases under
listed as available in India do not include crime scene the category suicide- mistaken-for- murder. Apart
investigation (Misra and Damodaran, 2010). It is from the case examples described in this field guide,
Epilogue 341
judgments available in public domain in India also by judges which pertains to particularly verifying, in
seem to reveal debatable interpretation of manner every case of equivocal death, the well-established
of death which, in considerable measure, appears realization that a reliable boundary discriminat-
attributable to omissions in observing crime scenes ing all suicidal cases from homicidal action only
and integrating them with autopsy findings. For on the basis of the postmortem findings obviously
example, in a case where death was considered as does not exist and that the evidence gathered from
due to strangulation and the hanging as a simula- the crime scene and the external examination of the
tion, the opinion on the manner of death had been dead body are compulsory to resolve the manner of
based solely on the findings of the autopsy medical death (Maxeiner and Bockholdt, 2003; Shkrum and
doctor who observed one ligature mark ‘encircling Ramsay, 2007). Thus, in any equivocal death investi-
the neck’ with ‘a knot’ (ante-mortem) and another gation due to reasons such as hanging, burns, drown-
oblique ligature mark with an ‘irregular impression ing, and fall from height, the ultimate opinion on the
of knot’ (post-mortem) in a dead body that was dis- manner of death must be, on a mandatory basis,
covered in hanging posture and with signs of decom- decided only after considering the evidence in crime
position (Gargi vs. State of Haryana, CA No. 1046 of scenes and subsequent crime scene reconstruction.
2010, Supreme Court of India). The finding that the The second step relates to the role of universities
impression of the knot was observed in the oblique and institutes and pertains to subjecting the scientific
ligature mark also does not conform to the descrip- evidence as well as the related opinions employed
tions in scholarly literature that the oblique ligature in real-life cases, especially those relating to scene
mark in hanging cases will be incomplete and will be investigations, to academic scrutiny once the judg-
canted up at the point of suspension where the knot ments are delivered and placed in public domain.
is located (Shkrum and Ramsay, 2007; Payne-James Forensic science, in contrast to the research-oriented
et al., 2011). Appropriate observations of the dead academic branches of sciences like biology or phys-
body in situ in the scene of hanging describing the ics, is a science intended for practical application for
course of the ligature on the neck and especially if the benefit of the society. In such contexts, while
the ligature canted up or not at the location of the new research may be desirable to open up fresh vis-
knot appear desirable. In addition, hanging with the tas for application, the immediate urgency to satisfy
legs supported on the floor had been argued as being societal needs is to ensure appropriate application
favoring the theory of murder while scholarly litera- of what are already ‘known’ in that field of science.
ture indicate that partial hanging as commonplace Research in forensic science should be oriented to
in suicide (Taylor, 1873; O’Hara, 1956; Dix, 2000). refining applicability of forensic science, and, in this
In equivocal deaths, instances of concluding the regard, student community must be encouraged to
manner of death merely based on the findings dur- undertake research that critically evaluates the sci-
ing postmortem examination without integrating entific component in the judgments available in pub-
observations made in crime scenes, as described in lic domain to evaluate whether the ‘known’ facts in
this book, continue to remain as case-specific exam- forensic science have been appropriately applied in
ples. As such, the overall impact of such practices practice. It must be realized that the inconsistencies
is seldom studied on a larger scale paving the way in forensic and medical evidence and their interpre-
for enhancing the scope of scientific investigation. tations brought out by universities elsewhere paved
And now, the steps that would refine the standard the way for uncovering wrongful conviction lead-
of science applied at the crime scene level need to ing to projects like the Innocence Project and thus
be explored. Forensic science, as the term implies, contributed to refining forensic science practice. Per
is a science to be discussed in the open forum, and contra, it has been noted that university research
the opinions of experts are to be placed before the relating to forensic science in India has been pre-
global community of scientists for establishing dominated by the compilation of population data
validity. While publications in peer-reviewed scien- which seldom have applied value (Jayaprakash et al.,
tific journals help in validating methods in forensic 2021). Indeed, a search indicates that India does not
science, it may not be feasible to seek publication figure among the countries listed to have known
of scientific evidence relating to individual criminal wrongful convictions (Wikipedia), a situation pro-
cases for deciding validity. The following two reme- viding scope for universities to institute research on
dial measures appear desirable: those cases of homicides where the manner of death
First step in the aforementioned regard is the appears equivocal and explore the validity of scien-
cautionary measure that can be exercised by inves- tific evidence that have been relied on for conclud-
tigating officers and prosecutors and then reassured ing the manner as homicidal.
EQUIVOCAL NATURE OF HANGING: SIMULATION

FOLLOWING STRANGULATION OR SUICIDE?
During the year 1989, a married male was found counsel has argued that in the case of suicide, the
dead hanging from a ceiling fan with a rope tied dead body would be in a suspended position, feet
to the neck inside a room on the second floor of would not reach the floor, and knees would also
his house. When the investigation team reached not bend, as found in the present case.
the scene, they noticed that the deceased was The Trial Court convicted all the accused
hanging by the neck with his feet touching the individuals. The High Court, however, rejected
floor where a pool of blood had collected, all the prosecution’s case that brothers of the wife
emitting bad odor. The wife was present during had conspired with her to carry out the murder
the estimated time of occurrence. The brother of and hanging of the deceased, and, after finding
the deceased complained that the deceased was that the crime in question was not the handi-
murdered by the wife and her brothers because work of one person, the High Court proceeded
of a dispute over property. to observe that the wife was rightly convicted in
The medical evidence was that there was the matter as the principal offender.
The wife appealed against the conviction
A well defined depressed ligature mark measur-
ing 3 cm. wide seen encircling the neck around awarded by the High Court, and the Hon’ble
the thyroid cartilage with a knot present on Judges of the Supreme Court, when analyzing the
left side of neck. This ligature mark was ante- manner of death, indicated that the Trial Court as
mortem in nature. A ligature mark above the also the High Court have returned concurrent find-
thyroid cartilage going obliquely upward and ings that it had been a matter of homicidal death
posteriorly on left side present with an irregu- essentially with reference to the medical opinion
lar impression of knot on left side of the neck that the cause of death was asphyxia due to stran-
measuring 1.5 cm wide present. This ligature gulation and also with reference to some of the
mark was of post-mortem nature . . .. the cause surrounding factors that “the feet of the hanging
of death was asphyxia due to strangulation.
dead body were touching the floor; the knees were
The estimated time lapse between death and bent; the slippers were not removed; and the room
autopsy was 24 hours to 72 hours. in question was wide open”. However, the Hon’ble
The wife was prosecuted for killing her Judges of the Supreme Court gave the benefit of
husband by strangulation with the help of her doubt to the wife and set aside the earlier convic-
brothers and then hanging the dead body as if tion in their judgment delivered during 2019.
it were a case of suicide. So far as the question
as to whether it had been a case of homicide or Source: Gargi vs. State of Haryana, CA No.
the deceased had committed suicide, learned 1046 of 2010, Supreme Court of India
REFERENCES De Forest, P. R., Gaensslen, R. E. and Lee, H.

C. Forensic Science: An Introduction to
Beaufort-Moore, D. Crime Scene Management and Criminalistics, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1983.
Evidence Recovery, Oxford: Oxford University Dix, J. Colour Atlas of Forensic Pathology, Boca
Press, 2009. Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2000.
Becker, R. F. Criminal Investigation, Boston: Jones Fisher, B. A. J. and Fisher, D. R. Techniques of Crime Scene
and Bartlett Publishers, 2005. Investigation, Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2012.
Busuttil, A. Scene of crime: The pathologist and Horswell, J. The Practice of Crime Scene Investigation,
others, in Forensic Medicine: Clinical and Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2004.
Pathological Aspects; Payne-James, J., Busuttil, Jayaprakash, P. T., Alarmelmangai, S. and Pushparani, C.
A. and Smock, W. (Eds.) London: Greenwich Past progress and future needs of forensic anthropol-
Medical Media Ltd., 2003, 49–66. ogy in India, Med Sci Law., 2021, 61(2): 163–164.
Chisum, W. J. Crime reconstruction, in The Forensic Kirk, P. L. Crime Investigation, New York: John
Laboratory Handbook: Procedures and Wiley & Sons, 1974.
Practice, Mozayani, A. and Noziglia, C. (Eds.) Langford, A. M., Dean, J., Reed, R., Holmes, D.
Totowa, NJ: Humana Press, 2006. A., Weyers, J. and Jones, A. Practical Skills in
Epilogue 343
Forensic Science, Harlow, England: Prentice Shkrum, M. J. and Ramsay, D. A. Forensic

Hall, 2010. Pathology of Trauma Common Problems
Maxeiner, H. and Bockholdt, B. Homicidal and sui- for the Pathologist, Totowa: Humana Press,
cidal ligature strangulation—a comparison of 2007.
the post-mortem findings, Forensic Sci Int., 137 Sutton, R. and Trueman, K. Crime Scene Management—
(2003): 60–66. Scene Specific Methods, Oxford: John and Wiley,
Misra, G. J. and Damodaran, C. Perspective 2009.
Plan for Indian Forensics, Final Report presented Taylor, A. S. The Principles and Practice of Medical
to the Ministry of Home Affairs, Government Jurisprudence, 2nd ed., Philadelphia: Henry C.
of India by the Consultants, New Delhi, 2010.
Lea, 1873.
Available at: https://mha.gov.in/sites/default/
The Forensic Science Regulator, Department of
files/IFS%282010%29-FinalRpt_3.pdf
Justice and The Royal College of Pathologists.
O’Hara, C. E. Fundamentals of Criminal Investigation,
Code of Practice and Performance Standards
Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1956.
Payne-James, J., Jones, R., Karch, S. B. and Manlove, for Forensic Pathology in England, Wales
J. Simpson’s Forensic Medicine, London: and Northern Ireland, Home Office, 2012.
Hodder Arnold, 2011. Available at: www.rcpath.org
Saferstein, R. Forensic Science: From the Crime Wikipedia. Available at: https://en.wikipedia.
Scene to the Crime Lab, 4th ed., New York: org/wiki/List_of_miscarriage_of_justice_
Pearson Education, 2019. cases.
Sharman, L. E. and Elliot, D. A. Scene analysis and Zannin, A. and Huber, L. Crime scene investigation,
reconstruction, in Encyclopedia of Forensic in Manual of Forensic Science: An International
Science, Siegel, J. A., Knuper, G. and Saukko, P. Survey, Barbaro, A. (Ed.) Boca Raton, FL: CRC
(Eds.) London: Academic Press, 2000, 457–462. Press, 2018, 1–20.
Appendix
The making of a SOCO involves transformation in crime scenes, appropriately packing the ques-
of a staff accustomed to Laboratory Science to the tioned and control evidence, and in seeking analy-
one befitting Field Science. Since the SOCOs are ses that are relevant. It is noted that the tables have
drawn from among a general staff pool available in been adapted from those that were generated during
FSLs, an individual qualified in a particular branch the initial training on crime scene investigation, ‘Art
of science needs to be familiar with the varied ana- and Science of Observing Crime Scenes—ASCriS’,
lytical potentials available in the different divisions during the year 2003 in the Tamil Nadu Forensic
for maximizing the utility of the physical clues that Sciences Department, Chennai, India (Jayaprakash,
are collected. Obviously, once the right questions 2003), and hence comprise the procedures followed
are posed to the laboratory analyst, the most use- in the various divisions in that laboratory. The read-
ful answers will be forthcoming. In addition, good ers are informed that the divisions mentioned in the
communication between field investigators and lab- Appendix are those existing in the aforementioned
oratory analysts may result in important evidence laboratory and the organization may vary in other
being recognized and submitted to the laboratory. establishments where different customized packing
In this regard, the tables provided in this Appendix procedures using specially manufactured evidence
would guide the SOCOs in recognizing useful clues storage materials may also apply.
345
346
A nthropology-related physical evidence and analyses

Type of
Examination/ Packing/Forwarding Packing/ Forwarding
Sl. No. Analysis Material Evidence Procedure Control Material Procedure Possible Analysis Remarks
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 Skull–Photograph Skull with man- Sealed plastic Face photograph Sealed/tamper-evident Whether the • Do not suggest
superimposition dible bucket with lid. •Only original paper envelope skull could have skull–photograph
• Collect as many • If flesh is adher- photographs must • In group photos, belonged to the superimposition
teeth as possible. ing, use common be sent. Recopies mark the suspected individual seen in if the face of the
• Absence of salt as preserva- are not accept- dead/missing indi- the photograph. unidentified dead
mandible/other tive. able. vidual. individual is in
bones must be • If the skull is •Always secure • Designated authority recognizable state
mentioned by dry, pack as the most recent must attest photo- in the photo-
the Medical such. photographs. graphs on the rear. graphs taken post
Doctor. • Do not use for- •Frontal view • Allow the ink to dry, mortem.
• Enclose letter malin or other photographs are wrap photograph • Obtain opinion
from Medical chemicals for preferred. in a white paper, on fractures from
Doctor. preservation. •Photographs and then put in the Medical Doctor
• Tissue in skulls • Secure ‘dentures’ revealing ante- envelope. before forward-
need not be if the skull is rior teeth (as in • In case wax sealing ing skulls to the
cleaned. edentulous. smiling or mouth is used on the enve- laboratory.
• Secure all pieces partly opened lope, avoid the area • Except spectacles
of fragmented postures) are of the photographs seen in an ante-

bones/teeth preferred. inside. Hot sealing mortem photo,
when the skull is wax can damage the other objects need
broken. photos. not be forwarded
• Do not fold or stitch as reference for
or staple photo- enlarging a pho-
graphs. tograph.
2 Skull–ante-mortem Skull with man- As detailed in Col. X-rays of head. Sealed paper envelope. Whether the skull Antero-posterior
X-ray comparison dible (as detailed 4 of Sl No. 1 belonged to the and postero-
in Col. 3 of Sl. before. person whose X- anterior view X-
No. 1 before). ray is sent. rays are preferable
although lateral
view X-rays can
also be used.
3 Assessment of sex a) Skull, pelvic As in Col. 4 of Sl —- —- i. Whether the In the absence of
and age from bone, and long No. 1 bones could request for skull–
skeletal remains. bones (i.e.) before. have belonged photograph su-
femur (thigh to a male or a perimposition, the
bone) and female. IOs are advised to
humerus (arm ii. Assessment of approach the near-
Appendix
bone). approximate est Medical Doctor

age. for assessment of
sex and age.
b) Pieces/frag- Sealed paper —- —- i. Whether the Always sieve or sift
ments of parcel. pieces/frag- the ash from the
charred/burnt ments of bones location of crema-
bones. are of human tion and secure all
origin. fragments of bones.
ii. If so, assess-
ment of sex and
age.
(Continued)
347
348
(Continued)
Type of
Examination/ Packing/Forwarding Packing/ Forwarding
Sl. No. Analysis Material Evidence Procedure Control Material Procedure Possible Analysis Remarks
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
4 Photograph to Questioned photo- In a sealed paper Identified photo- In a sealed paper Whether the indi-
photograph graph. envelope as per graphs of the sus- envelope as per the vidual seen in the
comparison for the procedure pected individual. procedure detailed questioned photo-
establishing iden- detailed for Sl for Sl No. 1 in Col. 6 graph is the same
tification. No. 1 in Col. 6 appearing before. as the one seen
appearing before. in the identified
photographs.
Comparison of face Video clip with the In a sealed package. Video clip with the In a sealed package. Whether the indi-
images recorded in questioned face im- identified face im- vidual seen in the
video clips. age suitably identi- age suitably identi- questioned video
fied (Compact Disc fied (Compact Disc clip is the same as
or other sources). or other sources). the one seen in the
identified video
record.
Ballistics-related physical evidence and analyses
Type of Packing/
Examination/ Packing/Forwarding Control Forwarding
Sl. No. Analysis Material Evidence Procedure Material Procedure Possible Analysis Remarks
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 Examination of Revolvers, Pistols, sub- Tie an identification —- —- • Is it a firearm as Caution:
firearms machine guns, assault tag. defined by local • Do not meddle
rifles, rifles, SBBL guns, • Wrap firearm care- law? with the weapon.
SBML guns and their fully in paper and • The type, make, • Do not send
country-made versions. pack in a cardboard and caliber. loaded firearm.
• Do not disturb firearms or deal wood box • Has it been used • For unloading a
until checked for finger with suitable padding for firing? firearm, seek the
prints. material and com- • Is it in working assistance of a
• Preserve foreign materi- plete with tamper- condition? service personnel
als like fibers, hairs, and evident sealing. • Is it likely to fire if not conversant
bloodstains adhering accidentally? with the opera-
to the butt or barrel as tion mechanism.
such. • Never aim at
• Do not clean the barrel. any human
Appendix
• Do not manipulate the target irrespec-

firing mechanism. tive of whether
• Render the firearm the weapon is
safe by unloading the loaded or not.
cartridges from the
magazine/chamber after
carefully recording the
position of the safety
device, the number of
live, fired, misfired car-
tridges/cartridge cases
and their position in the
cylinder, in the case of
revolvers.
• Note down the make,
model and serial num-
ber of the firearm.
(Continued)
349
350
(Continued)
Type of Packing/
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
2 Comparison a) Fired bullets • Identification marks Cartridges Wrap in cotton • The type and • Advise recovery
of crime and • Prevent abrasion or should be made only of similar wool individu- caliber. of bullets by
test cartridge mutilation of the sur- on the base. make and ally and pack in • Probable weapon Medical Doctor
cases/ bullets face in any manner. • Wrap in cotton wool year of sealed card- that fired it (in using rubber-
• Do not wash or individually and pack manufac- board cartons. case the sus- tipped forceps.
clean. in sealed cardboard ture as that pected gun is not • If the bullet is
• Preserve foreign cartons. of the crime recovered). lodged in the
materials like fibers, cartridge/s • Was it fired from victim’s body,
hairs, blood stains for obtain- the suspected X-rays showing
adhering to the bullet ing test gun? (In case the it may be sent to
and cartridge cases. bullet/s and suspected gun is identify its type.
cartridge recovered). Particulars such
cases. as target dis-
tance, potential
in kV, etc., of the
X-ray are to be
furnished.
b) Fired cartridge cases Tie an identification - do - - do - • Type, make, and
• Prevent abrasion or tag. caliber.
mutilation of the sur- • Probable type
face in any manner. of weapon that
• Do not wash or fired it.

clean. • Was it fired from
• Preserve foreign the suspected
materials, if any as gun?
such.
c) Misfired cartridges Tie an identification - do - - do - • The type, make,
• Prevent abrasion or tag. and caliber.
mutilation of the sur- • Is it live or not?
face in any manner. • Was it misfired
• Do not wash or in the suspected
clean. gun sent?
3 Examination of a) Pellets Handpick the pellets For live car- 1) Size of shot (in Avoid cleaning and
pellets/wads. and pack in a card- tridges, wrap case of factory- preserve adhering
board box padded in cotton wool made ammuni- foreign materials
with cotton wool. individually and tion). like bloodstains,
pack in sealed 2) Whether the fiber, and hair as
cardboard pellets are fired such.
cartons. For ones or unused
loose pellets as ones.
in Col. 4.
b) Wads Air dry wads, wrap in For live car- 1) Size of wad (in - do -
tissue paper/cotton tridges, wrap case of factory-
Appendix
wool and pack them in cotton wool made ammuni-

in sealed plastic/card- individually and tion).
board container. pack in sealed 2) Whether the
cardboard wads are fired
cartons. For ones or unused
loose wads ones.
use cardboard
container.
(Continued)
351
352
(Continued)
Type of Packing/
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
4 Examination a) Clothing and tissues • Each of the clothing —-- —-- • Whether the
of gunshot • Spread and air-dry should be packed holes/injuries are
residues. bloodstained clothing separately in a sealed due to gun shot.
under shade. paper cover to avoid • To identify the
• Protect visible por- cross contamination. entry and exit
tions indicating • Preserve excised skin/ holes/injuries.
powder residues us- tissues with suspected • To estimate the
ing tissue paper and gunshot injuries in range and direc-
avoid folding such rectified spirit or for- tion of firing.
portions. malin. Do not pack • To identify the
them in between two type of projec-
cardboard pieces or tiles.
in common salt.
b) Gunshot residue (GSR) Preserve the swabs in Swabs from Preserve the swabs Whether the swabs Identification of the
for shooter identification separate clean bottles/ unaffected in separate clean from the suspected shooter by GSR
swab from the suspect’s/ test tubes to avoid cross portion of bottles/test tubes shooter’s hand/ analysis is carried
victim’s hand (for hand contamination. the suspect. to avoid cross leg reveal gunshot out using Neutron
arms)/leg (for shoulder Blank swab contamination. residue indicating Activation Analy-
arms). with the re- that the suspected sis (NAA) at the
• Use Whatman filter agent should person fired the laboratory where
paper acidified with also be shot. such facilities are

one molar nitric acid forwarded. available.
(AR) for swabbing.
Biology-related physical evidence and analyses
Type of Packing/
Sl. Examination/ Packing/Forwarding Control Forwarding
No. Analysis Material Evidence Procedure Material Procedure Possible Analysis Remarks
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 Detection of Clothing, weapons, 1. Wet and damp materi- 1. Control earth, 1. Control earth Whether blood is Swabs can be
blood earth, flooring, wall als should be air- dried flooring, wall should be col- present on the collected from
plasters, furniture, in shade, individually plaster etc., lected prefer- items sent. suspected stained
vessels, etc., revealing packed, labeled, and which are not ably about 2 areas in im-
blood stains. sealed. stained with or 3 feet away movable/large
2. Polythene covers blood. from the area objects. Swabs
should be avoided, 2. Control blood. revealing the must be air dried
and paper covers alone stains. in shade and
should be used. 2. Instruct the packed in paper
3. Use separate labeled investigation packets.
tags for bloodstained officer/ medi-
weapons—avoid pencil/ cal doctor to
paint markings on the collect control
weapons. blood in a
gauze clothe or
Appendix
filter paper, air

dry in shade
and pack in
sealed paper
packets.
2 Detection of 1. Clothing of victim/ 1. Air dry in shade and —- Samples from the 1) Whether se-
semen suspect. pack the clothing body of the vic- men is present
2. Other objects reveal- avoiding fold/crumple tim/suspect are in the items.
ing seminal stains. in the starchy areas. to be collected 2) Whether
3. Vaginal swab/smear. 2. If portions are not re- through the vaginal smear/
4. Swab from the thigh, movable, collect swabs. Medical Doctor. swabs contain
etc., of the victim’s 3 and 4. Air dry vaginal spermatozoa
body suspected to and other swabs/smear or gonococci.
contain seminal and pack in sealed
stains. paper packets.
5. Matted pubic hair of
the victim.
(Continued)
353
354
(Continued)
Type of Packing/
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
3 Detection of 1. Salivary swab from To be dried in shade and Control saliva To be collected Whether saliva is
saliva appropriate place packed in paper packet. from the victim/ in a filter paper/ present on the
such as bite mark. Article to be packed as suspect. gauze cloth cigarette/beedi
2. Objects such as ciga- such. directly from the butt.
rette butts, tumblers, mouth. The wet
bottle caps. portion must
be encircled
with the pencil,
dried in shade,
and packed in a
paper packet.
4 Detection of 1. Cloth revealing uri- To be dried in shade and —- —- Whether urine is
urine nary stain. packed in paper packet. present.
2. Swab from the place
revealing urinary
stain such as the hu-
man skin/floor.
5 Detection of Sample of feces/stained Air dry and pack in paper/ —- —- Whether fecal
feces areas suspected to con- cardboard parcels. matter is present.
tain fecal matter.
6 Examination of 1. Loose hair pieces 1. Loose hairs are to be 1. Specimen hair As detailed in 1. Whether any A minimum of
hair from different regions packed in separately from suspects. Col. 4. hair piece is 10 hairs are
of the victim’s body labeled paper/polythene 2. Control hairs present on the required for hair
such as fingers, thighs packets indicating the (fallen/col- weapon/ cloth- to hair compari-
and clothes. place of collection. lected while ing. son.
2. Hairs from de- 2. To be dried and packed alive) of the 2. Whether the Hair pieces
composed. human in paper/polythene deceased, if hair piece sticking on to
remains packets. any, from belongs to the weapon, stone
3. Cut or damaged 3. Pack in paper/poly- residence. deceased or etc., should not
hairs. thene packets. 3. Uncut hairs suspect. be disturbed or
and suspected 3. Whether the removed.
weapon. hair piece has Analysis for
been forcibly ascertaining
pulled or fallen the human or
naturally. animal origin
4. Whether the of the hair, and
cut/damage in comparison of
the hair could different animal
be caused by hairs are also
Appendix
the weapon undertaken.

sent.
7 Examination of Clipped nails from fin- In polythene covers Blood and saliva Blood and saliva: Whether any
nail gers of victim/suspect. packed in paper packets. of suspect/vic- to be collected foreign tissue is
tim. by Medical present in the
Doctor in gauze nail clippings.
cloth/filter paper
and packed in
paper packet
after drying in
shade. Wet area
of saliva stain
on filter paper to
be marked with
pencil.
(Continued)
355
356
(Continued)
Type of Packing/
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8 Examination of Burnt debris from the In paper/cardboard par- —- —- Whether bones
bones place of cremation of cels. are present. If so,
dead bodies. are they of hu-
man origin?
9 Detection of 1. Earth from the site of Air dry and pack in paper Control earth Air dry and pack Is there any tissue
skin/other burial/disposal/burn- parcel. If origin is from in paper parcel. material in the
tissues ing of dead bodies. Scrape and collect in filter live individuals, earth, etc.?
2. Contact traces left paper. collect blood and
during the transport As detailed in Col. 4 of Sl saliva (see Col. 6
of decomposed bod- No. 7. of Sl No. 3)
ies. To be packed in a paper
3. Nail clippings. parcel after protecting the
4. Weapons such as stained area with tissue
wooden logs paper.
10 Examination of Fibers sticking to weap- Secure with tissue paper Control fiber/ Pack in paper/ Nature and com-
fibers ons. and pack as such in pa- cloth. cardboard par- parison of fibers.
per/cardboard parcels. cels.
11 Examination of Damaged/torn/partly Pack in paper/cardboard Weapon/object Pack in paper/ Type of damage
cloth burnt portions of cloth parcels. suspected to cardboard par- on the clothing
have caused the cels. and the cause for
damage. the damage.
Control portions Whether the cloth
of cloth. portions indicate
common origin.
12 Examination of Broken pieces of wood Pack in paper/cardboard Control portions Pack in paper/ Whether the
wood and splinters. parcels. of wood. cardboard par- wooden pieces
cels. indicate common
origin.
13 Examination of Soil/debris with veg- Pack in paper/cardboard Control soil/de- Pack in paper/ Whether the
plant prod- etable matter on the parcels. bris/pollen bear- cardboard vegetable matter
ucts/pollen, clothes of victim/sus- ing flowers, etc. parcels present in the
etc. pects. victim’s cloth
and the vegeta-
ble matter taken
from the SOC
are similar.
Appendix
14 Examination of Sternum and long bones. In bottles for viscera and in Control water from Pack in 5 lt. poly- 1. Whether any
diatom Soil or other objects. paper cardboard boxes for the site of drown- thene can. diatom is pres-
bones. ing. Pack in paper/card- ent in the bone/
Control soil etc. board parcels water.
2. If so, whether
the diatoms are
morphologically
and by composi-
tion similar?
357
358
Chemistry-related physical evidence and analyses

Type of Packing/ Packing/
Examination / Material Forwarding Control Forwarding Possible Analysis
Analysis Evidence Procedure Material Procedure Remarks
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 Detection of phe- Trap solutions Sealed bottles and paper —- —- Whether the • Requisition
nolphthalein etc., i. Hand washings parcels solution contains letter from the
in vigilance and ii. Clothing • packed separately phenolphthalein authorized
anti-corruption • May include any other con- • proper seal and sodium car- source.
cases in which tact material • proper label bonate or not. • Facsimile im-
currency notes pression of the
previously seal
coated with • History of the
phenolphthalein case with case
are used details
2 Acid/alkali vitrio- • Acid/alkali containers Sealed containers— Control —- • Whether any As detailed in col.
lage cases • Clothing glass swabs from acid/alkali is 8 of Sl No. 1
• Swabs of acid/alkali stains • Packed separately unstained present or not.
• Any contact materials • Avoid metal screw area • Nature of acid/

caps—use plastic alkali.
screw caps • Strength of acid/
• Proper seal alkali in crime
• Proper label exhibits.
3 Inflammable Inflammable residues adhering Residues should be —- —- • Type of acceler- As detailed in Col.
materials in fire/ to the exhibits like packed in ant/flammable 8 of Sl. No. 1
arson cases • Partly burnt material • Separate glass bottles liquids present
• Soil samples with airtight screw in the exhibit.
• Any solvents/ flammable cap and without con- • Any incendiary
liquids tamination. material present
• Any relevant clue materials • Debris to be filled or not.
two-thirds of the plas-
tic can’s volume
4 Inflammable Any inflammable residues ad- As detailed in Col. 4 of —- —- Type of flammable As detailed in Col.
materials in hering to the exhibits like Sl No. 3 materials/incen- 8 of Sl No. 1
self-immolation/ • Clothing—partly burnt diary materials
Appendix
homicidal • Swabs taken from the stained present in the

burns—cases area exhibits.
• Can/bottles/stove with rem-
nant of fuel
• Soot on face/waist/other
body parts
• Unspent flammable liquids
• Any other relevant clue
materials
(Continued)
359
360
(Continued)
Examination / Material Forwarding Control Forwarding Possible Analysis
Sl.No. Analysis Evidence Procedure Material Procedure Remarks
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
5 Soil comparison Soil samples from Packed separately in a Representa- As detailed Whether the two As detailed in Col.
• The foot—wear of suspects polythene cover tive sub in Col. 4 of soils are similar 8 of SI No. 1
• SOC in hit-and-run accidents • Moist earth may be samples Sl No. 5 or different—for as important:
• Clothing in rape and assault air dried before pack- for soil elimination of If soil is collected
cases ing comparison confirmation of to serve as con-
• Building materials from (5 to 6 in an alibi. trol for blood-
points of entry and exit in numbers) stained earth,
house breaking soil comparison
is not necessary
6 Adulteration Minimum qty. of 750 ml with Aluminum containers/ —- —- Whether conforms As detailed in Col.
cases: proper seal glass bottles with air- to IS specification 8 of SI No. 1
Petroleum prod- tight screw caps or not.
ucts (plastic containers If not, nature of
hydrocarbon should not be used) adulterant.
solvents
7 Trademark viola- Questioned samples: • Packed separately Repre- As detailed Whether they are As detailed in Col.
tions a) Soaps/detergents • Proper seal sentative in Col. 4 of same or different. 8 of SI No. 1
b) Cosmetics • Proper label reference Sl No. 6
c) Soft drinks and other food samples

products from the
d) Tea samples relevant
• Paper cartons source
• Samples during mixing, pack-
ing, etc.
• Any other relevant clue
materials
8 Counterfeit coin Chemicals/dyes/substances used Packed separately with Genuine cur- As in Col. 4 • Nature of the - do -
and currency for making counterfeit coin proper seals. rency, of Sl. No. 7 chemicals and
and currencies printing inks their uses.
available • Similarity or
any acces- difference in the
sories dyes.
9 Chemical compo- Objects with traces of paint or Packed in a polythene Paint from Scrape and Whether the paint Use sharp-edged
sition of paints swabs from them covers intact area collect in traces are similar. scalpel, knife, or
in hit-and-run of the ve- filter paper, blade for scrap-
cases hicle. keep in a ing.
polythene
Appendix
cover, and
pack in a
cardboard
box.
10 Metal composition Idols or their portions jewels, zari Packed separately —- —- To ascertain the me-
in saree, etc. tallic composition
361
362
DNA-related physical evidence and analyses

Type of
Sl. Examination/ Material Packing/ Forwarding Control Possible
No. Analysis Evidence Procedure Material Packing/Forwarding Procedure Analysis Remarks
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 Paternity test Fresh blood of See Col. 6 Fresh blood Individuals (the child, the mother, Whether the Identification par-
the disputed of the and alleged father) should be pro- alleged man ticulars of the in-
child mother and duced in person before the desig- is the father dividuals should
the alleged nated Medical Doctor through the of the child. be incorporated
father. Magistrate. After due process of in court letter.
identification, the sample of blood
will be collected by the Medical
Doctor using (Flinders Technology
Associates) (FTA) card supplied by
this Division.
2 DNA profil- a) Bloodstains Clothes should be air Blood of the Soak the blood in a piece of clean Whether the Questioned and
ing from from clothing dried and folded with deceased gauze cloth, air dry and pack in DNA profile control items
dry stains sheets of paper be- (to be col- paper packet. is the same should not be
tween individual cloth lected by or different packed together.

folds to avoid mixing the Medical from the
of stains, labeled and Doctor). questioned
sealed. blood.
b) Blood stains - do - Blood of the Fresh blood from injured/suspects - do - Collection of
from cloth- injured/sus- to be collected following the proce- control samples:
ing pects (to be dure as in Col. 6 Sl. No. 1. follow the proce-
collected by dure in col. 6 for
the Medical paternity testing.
Doctor).
c) Blood- Air dry and pack in Blood of the For deceased as in Col. 6 of 2a ap- - do - - do -
stained paper bags or paper deceased/in- pearing before.
earth/ packets. jured (to be Fresh blood from the individual
weapons collected by concerned to be collected follow-
the Medical ing the procedure as in Col. 6 Sl.
Doctor). No. 1.
d) Bloodstains Cotton swabs moistened - do - - do - - do - - do -
from im- with minimum amount
movable of water can be used,
Appendix
objects air dried, and then sent.

e) Seminal Clothing should be air Blood of Fresh blood from the individual Whether - do -
stains in dried and folded with victim/sus- concerned to be collected the semi-
clothes sheets of paper be- pects. following the procedure as in nal DNA
tween individual cloth Col. 6 Sl. No. 1. profile is
folds to avoid mixing that of the
of stains, labeled and accused.
sent.
f) Semen in - do - - do - - do - - do -
vaginal
swabs
(Continued)
363
364
(Continued)
Type of
Sl. Examination/ Material Packing/ Forwarding Control Possible
No. Analysis Evidence Procedure Material Packing/Forwarding Procedure Analysis Remarks
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
g) Salivary Clothing should be air - do - - do - Whether the - do -
stains in dried and folded with salivary
clothes sheets of paper be- DNA profile
tween individual cloth is that of
folds to avoid mixing the victim/
of stains, properly la- accused.
beled, sealed, and sent.
h) Salivary Cigarette butts and - do - - do - - do - - do -
stains in materials like tea cups,
cigarette tumblers etc., should
butts, tea be forwarded as such,
cups (swabs are not to be
taken) packed in sepa-
rately labeled paper
packets.
i) Saliva from Collect from both the - do - - do - - do - - do -
bite marks inner and outer surface

around the bite mark
with sterile, moistened
cotton swabs, air dry
and send in paper
packets.
3 DNA profil- Bone with tis- Femur bone with head Blood of the - do - Whether the - do -
ing from sues (about 5”) with tissue parents and/ DNA profile
bones and The order of adhering should be cut, or siblings of the bones
tissues preference of wrapped in polythene indicate
bones are sheet, and kept in a biological
i) Femur tight pack of ice and relation-
ii) Humerus salt in a thermocol ship with
and (polystyrene) container the parents/
iii) Other with proper labeling brothers/
available and seals. sisters.
bones
4 DNA profiling Fetus (collected To be wrapped in poly- Blood of Blood of deceased mother to be pre- Whether the The MO should
Appendix
from fetus after MTP/ thene sheet and kept mother and served as in Col. 6 of SI No. 2a. alleged man specify that the
abortion/au- in a tight pack of ice the alleged Blood of alleged father to be collected is the father uterus/uterine
topsy) and salt in a thermocol father. as in Col. 6 of SI No. 1. of the fetus. tissues had been
(polystyrene) container removed before
with proper labeling and packing the fetus.
seals.
Note: While collecting material evidence

1. Wear gloves
2. Use clean forceps for collecting items like cigarette butts and hair for every use
365
366
Documents-related physical evidence and analyses

Sl. Examination/ Material Forwarding Forwarding
No. Analysis Evidence Procedure Control Material Procedure Possible Analysis Remarks
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1. Examination Documents In a sealed 1) Written for the occasion In a sealed Whether writings/ • No marking should be made
of docu- containing cover/pa- through request or by dicta- cover/pa- signatures were on the portion requiring
ments for writings and per parcel tion. per parcel written by the examination.
comparing signatures along with • Ensure similar material along with same individual • Nature of examination and
writings/sig- specimen containing same words, specimen or not. the portion to be examined
natures. seal impres- phrases, letter combina- seal impres- should be clearly indicated.
sion of the tions. sion of the • Court seals and stamps
forwarding • Preferably, text must be forwarding should not be affixed on por-
authority dictated. authority. tions requiring examination.
• Minimum of 5 pages of • I.O and two witnesses should
writings and 10 signatures endorse the specimen writ-
are preferable. ings.
• Writing instruments and • Originals alone should be
paper should be similar. sent. Xerox/photo copies
2) Admitted writings/signatures should not be sent.
found on existing documents • List of documents should be
like cheques, letters, deeds, enclosed.
applications, driving license,

passport, pay roll, education
records, registers containing
• similar type of subject,
• contemporary writings/
signatures,
• adequate amount of writ-
ings/signatures.
2 Examination Documents • Docu- —- —- 1) Whether the Do not enclose or make any
of docu- containing ments nature of the markings on the portions
ments for erasures/ should not erasure is requiring examination.
erasures, alterations/ be folded. mechanical or
alterations oblitera- • Send in a chemical.
etc., tions. protective 2) Whether the
envelope. erased writings
can be deci-
phered.
3) If so, the
authorship of
the deciphered
writings to be
established
—follow the
procedure as in
the Col. 5 of Sl
Appendix
No. 1.
3 Examination Charred Pack in a —- —- To decipher the • Do not unfold the burnt
of charred documents sufficiently content. documents.
documents larger • Do not flatten the curled
for deci- cardboard documents.
phering the box giving • Prevent large pieces from
content. soft cotton breaking.
padding
and ensure
careful
transport
through
special mes-
senger.
(Continued)
367
368
(Continued)
Sl. Examination/ Material Forwarding Forwarding
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
4 Reconstruc- Torn docu- Loosely pack If authorship is required after In a sealed 1) Reconstruction Caution:
tion and ments in a card- reconstruction, follow the cover/paper of torn pieces. Do not paste/use adhesive tape
examina- board box. procedure as detailed in Col. 5 parcel. 2) Determination to fix the torn pieces.
tion of torn of Sl. No. 1. of authorship.
documents
5 Comparison Documents In a sealed Corresponding authentic mate- In a sealed To establish simi- Authentic samples should be
of printed contain- cover/paper rial from the same series/batch. cover/paper larities or differ- obtained from appropriate
matter and ing printed parcel. parcel. ences among the approved sources or concerned
impressions. matter (ex- printed matter/ company for brand labels.
cise labels, impressions.
company
labels, lot-
tery tickets,
holograms,
brand
labels, mark
sheets.)
6 Comparison Documents In a sealed Contemporary seal impressions In a sealed Whether the ques- • Control impression of the seal
of seal im- containing cover and/or authentic seals. cover tioned and speci- should not be partial.
pressions. embossed/ men impression • Court seal should not overlap
seal/rub- were made using the specimen impressions.
ber stamp the same seal
impression. or the authentic
seal.
7 Comparison Documents In a sealed 1) Contemporary type written/ In a sealed Whether the same Typed/printed text using the
of type containing cover/paper printed script box. typewriter/print- same machine is sufficient.
written/ type writ- parcel. • Use similar text In a sealed er was used for
printed mat- ten/printed • Ensure typing of all the cover/paper preparing both
ter with the matter. type characters. parcels. the questioned
type writer/ • Text with light, medium, and standard
printer. heavy touch scripts.
• Indicate make, model, and If typewriter is
number of the machine seized: Whether
along with the name of typ- this typewriter
ist and date was used for
• Indicate the make and typing the
model of the printer questioned type
scripts.
8 Examination Documents After pad- —- —- To decipher the • Do not fold the document.
of indented containing ding in indented writing. • If it is a note book—send as
writing. indented between such.
writing. two sheets
of card-
Appendix
board, pack
in a sealed
cover.
9 Examination Documents In a sealed — Suspected/ To establish physi- Do not fold.
for physical referred for cover. connected cal matching and
matching physical material to hence the source.
matching be sent.
10 Examination Writings/ Writings/ As detailed in Col. 5 of Sl. No. 1. In a sealed Whether writings/ Photographs of the writings
of writings signatures on signatures to cover. signatures were should be taken covering refer-
on immov- immovable be photo- written by the ences indicating their location.
able surfaces surface like graphed with same individual
wall, floor. a scale and or not.
after avoid-
ing parallax
error.
369
370
Explosives-related physical evidence and analyses

Sl. Examination Material Forwarding Control Forwarding
No. Analysis Evidence Procedure Material Procedure Possible Analysis Remarks
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 Identification of • Primary fragments of the • Fragments are —- —- Whether the exhib- • Powdery stains
explosives and device to be packed in its contain any ex- found on nonab-
their types, i.e., • Container parts like pipe/ self-locking covers plosive substance sorbent surfaces
whether low or metallic pieces, threaded and sealed in paper or explosion may be collected by
high caps, suitcase pieces, paper packets residues. swabbing and those
wrappers, jute threads, • Dry swabs and • If so, what are found on absorbent
nails, cotton threads, steel small objects may they? surfaces may be col-
balls, glass pieces be packed in self- • What is the type lected by scraping.
• Circuitry components like locking plastic bags of explosive? • Liquid samples
circuit boards, electronic • Wet swabs and found on surfaces
parts, lead wires, adhesive materials collected in should be absorbed
tape, fragments of batter- wet condition may into saw dust or cot-
ies. be sent in glass jars ton wool.
• Components of initiat- • Tissues preserved in • Residual traces of ex-
ing device like aluminum rectified spirit may plosives can remain
pieces, lead wires of elec- be sent in glass jars for long periods of
tric blasting caps, charred • Large items may be time if not physically
pieces of safety fuse wrapped in a sturdy removed.
• Triggering device compo- plastic sheet and
nents like broken switches, sealed with adhesive
door knobs, parts of delay tape
devices.
• Objects like fabrics, wood, —- —- Preferable sequence of
metal, bricks, mortar, swabbing
debris containing uncon- a) Dry swab
sumed explosive residues b) Acetone swab
from near the seat of c) Water swab
explosion
• Materials that are black-
ened from the explosion
• Dry swabs from crater site
• Wet swabs using acetone
followed by water
• Soil from the seat of blast
Appendix
• Tissues, if any
• Residue of low explo-
sives—collect by sweeping
the blast site using a new
broom.
2 Identification of Raw material/chemicals About 1 g from each —- —- Whether the exhib- The entire bulk of ex-
explosives and recovered from the premises item is to be packed it is an explosive plosive should not be
their types, i.e., of suspects. separately in self- or a component forwarded in view of
whether low or locking polythene of an explosive. explosive hazard.
high covers.
(Continued)
371
372
(Continued)
Sl. Examination Material Forwarding Control Forwarding
No. Analysis Evidence Procedure Material Procedure Possible Analysis Remarks
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
3 Identification of Pieces of glass bottle or other Pack in glass bottles. —- —- What is the fuel
fuel in fire bomb fragile containers, adhesive present in the
(Petrol Bombs) tape, bottle caps with center exhibits?
hole, cloth wick, residues of
petrol, detergent, fuel oil,
grease, Vaseline etc.
4 Identification of Broken pieces of glass, a) Dry chemicals to —- —- What are the
fuel/chemicals in spilled chemicals, sugar, be packed in self- chemical found in
other miscella- sulfur, residual acids, acid locking polythene the exhibits?
neous incendiary stains and their swabs etc. bags. Are they incendi-
bombs. b) Liquids and wet ary chemicals?
swabs and other
items may be
packed in bottles
with screw caps.
5 Live IEDs are not Materials obtained after As mentioned in Col. 4 —- —- As detailed in Col. Do not attempt to
to be sent for defusal/disposal by compe- of Sl. No. 1 7 of Sl. No. 1. touch or disturb IEDs.
analysis. Only the tent authority, i.e., BDDS BDDS is the com-
residue obtained in Head Quarters or in petent authority for
after defusal/ Districts. handling IEDs.
disposal can be
forwarded for
analysis.
6 Identification of Products obtained after Dismantled products to ---- ---- Whether the compo- Do not transport live
firework (pyrotech- dismantling un-burnt crack- be wetted with water sition conforms to crackers.
nic) composition ers or burnt/burst/exploded and packed in plastic fire work devices.
crackers. containers. Others in
paper packets.
Narcotics-related physical evidence and analyses
Type of Packing/
Sl. Examination/ Material Evidence Packing/ Control Forwarding Possible Analysis Remarks
No. Analysis Forwarding Procedure Material Procedure
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 Identification of 1. Raw plant products such as Material evidence Analysis conducted —- Identification of the History of the
narcotic substanc- ganja, opium should be packed in as per the proce- substance for ascer- case should be
Appendix
es covered under 2. Materials in the form of paper packets/polythene dures prescribed taining whether the enclosed.
relevant Act. packets, vials, tablets, stickers, covers/cloth bags/card- in the UNDCP substance is covered
injections, ampoules, powdery board boxes/cartons, manual and other under relevant Act
substances etc. etc., properly labeled validated labora- or not.
3. Appliances such as syringes and sealed. tory methods.
etc.
373
374
Physics-related physical evidence and analyses

Type of
Sl. Examination/ Material Packing/Forwarding Packing/Forwarding
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 Examination of Currency Sealed envelope Screens, printing blocks, Parcels using To know whether Avoid sending
counterfeit cur- notes. photographic nega- suitable bubble the currency notes multiples of similar
rency. tives, hand numbering wrap packing in are counterfeit. notes.
machine, color Xerox cardboard boxes Whether the imple- Send sample from
machine, computer ments were used each bundle in-
with accessories (color to print the cur- stead of the entire
printer etc.) rency notes. lot.
2 Examination of Stamp papers Sealed envelope Genuine stamp papers Parcels using Whether the stamp ---
stamp paper, etc. suitable bubble papers are genu-
wrap packing in ine or not.
cardboard boxes
3 Camera /Photo 1. Camera 1. Sealed cardboard 1. Photos (as in Col. 4) Whether the pho- ---
identification 2. Photos box with bubble 2. Negatives tographs/ nega-
(linking of sus- 3. Negative wrap/cotton tives were taken
pected film rolls/ 2, 3. Sealed trans- using the camera.

negatives with parent cellophane
camera). envelopes in paper
packet.
4 Photo-photo Questioned Transparent poly- Control photo (as in Col. 4) Whether the two ---
comparison for photo thene covers in pa- photographs are
establishing the per packet (protect printed from the
source. from scratches) same negative/
digital image.
5 Photo-negative Photo or Transparent poly- Negative or photo (as in Col. 4) Whether the ---
comparison. negative thene covers in pa- photograph was
per packet (protect prepared from the
from scratches). particular nega-
tive.
6 Broken objects Button, Wrap each piece with Samples from SOC/vic- (as in Col. 4) 1. Whether the 1. Collect all pieces.
knife, cotton (to avoid tim/suspect broken parts are 2. Pack them sepa-
glass, damages) and pack from the same rately.
bangles, in polythene covers source.
Appendix
other imple- in bubble wrap/ 2. Whether the

ments, cotton-packed broken pieces
lamp assem- sealed cardboard found are
bly. boxes. similar.
7 Footprint 1. Footprint 1. Wrap with cotton/ Casting/inked prints un- (as in Col. 4) Whether the two Send scaled photo-
comparison— casting bubble wrap in der similar conditions. footprints are graph of footprints
Footprint with 2. Footprint strong cardboard similar. taken in the SOC
footprint tracings on box along with casting/
transpar- 2, 3. Transparent tracing.
ent sheets polythene cov-
3. Footprint ers in paper
photo- packet.
graph
(Continued)
375
376
(Continued)
Type of
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8 Footprint com- 1. Footprint 1, 2 Trans-parent 1. Inked footprints of (as in Col. 4) Whether the foot- For insole footprint
parison—Foot- tracing polythene covers in suspects. print is similar comparison the
print with insole 2. Foot print paper packet. 2. Footwear of the to the footprint footwear worn by
footprint. photo- 3. Cardboard boxes suspects. found on the the suspects (at the
graph insole. time of arrest) will
3. Objects be useful.
(paper/
cloth
etc.,)
bearing
stained/
dust foot-
prints
9 Footprint com- Footwear Cardboard boxes Inked footprints of In sealed paper Whether the insole Other footwear of
parison—Insole with insole suspects. packet. print is similar to the suspect with in-
print with print the footprint. sole prints can also
footprint serve as control.
10 Footwear print 1. Casting As in Sl. No. 7 for 1. Suspected footwear (as in Col. 4) Whether the foot- ---
2. Photo- foot print casting. 2. Suspected footwear wear has made
graph prints the prints.

3. Materials
bearing
foot-wear
print
11 Tire marks 1. Casting As in Sl. No. 7 for 1. Suspected tire Wrap the tire Whether the tire ---
2. Photo- footprint casting. 2. Suspected vehicle with cloth/paper mark was made
graph sheets to prevent by the particular
shifting of traces/ tire.
further damages.
12 Erased numbers 1. Bi-cycle Numbered portion Suspected punches used Punches may be 1. Evidence of ---
(identification) 2. Motor- to be protected with for punching numbers. wrapped with tampering of
cycle cotton padding cotton and the present
3. Vehicles and secured with packed in a card- number.
4. Fire arm adhesive duct tape, board box. 2. What was the
5. Camera etc., sealed and previous num-
then packed in card ber?
board boxes. 3. Whether the
punches were
used to punch
the numbers.
13 Implement marks Locks, Wrap the area bear- Suspected tools. Wrap in cotton 1) If tool is not ---
(identification of padlocks, ing tool marks with and pack in a known: What
tool marks) telegraph cotton and place it cardboard box. type of tool
wires, in strong box. has made these
utensils, marks?
cables etc. 2) Whether the
particular tool
has made the
Appendix
markings.
14 Electrical energy 1. Electrical 1. Sealed card board/ 1. Control seals Wrap with cotton 1. Whether meter 1. The report of
theft energy gunny with 2. Sealing plier and keep it in a is in working Electrical Engi-
meter bubble wrap sealed cardboard condition. neer may also be
2. Security 2. Wrap the seals box. 2. Whether seals enclosed.
seals with cotton and had been tam-
3. Sealing keep in a card- pered. 2. For short circuit-
wires board box. 3. Whether sealing ing, etc., the
wire is cut. entire unit may
4. Whether the be forwarded.
meter is tam-
pered by short-
ing the wires.
5. Whether the
meter is de-
stroyed by short
circuit.
(Continued)
377
378
(Continued)
Type of
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
15 Contact traces: Paint flakes Collect in filter paper, Collect paint flake from (as in Col. 4) Whether the ques- The edges, contour
Paint flake from SOC pad with cotton, the suspected vehicle tioned paint flake should not be dis-
keep in a polythene a) near the damaged is similar to the turbed (if physical
cover, and pack in a area control. match is required)
cardboard box. b) away from the dam-
aged area
c) different areas (front/
rear)
16 Contact traces: Paint smear Scrape and collect in Collect paint from the (as in Col. 4) Whether the paint Use sharp-edged
Paint smear (transferred filter paper, keep in suspected vehicle from SOC/contact scalpel, knife, blade
from one a polythene cover, a) near the damaged trace is similar to etc., for scrapping.
vehicle to and pack in a card- area the control.
the other) board box. b) away from the dam-
aged area
c) different areas (front/
rear)
17 Contact traces: Paint smear Lay white papers a) -do- (as in Col. 4) Whether the paint Use sharp-edged
Paint smear (on cloth- between folds and from SOC/contact scalpel, knife, blade
(clothing) ing) place the clothing in trace is similar to etc., for scrapping.
a paper envelope. the control.
18 Glass comparison Glass pieces/ Collect pieces in Materials suspected to Pack in a bigger 1. Whether the ---
splinters/ separate plastic have transferred pieces container. glass pieces are
glass articles containers and keep of glass. similar.
the container in a 2. Whether the
cardboard box. glass pieces
formed a part
of the particular
item.
19 Glass fracture Fractured Maintaining the --- --- Identifying the Mark the inside and
glass matching structure, direction of force. outside of the glass
pack between white pieces.
papers/cotton/bub-
ble wrap, and pack
in thick cardboard
box
20 Fire accidents in 1. Battery/ Cardboard boxes Wiring diagram of the --- Whether the fire ---
vehicles terminal/ particular brand of the was due to electri-
Appendix
wires/coils vehicle cal short circuit.

etc.
2. Photo-
graph of
dam-
aged and
unaffected
areas
21 Tear marks Clothing The tears may be 1. Weapon Cardboard box Whether the tears ---
encircled with color 2. Similar cloth (permis- were caused by
pencil, and white sion from court to use the weapons.
paper may be placed sample cloth from the
over it and packed item)
in card board box.
(Continued)
379
380
(Continued)
Type of
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
22 Working condi- Instruments Cardboard box Manuals/pamphlets --- Whether the ---
tion of instru- (confer- details of peripherals instrument is in
ments. encing working condi-
telephones tion.
etc.,)
23 Boiler/cylinder Boilers, cyl- Gunny parcel/ card- 1. Details of pressure/ --- Cause of burst/ ---
burst inders etc. board box. temperature limits metal strength.
2. Other systems at-
tached to it
24 Explosion (re- Metallic Separate plastic con- --- --- Whether the frag- ---
construction of fragments tainers. mented items are
IEDs) wire etc. parts of an IED.
25 Fire accidents Damaged Polythene covers/ --- --- --- 1) All the appli-
(electrical short electrical paper/cardboard ances in the
circuit as cause appliance, parcels. electrical circuit
of fire) charred have to be sent
wires, 2) Photos of dam-
switch ages
boards, fuse 3) The wiring
carriers etc. diagrams of the

building.
26 Trademark viola- Pilfer- proof Cardboard box Genuine items Cardboard box Whether the items Random samples of
tions capsules, are genuine or spurious items are
motors, and spurious. sufficient.
other items
involved in
trademark
violations
Serology-related physical evidence and analyses
Type of Packing/
Examination Material Forwarding Control
Sl. No. Analysis Evidence Procedure Material Packing/Forwarding Procedure Possible Analysis Remarks
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 Ascertaining Portions from As detailed in 1. Control • Control blood and saliva • Whether the blood stains are
the species blood/se- the forward- blood of should be collected by the of human or animal origin.
origin and men/saliva ing proce- deceased/ Medical Doctor and soaked • If human, to which group does
group of stained items dures. victim/sus- in a clean gauze cloth, well it belong?
blood/other viz. cloth- pect. air dried, and packed in paper • Whether the blood group of
Appendix
body fluids ing, weapon, 2. Control packet. the stains of the clothing of
and tissues. earth etc. saliva of • A minimum of 1 ml blood the deceased and that of stains
victim/ ac- must be drawn and soaked in found on the weapons/clothing
cused. gauze cloth. of the accused is same.
• Liquid blood should not be • Whether the suspect is a secre-
forwarded as such. tor. If so, whether the group
• Tissue samples other than of the seminal stains found on
those in traces should be pre- the victim’s clothing is same as
served in saline. that of the suspect.
381
382
Toxicology-related physical evidence and analyses

Type of
Sl. Examination/ Material Packing/Forwarding Packing/ Forwarding Possible
No. Analysis Evidence Procedure Control Material Procedure Analysis Remarks
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 Detection of Viscera* Glass bottles—500 ml *
Materials collected , if any, Each of the items To detect * The additional
poisons in hu- a) Stomach capacity with plastic from SOC like mentioned in Col. the poison/ viscera samples
man fatalities and con- screw caps. a) Vomitus 5 should be packed drug. and/or the alter-
(General)* tents Preservative*: Satu- b) Purges separately and sealed nate preserva-
b) Intestine rated saline c) Remnant poison in airtight contain- tives desired for
and con- d) Remnant food and the ers with appropriate detecting the
tents vessels, plates, etc., in- caps ensuring no loss more common
c) Liver cluding fruits/beverages during transit. specific poisons
d) Kidney e) Empty poison containers No preservative are separately
e) Brain f) Unused/used remnants should be added. indicated later.
of medicines, tablets,
injection vials, syringes,
needles, tablet strips etc.
g) Clothing with vomitus
a) *For detect- - do - Preservative desired: - do - - do - - do -
ing corrosive Rectified spirit
poisons. instead of saturated
saline
b) *For detect- - do - Preservative desired: - do - - do - - do -
ing plant Rectified spirit with
poisons 2% acetic acid

c) *For detect- Additional Preservative desired: - do - - do - - do -
ing and samples: Sodium citrate for
estimating the Blood and blood and mercuric
drugs. urine chloride for urine.
d) *For Additional Pack as such in
detecting samples: paper/cardboard
metal poisons Hairs, nails parcel without any
(Chronic). and long preservative.
bones with
marrow.
e) *For detect- Additional For blood and urine - do - - do - - do -
ing injected samples: preserve as in Col. 4
(IV/IM, etc.) Blood, urine of Sl No. 1 d.
poisons/ and skin/ Tissues to be pickled
drugs. tissue from with solid sodium
site of injec- chloride (common
tion (skin salt).
bit)
f) *For detecting Muscles Preservative desired: - do - - do - - do -
poisons in pu- Saturated saline.
trefied bodies Note: Muscles are
lacking identi- more resistant to
fiable visceral putrefaction and
organs. decomposition.
g) *For detect- Additional 100 ml of liquid par- Control gas from the SOC, Collect by upward - do -
ing gaseous samples: affin to be layered if any displacement of air
Appendix
poisons like Lungs and on top of lungs/ and pack in glass

CO etc. blood blood samples in containers with air-
airtight bottles. tight screw cap.
h) *For detect- Viscera and/ Soil to be air dried Control soil Air dry and pack in - do -
ing poisons or soil col- and packed as such sealed glass bottle.
in exhumed lected from without any preser-
bodies. below the vative.
dead body.
i) *For detecting Additional Preservative desired: Twigs/other portions of the Air dry and pack in - do -
indigenous samples: Rectified sprit. local abortifacient. sealed paper packet.
abortifacients. Uterus as a
whole and
rectal tissue
(Continued)
383
384
(Continued)
Type of
Sl. Examination/ Material Packing/Forwarding Packing/ Forwarding Possible
No. Analysis Evidence Procedure Control Material Procedure Analysis Remarks
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
2 Detection of poi- Viscera of Preservative: Sample of fodder, other In suitable glass/other To detect
sons in cattle cattle One set in saturated feeds, water, etc., and poi- containers without the poison/
fatalities. saline and another in son containers, if any. any preservative. drug.
rectified spirit.
3 Detection and Blood—Min. Collect and pack the —- —- To detect and Certificate on
estimation of 3 ml blood in glass vials estimate drunkenness ob-
alcohol in cases Urine— and the urine in alcohol. tained from the
of drunkenness. about 100 glass bottles, both Medical Doctor
ml with airtight caps. is to be enclosed
Blood to be preserved along with the
with sodium fluoride requisition.
or sodium citrate.
Urine to be forward-
ed as such without
any preservative.
4 Detection of Vomitus, To be packed in suit- —- —- To detect the A requisition in the
poisons/drugs in stomach able airtight glass con- poison/drug. prescribed format
nonfatal cases aspirate/wash- tainers without any along with the
(under treat- ings, preservative. history and the
ment). blood and latest condition of

urine. the patient is to be
furnished by the
physician con-
cerned.
Appendix 385
REFERENCE
Jayaprakash, P. T. The Art and Science of Observing

Crime Scenes, Chennai, India: Forensic Sciences
Department, Government of Tamil Nadu, 2003.
Index
Note: Page numbers in italics indicate a figure and page numbers in bold indicate a table on the corresponding
page.
A of victims of firearm injuries, 253, 262, 263, 270

abrasions, 30, 41, 76–77, 82, 144, 170, 189, 210, 226, of victims of sexual assault homicide, 238
240, 271
on clothing, 116, 117 B
accelerant/s, xv, 144, 146, 162, 163, 164, 310, 359 ballistics-related physical evidence and analyses,
accepted (major) premise, 1, 3, 5, 12, 13, 23, 24, 32, 33, 349–352
34, 35, 36, 38, 41, 42, 43, 44, 46, 48, 50, 51, 55, belated crime scene investigation, 19
57, 65, 68, 70, 72, 73, 85, 86, 91, 93, 94, 95, 96, billhook machete, 93–94
99, 100, 101, 102, 146, 148, 149, 150, 152, 155, biology-related physical evidence and analyses, 353–357
157, 160, 161, 171, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 184, bite mark(s), 18, 82, 89, 117, 236, 244, 354, 364
187, 189, 198, 199, 201, 202, 205, 206, 211, 212, bloodstain(s), 9, 12, 57, 76, 83, 150, 152, 153, 335, 339,
213, 215, 216, 227, 228, 229, 237, 238, 239, 240, see also patterns
241, 251, 252, 256, 257, 260, 261, 263, 265, 266, ant erosions and, 29, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 76–77, 82
278, 279, 282, 283, 290, 291, 294, 297, 299, 302, artery spurts and, 104
312, 313, 314, 315, 318, 319, 325, 327, 329, 333, atomized pattern, 104, 105
334–335, 340 blood drops and, 83, 89, 98, 99, 103, 104, 106, 150
aerial view sketch, 22, 31, 59, 83, 84, 96, 134, 135, 183, blood group and analysis, 92, 94, 238, 240, 381
229, 237, 239, 249, 253, 285, 311, 326 cast-off, 85, 103, 104, 151
ant erosions, 29, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 55, 56, 76–77, 82 cut wounds/injuries and, 85, 91, 92, 113, 226
antemortem injuries, 29, 339 explosions and, 280–282
burns and, 145, 163, 164 hanging and, 36, 37, 48–49, 51, 52, 53, 54, 65, 66–67
drowning and, 210, 214, 215, 216 self-inflicted stab wounds and, 98, 99
electrocution and, 207 sexual assault and, 237, 238
fall from height and, 170, 189, 190 skeletonized, 105, 106
hanging and, 41, 51, 54, 56, 57, 58 smudges, 107, 150
anthropology-related physical evidence and analyses, swipe pattern, 106, 107
346–348 traumatic injury and, 103
arc patterns, 104, 151–153 blow flies, 117
archive images, 23 body fluids, 3, 8, 11, 12, 18, 36, 65, 77, 339, 381
‘Art and Science of Observing Crime Scenes, The’ directionality and, of, 3, 11, 12, 22, 30, 34, 35, 36,
(ASCriS), 4, 345 37, 45, 46, 65, 67, 82, 91, 104, 106, 150, 151, 226,
artery spurts, patterns from, 104 339
asphyxia, 72, 74, 76, 154, 342 frothy discharge, 18, 69, 70, 206, 209, 210, 212, 217
assisted hanging, 38, 39, 41 Bomb Disposal Squad, SOCO coordination with, 275,
association, 9, 12, 104, 107, 112, 209, 218, 237, 238, 303–304
239, 242, 334, 335 bones, 81, 92, see also exhumation; skeletal
atomized bloodstains, 104, 105 identification
audit trail, 23 absence of, 346
authentication, 18 class-level identification, 81, 120
autopsy, 2, 68, 72, 75, 82, 113, 127, 141, 153, 154, 162, collection, during exhumation, 138, 139, 347
164, 188–190, 206, 207, 209, 212, 213, 215, 217, common origin, 94
225, 228, 229, 238, 253, 262, 263, 270, 340–341 commingling of, 121
of burn victims, 152, 153, 154, 162, 163, 164 diatom composition, 221
of drowning victims, 209, 212, 213, 215 DNA profiling of, 365
of electrocution victim, 206–207 examination of, 357
of hanging victims, 37, 44, 53, 55, 56, 67 indicator of sex, 134
of poisoning victim, 225, 228, 229 individual identification, 81, 122–127
of victims falling from heights, 171, 188, 190 physical matching, 306, 120
387
388 Index
reconstruction of, using copper-braces, 127 in firearm injuries, 253

recovering, 121, 122 in hanging, 342
toxicological analysis of, 382 cause-effect relationship, 12
turtle of, 120 chain of custody, 23, 244
brick masonry structure fire, investigating, 312 chemistry-related physical evidence and analyses, 358–361
faulty electrical appliances, 313, 314, 315 children
human factors, 315–316 falls, 191
smoke-staining, 311, 313 poisoning and, 231, 232
spalling of plaster, 312 sexual assault and, 235, 240–241
‘bride-burning’, 143, 163 class identification, 4, 8, 9, 10, 81, 120, 127, 229, 247,
bruising, 154, 162, 188–189 272, 290, 294, 295, 306, 319
in hanging cases, 74, 76 close-up, photography, 22, 23, 24, 33, 34, 49, 50, 58,
bullet injury, 271–272, see also firearms 89, 109, 116, 149, 170, 185, 210, 226, 236, 259,
entry and exit wounds, 270 264, 286, 293, 298, 302, 305, 319, 329
gunshot wound patterns, 268–269 clot, 105–106
posture of victim, reconstructing, 247, 248, 249, 250, cloth impression evidence, 113–114
252, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 258–259, 260, 261, clothing, 81, 103, 149, 152, 169, 210, 211, 212
262 bite mark(s), 117
ricochet, 263, 264, 265, 266, 270, 339 cuts, 116, 117
burn injuries, investigating, 143, 145, 152, 154, damage, 114, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 191
160, 161–162, see also fire; structure fire scene entry holes, 114
investigation; traumatic homicide as evidence, 112–113, 114
accelerants, 146, 163, 164 fire damage, 153, 158, 162, 165
autopsy, 153 heat damage, 117
bloodstains, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153 microbial damage, 117
burned tracks, 144 sexual assault and, 235
burn patterns, 143, 148, 149, 155, 156, 157, 158, 162, as source of ligature material, 48–49, 50–51, 72, 75
164 stab wounds and, 87, 91
clothing, 152, 153, 158, 162 tears caused by high-velocity blunt forces, 114
commensurability of burn patterns, 143, 144, 162, tears caused by sharp-ended objects, 116
164, 165 tears causes by overstretching, 114–115
mobility of victim while aflame, 143, 163–164 tears due to normal usage, 114
observation and, 165–166 collectable evidence, 3, 7, 8, 9, 18, 20
protected areas, 146, 147, 148, 152, 164–165 collisions, see vehicle-related incidents, investigating
pugilistic posture, 162 conceptual foundations, forensic science, 4, 7
relevance of crime scene findings when deciding confession, 89, 91, 95, 154, 162
manner of death, 2, 164 conjoined reconstruction, 3, 5, 12, 13, 47, 48, 51, 52,
scene reconstruction, 165–166 58, 63, 65, 68, 70, 72, 74, 266, 339
smoke depositions, 155, 159 in case of assisted hanging, 41
in a case of bullet ricochet, 266
C in case of death by cut wounds, 94
cadaveric spasm, 3, 8, 11, 13, 18, 29, 30, 75–76, 82, in case of death due to bludgeoning, 96, 97
196, 217, 340 in case of death due to bullet injury, 262
drowning and, 210, 217 in case of death due to burn injuries, 153–154,
electrocution and, 199, 200, 205, 206–208 161–162
firearms and, 247, 248 in case of death due to falling from height, 180
in a freely hanging body, 46–47 in case of death due to falling into a well, 190
in a partially hanging body, 48–49, 50–51 in case of death due to piercing-type wound, 100
Calliphorid flies, 117–118, see also maggot infestation in case of death due to poisoning, 228, 229
carbon monoxide poisoning, 231 in case of death due to shotgun injury, 252
cardinal direction, 21 in case of death due to slash wounds, 101
cartridge cases, characteristics of, 272 in case of drowning, 212, 214, 216
cast-off bloodstains, 85, 103, 104, 151 in case of electrocution, 200, 203, 206
cause of death, 2, 68, 133 in case of hanging, 55–56
in burn cases, 164 in case of hanging alleged as simulation, 37
in death due to electrocution, 207 in case of hanging with wrists bound, 43, 44
in death due to fall, 191 in case of homicide simulated as accident, 330
in death due to poisoning, 231 in case of homicide involving decomposed bodies, 94,
exhumation and, 133–134 96, 102
Index 389
in case of partially hanging body with urinary track, 46 maggot infestation and, 102, 117–118, 119
in case of ricochet, 266 odor of, 19
in case of self-inflicted stab wounds, 99 demonstrable, 17, 91, 225, 306
in case of self-strangulation, 72, 74 dental arches, skeletal identification and, 122, 123
in case of stabbing, 89 depression, suicide and, 189–190
in cases of sexual assault, 238, 240, 241 describing evidence, 18
in determining cause of structure fire, 316 diagrammatic sketch, 22, 62, 64, 86, 88, 254, 266, 304
in determining location of IED fabrication, 294–295 diatoms, 209, 215, 216, 218, 219, 220, 221, 223
in determining seat of explosion, 284 diazepam, 154, 189–190, 190
in pipe bomb explosion investigation, 302 digital cameras, 21, 2, see also photography
contact shot, 248, 268 archive images, 23
contamination, 17–18 disturbances, 17
diatom test/testing and, 209, 210, 218–221 contamination and, 18
Kercher case, 18–19 EMS workers and, 18
cordoning the crime scene, 19 DNA analysis, 18, 126, 244, 362–365
copper-braces for bone reconstruction, 127 fingerprint, 77
crime scene investigation(s), 1, 3, 4, 7, 14, 17, 20, 24, hair, 97, 107, 112, 237, 242
133, 339–340 Kercher case, 18–19
cordoning, 19 morphological analysis and, 112
documenting, 20–21 documentation, 20–21
odor of decomposition and, 19 final report, 23–24
Crime Scene Generalist, 4, 7, 14 physical evidence and analyses, 366–369
Crime Scene Manager (CSM), 3 sketches, 21–22
crime scene reconstruction, 1–5, 9, 12, 13, 22–23, see written notes, 21
also reconstruction ‘dowry deaths’, 163
accepted (major) premises 3–5, 12–13, 21 drowning
hypotheses and, 3–5, 9, 12–13, 20–21, 23, 37 accidental, 209
manner of death and, 1–3, 13, 30, 31–33, 37, 38, 41, cadaveric spasm and, 217
44, 48, 49, 52, 56, 74, 143, 153, 162, 164, 166, diatoms and, 209, 215, 216, 218, 219, 220, 221, 223
190, 207 frothy discharge and, 69, 70, 212, 217
observation, 3 relevance of immediate observations, 217
observed premises, 1, 3–5, 12–13 role of alcohol and other substances in, 217
preeminence of observations in, 3–4 sequential hypotheses, 211, 212
standards, 12 skin erosions and, 217
video recording, 23 suicide and, 209, 212, 213, 214, 218
crime scene report, 5, 24 witnesses, 209
Criminal Procedure Code (CrPC), 133 dynamic event reconstruction, 12–13
crown, 113
cut wounds E
bloodstains and, 91, 92 electrocution, 195
clothing and, 116, 117 autopsy, 206–207
burn injuries, 199, 201, 202
D cadaveric spasm, 199, 200, 205, 206, 208
damage to clothing, 112–113 circumstantial clues, 208
Damodaran, C., 4 conjoined reconstruction, 200, 203, 206
Daubert ruling, 306 domestic voltage, 197, 198, 199, 200
dead bodies, 20, 29, see also bloodstain(s); cadaveric entry and exit wounds, 195, 207
spasm; exhumation; skeletal identification instantaneous rigor, 195, 205, 206
ant erosions, 29, 51, 52, 54, 55, 56, 76–77 lightning fatalities, 207–208
cadaveric spasm, 13, 75–76 line voltage, 200, 201, 202, 203
decomposition and, 81 rigor mortis, 207
maggot infestation and, 102 suicide and, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207
odor of decomposition, 19 elevation view, sketch, 22, 30, 32, 82, 144, 170, 184,
physical evidence and, 8 196, 210, 226, 236, 248, 276, 310, 324
rigor mortis, 75, 76 empiricism, 17
debatable convictions/manner of death/interpretation, 3, EMS workers, crime scene disturbance and, 18
162, 190, 207, 341 entry and exit wounds
decomposition, 81, 209, 212, see also skeletal electrocution, 195, 207
identification gunshot, 261, 262, 270, 271
390 Index
equivocal death investigations, 2, 191, 339, 340, 341, 342 warp, 113
error rate, 17 weave patterns, 113–114
evidence, 20, see also clothing; observation; weft, 113
photography woven, 113
authenticity of, 17 face masks, 19
chain of custody, 23 facial reconstruction, 119
cloth impression, 113–114 facts, 17
clothing as, 112–113 inferential, 13
collectable, 3, 7, 8, 9, 18, 20 manifest, 13
contamination, 18 fallibility, 17
Daubert ruling, 306 falls from heights, investigating, 169, 190
describing, 18 autopsy, 188–189, 190
entomological, 117–118, 119 children and, 191
exhumation and, 133 circumstantial evidence and, 191
fingerprints as, 77–78 conjoined reconstruction, 180, 181, 190
glass, 272, 273, 274 damage to clothing, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 191
hair, 81, 95–96, 97, 107–108, 109, 110, 111, 112 intoxication and, 191
latent prints, 77–78 limitations in the reconstruction, 181–182
observable, 9, 12, 13 sequential hypotheses, 171, 175, 176–177, 178, 179,
observations as, 143 180, 181–182, 183, 184, 186, 187, 188–189, 190
paint as, 337 suicide and, 190
photographing, 22–23 use of dummy during reexamination, 171, 175, 176,
primary, 17 182
principle of exchange and, 34, 35 workplace-related, 191
secondary, 17 final report, 23–24
skid marks, 327 fingerprints, 303–304
soil as, 95–96, 97, 117 as evidence, 77–78
torn cloth as, 114 fire, 146, see also structure fire scene investigation
exchange, principle of, 7–8, 35, 329 burn patterns, 148, 149
exhumation, 133 clothing and, 152
anatomical display of the bones collected, 140 protected areas, 146, 147, 148, 152
choosing the method of digging, 135, 136 firearms
collection of bones, 138, 139 accidental discharge, 267
describing surface soil characteristics, 134, 135 ballistics-related physical evidence and analyses,
exposing the remains, 136, 137–138 349–352
final preparation of the skull, 140, 141 care in handling, 267–268
making sketches, 134 characteristics of bullets and cartridge cases, 272
recording the entomological findings, 136 evidence indicating recent use of, 268
explosions/explosives, 275, see also improvised explosive gunshot residue (GSR), 247
devices (IEDs) range of fire and gunshot wound patterns, 268–269
bloodstains and, 280–282 ricochet, 263, 264, 265, 266, 271–272
Bomb Disposal Squad, 303–304 shadow injury, 251, 252
brisance, 278, 279, 280, 282, 298, 299, 300 shotgun injury, 249, 250–251, 252
direction-damage/directional damage, 275, 281, 285, terminology, 267
301 trajectory of bullets, reconstructing, 253, 254, 255,
epicenter, 297, 298, 304, 305 256, 257, 258–259, 260, 261, 262, 263
physical evidence and analyses, 370–372 footprints, bloodstained, 83, 85, 86, 87, 91
pipe bomb, 295, 297, 298, 299, 300, 301 forcibly-pulled hair, identifying, 103, 109
pitted surfaces and, 298, 299, 300, 305 forensic anthropology, skeletal identification and, 119
reconstructing the seat of, 277, 278, 279, 280, 281, forensic science, 3, 4, 7
282, 283, 284 clothing and, 103, 112–115, 116, 117
safety measures in scenes of, 303 empiricism, 17
fingerprints and, 77–78
F Frye’s criteria, 306
fabric, 149, see also clothing generalists, 13–14
crown, 113 hair and, 108, 110, 111, 113
physical matching, 114 pollen and, 243–244
pitch, 113 principle of exchange, 7–8
selvage, 113 principle of identification, 8
Index 391
principle of individualization, 8, 9 cadaveric spasm and, 46–47, 48–49, 50–51, 75–76

principle of reconstruction, 9, 12 ecchymosed tip of the tongue, 41, 44
research, 341 frothy discharge and, 69
uniqueness-based individualization, 305–307 homicide and, 74
foul play, 74 homicide simulated as, 65, 66, 67, 68, 342
framing a hypothesis, 1, 4, 5, 9, 12, 13, 22 improper scene investigation, 59, 60, 62, 63, 64–65
observation and, 3 knot analysis, 74–75
frothy discharge lesions and, 76
drowning and, 70, 212, 217 ligature, 38, 39, 41, 43, 46, 47, 56, 59, 60, 62–63, 64,
hanging and, 69 65, 69, 70, 74, 77, 341
petechial hemorrhage, 34, 39, 40, 42, 43
G salivary discharge and, 33, 34, 42, 44, 51, 57, 60
general trait identification, 120, 121, 122 suicide and, 44
generalists, 4, 7, 14, 25, 295, 339–340 suspension at low level, 46
glass urinary incontinence and, 35, 36, 44, 46
direction of force causing fractures, 272 vaginal bleeding and, 36, 37
entry and exit holes, 273, 274 with wrists bound, 41, 42, 43, 44
‘percussion cone’ breakages, 273 wrongful accusation and, 53–54
sequence of force in fractures, 272, 273 heat, damage to clothing and, 117
ground reality, 2, 3, 12, 13, 162, 190 homicide, 1, 2, 20, see also traumatic homicide
gunshot hanging and, 74
characteristics, wounds, 271 range of fire and gunshot wound patterns, 268–269
entry and exit wounds, 270 sexual assault and, 240–241
pellet dispersion, 269 simulated as hanging, 65, 66, 67, 68, 342
range of fire, 269 simulating as accident, 327, 328, 329, 330
residue, 247, 252, 268–269 strangulation, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160,
ricochet, relevance of, 271 161–162
stippling, 248, 267, 269 traumatic injury and, 81
tattooing, 248, 252, 269, 270, 271, 276 human input, 4, 24
wound patterns, 268–269, 270, 271 hypostasis, ant erosions and, 77
guesstimate, 2, 339 hypotheses, 1, 2, 4, 13
framing, 1, 4, 5, 9, 13, 20–21, 22
H sequential, 3, 5, 12
hair, 81, 92, 93, 94 sub-, 13
collection methods, 111–112 testing, 4, 13, 13–14
color, 109
cross-sectional appearance of, 108 I
descriptions of morphological variations in, 108, 109 identification, 12
DNA analysis, 97, 112, 237, 242 class, 4, 8–9
establishing victim’s identity using, 95–96, 97 principle of, 8
as evidence, 107 improvised explosive devices (IEDs), 275
forcibly-pulled, identifying, 103, 109 disposal, 304
form: Straight, Curved, Wavy, and Curly, 108 establishing the location of fabrication, 285, 286, 287,
hand picking, 111 288, 290, 291, 293, 294, 295
morphology, 107, 108, 110, 111 safety measures in scenes of, 303
possible findings through analysis of, 108 India, 192, 340
root growth, 110 Criminal Procedure Code (CrPC), 133
tape lifting, 111 death due to burns in, 162–163
vacuuming, 111 death due to poisoning in, 225
handwriting, suicide notes, 191, 192, 193 forensic science in, 3
hanging, 1, 22, 23, 29 individual identification, 77, 81, 107, 119, 122, 126–
as alleged simulation, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37 127, 134, 141, 229
antemortem injuries, 56, 57, 58 individualization, 12, 77, 114, 248, 275, 294, 295, see
asphyxia and, 74, 76 also physical matching
assisted, 38, 39, 41 principle of, 8, 9, 10
bindings and, 75 uniqueness-based, 9, 305–307
bloodstains and, 48–49, 51, 52, 53, 54, 56, 57, 65, inductive reasoning, 4, 13, 306
66–67 inferential facts, 13
bruising and, 74, 76 insecticide poisoning, 227, 228, 230
392 Index
instantaneous rigor, 195, 205, 206, 208 contemporaneous, 12,

intoxication, 191 descriptive nature, 21
role in drowning cases, 217 documentation by, note-taking, 21
suicide, in, 189–191
K
Kercher case, 18–19 O
knives, clothing damage and, 116 observable evidence, 3, 7–8, 9, 12, 13, 339
knot, 2, 30, 38, 41, 42, 44, 52, 65, 68, 72, 77 observation, 3, 4, 5, 12–14, 17, 154, 339, 340
access to make, 339 in cases involving firearms, 247, 248, 253, 266, 267
canted up, 22, 32, 45, 75 in cases of death due to burns, 143, 144, 146,
double knot, 64, 72 153–154, 162, 163–166
in the front of neck, 52, 59, 60, 63, 75 in cases of death due to drowning, 210, 217
half-knot, 71 in cases of death due to electrocution, 195, 196, 203,
location of, 26, 29, 30, 41, 51, 74, 75 206, 207
on the neck, 2, 22, 30, 33, 37, 68, 73, 75, 213, 214 in cases of death due to fall from heights, 170–171,
in origin, 22, 31, 32, 33, 37 186, 190
possibility to make, 43–44 in cases of death due to hanging, 29–30, 33, 37, 44,
sliding/slip type, 33, 37, 69, 76 52, 53, 56, 74, 75
using a tourniquet, 72, 73, 74 in cases of death due to poisoning, 226, 230
knot analysis, 74–75 in cases of death due to traumatic injuries, 81, 82, 83,
103
L in cases of explosions, 276, 285, 295, 303
latent prints, 77–78, 303–304 in cases of sexual assault, 236, 242
legal fallout, 2 in cases of structure fires, 309, 310, 313, 316, 320
legal truth, 2 in cases relating to vehicle-related scenes, 324, 335
lesions, in hanging cases, 76 disturbances and, 17–18
ligature, 38, 39, 43, 47, 56, 59, 60, 62–63, 64, 65, 69, documentation and, 21
70, 74, 77, 341, see also knot analysis during belated scene visits, 19
personal clothing as source of, 48–49, 50–51, 72 as evidence, 3, 143
unecchymosed marks, 46 in framing hypotheses, 1, 4, 20
lightning kit for recording, 24
fatalities, 207–208 logical fallout, and, 4
structure fire and, 316 mundane, 3
lividity, 72 as observed premises, 3
Locard’s principle of exchange, 7, 34, 35 perceived by unaided eye, 4
possibility to err, 21
M preeminence of, 3
maggot infestation, 102 in scenes of drowning, 217
estimating time of death and, 117–118, 119 observation-based crime scene reconstruction, 4
manifest facts, 13 observed premise(s), 1, 3, 4, 5, 12, 13, 32, 33, 34, 35,
manner of death, 2, 3, 13, 30, 31, 32, 33, 37, 38, 41, 44, 36, 37, 38, 39, 42, 43, 44, 46, 48, 49, 51, 54, 56,
48, 49, 52, 56, 67, 74, 75, 143, 153, 162, 165–166, 65, 68, 69, 72, 73, 84, 85, 87, 88, 91, 92, 93, 95,
171, 190, 206, 207, 209, 211, 215, 218, 225, 247, 96, 98, 100, 101, 102, 146, 147, 148, 150, 152,
252, 268, 340, 341, 342 155, 156, 158, 160, 171, 175, 177, 178, 180, 182,
medicolegal death investigation, 2 186, 188, 189, 198, 199, 200, 201, 204, 205, 211,
MEPROCS, 126 213, 215, 216, 227, 228, 229, 237, 238, 239, 240,
microbial evidence 241, 251, 252, 254, 256, 259, 261, 263, 264, 266,
clothing and, 117 277, 279, 280, 283, 288, 290, 294, 297, 298, 300,
sexual assault and, 240–241, 243 312, 313, 315, 317, 318, 325, 326, 328, 329, 332,
mobile forensic science laboratory (MFSL), 24, 25 334
morphology, hair, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111 Observe-Hypothesize Model, 13
mtDNA analysis, 112 odor of decomposition, 19
myths, 6, 29, 74, 143, 162, 190, 207, 217, 230, 242, oral testimony, 1
266, 303, 320, 335 outdoor crime scenes, searching, 20
N P
narcotics, physical evidence and analyses, 373 paint, as forensic evidence, 335, 336–337
nDNA analysis, 112 dripping between metal surfaces, 307
near-contact shot, 268 evidence, 324
notes, 4, 21, 26 impression of, 22
Index 393
paint-soiled rag, 316 laboratory detection of poisons, 230

missing area, in dent, 263 staged, 228, 229
smear, 327, 329 suicidal, 225, 227, 228, 231
trickled track, 332, 334 trends in death due to, 230–231
palynological evidence, sexual assault and, 243–244 vomiting and, 227
patterns, 306, 309 ‘post-secured’ crime scene investigation, 19
arc, 104, 151 posture of victim, reconstructing, 3, 12, 18, 33, 34, 35,
from artery spurts, 104 36, 37, 38, 39, 41–44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 51, 55, 56, 59,
atomized, 104, 105 65, 66, 67, 69, 75, 76, 102, 150, 155, 156, 157, 158,
blood drop, 104 160, 163, 165, 169, 170, 171, 195, 196, 198, 199,
bloodstain, 81, 91, 149, 150, 152, 339 200, 205, 206, 207, 210, 231, 232, 240, 247, 248,
burn, 143, 148, 149, 156, 157, 158, 162, 164, 249, 250, 252, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 258–259,
164–165 260, 261, 262
cast-off, 85, 103, 104 bullet injury, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 258–259, 260,
clot, 105 261, 262
fire scene, 321 shotgun injury, 249, 250–251, 252
gunshot wound, 268–269 preconceived theories, 5
skeletonized, 105, 106 pre-deployment training, Scene of Crime Officers
smoke, 160, 164, 321 (SOCOs), 25, 26
swipe, 106, 107 premise(s), 2, 23–24, see also accepted (major) premise;
tire, 294–295 observed premise
two-way transfer, 332, 333, 334, 335 accepted, 3–5, 12–13, 21
pelvic bone, recovering during exhumation, 138 observed, 1, 3, 4, 5, 12, 13, 32
petechial hemorrhage, 22, 30, 34, 37, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43 primary evidence, 17
photograph(s), 22, 23, 75, 93, 154, 156, 171, 207, 303 probabilistic interpretation, 306
archive images, 23 provenance, crime scene photographs, 4
close-up, 22
enlargements, 22 Q
estimating the height of victim using, 59, 60 questions when investigating a case, 1–3
provenance and, 4
skull- superimposition, 119, 122, 123, 126 R
tripods and, 23 radiographs, 122, 127
physical evidence, 7 skeletal identification and, 123, 124, 127
association and, 9 rape, 235
collectable, 7 DNA analysis and, 244
contamination, 18 evidence indicating struggle, 242–243
dead bodies and, 8 reconstruction, 9, 12, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 39, 41,
observable, 7–8 42, 43, 89, 91, 146, 148, 150, 152, 153, 158,
principle of exchange and, 7–8 160, 176, 178, 180, 188, 205, see also conjoined
sexual assault and, 237, 238 reconstruction
physical matching, 8, 9, 72, 114, 121, 188, 272, 275, bloodstain patterns and, 103
291, 292, 293, 306–307, 337, 369 dynamic event, 12–13
indirect, 72 improper scene investigation and, 59, 60, 62, 63
physics-related physical evidence and analyses, 374–380 observationalism as key, 5
piercing-type wounds, 100 observation-based, 340
pipe bomb explosion, investigating, see also explosions/ of scenes of death due to burns, 165–166
explosives of seat of explosion, 277, 278, 279, 280, 281, 282,
brisance, 299, 300 283, 284
determining the epicenter, 297, 298 specific event, 12
pitted surfaces, 295, 299, 300 research, forensic science, 191
plan sketch, 22 ricochet, 254, 256, 263, 264, 265, 266, 271–272
point of impact, locating, 336–337 rigor mortis, 75, 76, 200, 207
poisoning
accidental, 230, 231, 232–233 S
aerosols and, 230 salivary discharge/drop/dribbling, hanging and, 18, 22,
autopsy, 228 30, 33, 33, 34, 34, 36, 42, 43, 44, 50, 51, 57, 58,
carbon monoxide, 231 59, 63, 354, 364
diazepam, 190 Scene of Crime Officers (SOCOs), 4, 5, 12, 13, 17, 44,
homicidal, 225, 233 76, 77, 78, 103, 106, 112, 113, 117, 119, 127, 143,
insecticide, 227, 228, 230 163, 165, 166, 192, 219, 244, 307, 345
394 Index
belated investigations, 19 bloodstains and, 237, 238

contamination and, 18 on children, 235
coordinating with bomb disposal squad, 303–304 conjoined reconstruction, 241
crime scene photography, 22–23 DNA sources, 244
diatom testing and, 221, 223 hair analysis, 237
disturbances and, 18–19 homicidal, 240–241
documenting the crime scene, 20–21, 21 microbial evidence, 243
final report, 23–24 palynological evidence, 243–244
as generalists, 13–14, 295, 339–340 physical evidence associating the victim and subject,
health-related safety, 19 237, 238
mobile forensic science laboratory (MFSL), 24, 25 sequential hypotheses, 237–238, 239–240
pre-deployment training, 25, 26 trace evidence associating the victim and subject, 238,
protection from pressure and threat, 19–20 239–240
searching the crime scene, 20 shadow injuries, 251, 252
second investigation of crime scene, 19 shotgun injury, see also firearms
secondary evidence, 17 pellet dispersion, 266, 269, 270, 271
self-strangulation, 71, see also hanging reconstructing the victim’s posture, 249, 250–251,
knot analysis, 74–75 252
using a tourniquet, 72, 73–74 sinus patterns, skeletal identification and, 123, 124
selvage, 113 skeletal identification, 119
sequential hypotheses, 3, 5, 12, 280 bony traits and, 122
in assisted hanging investigation, 38, 39 dental arches and, 122, 123
in bludgeoning investigation, 95–96, 97 general trait assessment, 120, 121, 122
in case of hanging with wrists bound, 41, 42, 43 individual identification, 122
in cases of death due to burn injuries, 146, 147, 148, radiographs, 122
149, 150, 151, 152, 153–154, 155, 156, 157, 158, sinus patterns and, 123, 124
159, 160, 161 skull-photograph superimposition, 119, 122, 123,
in cases of drowning, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216 126, 127
in cases of electrocution, 197, 198, 199, 200, 203, skull reconstruction and, 126
204, 205, 206, 207 suture patterns and, 124, 125
in cases of firearm-related death, 250–251, 252, 253, skeletonized bloodstains, 105, 106
254, 255, 256, 257, 258–259, 260, 261, 262, 263, sketch(es), 21–22, 43, 61, 66, 91, 93, 155, 172, 177, 179,
264, 265, 266 301
in cases of poisoning, 227, 228 aerial view, 31, 59, 83, 84, 97, 183, 229, 237, 239,
in cases of sexual assault, 237–238, 239–240 249, 253, 285, 311
in collision investigation, 325, 326, 327 diagrammatic, 64, 86, 88, 254, 266, 304
in cut wounds investigation, 91, 92, 93, 94 elevation view, 22, 32, 82, 144, 170, 183, 196, 210,
in determining location of IED fabrication, 288, 290, 226, 236, 248, 276, 310, 324
291, 293, 294–295 exhumation and, 134
in electrocution investigation, 200, 201, 202, 203 isometric view, 30, 82, 135, 144, 145, 170, 196, 210,
in fall investigations, 171, 175, 176–177, 178, 179, 248, 253, 254, 255, 257, 276, 279, 281, 301, 310,
180, 181–182, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 324
188–189, 190 skid marks, 325, 326–327, 335–336
in homicide simulated as accident, 327, 328, 329, 330 skull-photograph superimposition, 119, 127, 133–134,
in investigating hanging alleged as simulation, 31, 32, 141
33, 34, 35, 36 dental arches, 122, 123
in pipe bomb explosion investigation, 297, 298, 299, probable identification and, 126
300, 302 slash wounds
in reconstructing the seat of explosion, 277, 278, 279, clothing and, 116
280, 281–282, 283 directionality in, 101
in stabbing investigations, 84–85, 86–87, 88, 89, 90 smoke, 163
in staged suicidal poisoning investigation, 228, 229 depositions, 163–164
in stolen vehicle investigation, 330, 332, 333, patterns, 164, 321
334–335 structure fire and, 311, 313
in structure fire investigations, 311, 312, 313, 314, smudges, 107, 150
315–316, 317, 318, 319 soil
serology-related physical evidence and analyses, 381 as evidence, 95–96, 97, 117
sexual assault, 54, 55, 235 exhumation and, 134, 135
Index 395
specialization, in forensic science, xv, 14 traumatic homicide, 1, 81

specific event reconstruction, 12 bloodstains and, 103
stab wounds, 83, 86, 89, see also traumatic homicide bludgeoning, 95–96, 97
bloodstains and, 99 clothing and, 114–115, 116
cast-off bloodstains, 85 cut wounds, 91–92, 93, 94
clothing and, 87, 91, 116 directionality in slash wounds, 101
clothing damage and, 114 piercing-type wounds, 100
strangulation, 154 self-inflicted stab wounds, 98, 99
straightforward case, 2 stab wounds, 83, 85, 86, 87, 89
strong inference, 13, 165, 199, 151 tricky type, case, 2
structure fire scene investigation, 309 tripods, 23
brick masonry public structure, 311, 312, 313, 314,
315–316 U
fire scene patterns, 321 uniqueness, 8, 9, 275, 305–307
flashover, 320, 321–322 as basis for individualization, 8
protected areas, 322 during skull-photo superimposition, 126
sources of ignition, 320–321 in fingerprint identification, 77
thatched structure, 317, 318, 319 in individualization, 305–307
sub-hypotheses, 13 in paint coatings, 334
suicide, 1, 2, 20, 143, 153 paradigm in forensic science, 9
assisted hanging, 38, 39, 41 in physical fitting, 114
construing as murder, 166 relevance of, 9
depression and, 189–190 urinary incontinence, hanging and, 35, 36, 44, 46
by drowning, 209, 212, 213, 214, 218
by electrocution, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207 V
by hanging, 29, 30, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 44 vaginal bleeding, hanging and, 36, 37
by immolation, 162, 163 vehicle-related incidents, investigating, 323
note, 191, 192, 193 altering identity of a stolen vehicle, 330, 332, 333,
by poisoning, 225, 227–228, 231 334–335
range of fire and gunshot wound patterns, 268–269 collision between a lorry and a bicycle, 327, 328, 329,
self-strangulation, 71–72, 73–74 330
staged, 228, 229 collision between buses moving at right angles, 325,
suspects, 1 326–327
swinging a hand, 104 locating point of impact, 336–337
actions, 152 paint as forensic evidence, 337
swipe pattern, 106, 107 reaction time, 335
tire and skid marks, 335–336
T witnesses, 335
tape lifting, 111 video recording, 23
teeth, 91, 92, 93, 134 visible prints, 77
testing a hypothesis, 4, 12, 13, 13–14 vomiting, in cases of poisoning, 227
thatched structure fire, investigating, 317, 318, 319 ‘V’ pattern in burn cases, 149, 164–165
throttling, 68
time of death, estimating, 102, 117–118, 119 W
tire patterns, 294–295 warp, 113
torn cloth as evidence, 114 weave patterns, as cloth impression evidence, 113–114
toxicology-related physical evidence and analyses, weft, 113
382–384 white grubs, 136
trace evidence, sexual assault and, 238, 239–240 ‘wife-burning’, 143, 163
tracks, body fluids, 31, 77 witnesses
blood, 48, 49, 51, 54, 55, 56, 57, 65, 66 in cases of drowning, 209
saliva, 33, 50, 51 final report and, 23–24
urine, 44, 45 of vehicle-related incidents, 335
training, 340 Working Group on Human Asphyxia (WGHA), 35
Scene of Crime Officers (SOCOs), 25, 26 woven fabric, 113
trajectory of bullets, reconstructing, 253, 254, 255, 256, written notes, 21
257, 258–259, 260, 261, 262 wrongful accusation/conviction, 2–3, 53–54, 113, 166,
transparency, 18 340–341

Crime Scene Investigation and Reconstruction An Illustrated Manual and Field Guide

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Crime Scene Investigation and Reconstruction An Illustrated Manual and Field Guide

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Crime Scene Investigation

Chapter 2 Conceptual Foundations in Forensic Science and the Position

Chapter 3 General Crime Scene Procedure 17

Chapter 4 Scheme for Investigating Cases of Death by Hanging 29

Chapter 5 Scheme for Investigating Cases of Death due to Traumatic Injuries 81

Chapter 6 Scheme for Exhuming Buried Human Remains 133

Chapter 7 Scheme for Investigating Cases of Death due to Burns 143

7.3 Case Studies—Cases 7–1 and 7–2 145

Chapter 9 Scheme for Investigating Cases of Death due to Electrocution 195

Chapter 10 Scheme for Investigating Cases of Death by Drowning 209

Chapter 11 Scheme for Investigating Cases of Death due to Poisoning 225

Chapter 12 Scheme for Investigating Sexual Assault Cases 235

Chapter 13 Scheme for Investigating Cases Involving Firearms 247

Chapter 14 Scheme for Investigating Cases of Explosions 275

14.4. Discussion 303

Chapter 15 Scheme for Investigating Structure Fires 309

Chapter 16 Scheme for Investigating Vehicle-­Related Incident Scenes 323

as a novel and useful approach during crime 1.5 ON THE COMPENDIUM

• In each case situation, simple-­ to-­

Collectable and portable physical evidence

Trace evidence transfer

Identification principle Individualization principle

Reconstruction as a corollary of the laboratory analysis

Observable physical evidence: non-portable

Observations in the dead

Observations in the dead Observations in the scene

Framing and testing hypothesis at the SOC itself

scientists for that purpose. Most authorities recom- REFERENCES

value. Methods to ameliorate such situations include METHODS OF SEARCH

exercising modesty so that extra attention by the

The ability to record the evidence available in crime

or outdoor situations, the search approach should

3.9 EQUIPMENT IN A MOBILE FORENSIC

The success of crime scene investigation, although

General crime scene kit: This kit is funda-

Kit for preparing swabs: Toothpicks to make 3.10 DESIRABLE PRE-­DEPLOYMENT

FIGURE 3.5 Close-­up view of the head of the

Gross, H. Criminal Investigation: A Practical Lothridge, K. and Fitzpatrick, F. Crime Scene

4.1 INTRODUCTION force of the sequential reconstructions from differ-

4.2 FLOWCHART FOR

DEAD BODY OVER-ALL SOC

- Without bleeding - Source wherever possible EROSION IN SKIN

4.3 CASE STUDIES—CASES 4–1 TO 4–16

CASE 4–1: A CASE OF HANGING ALLEGED AS SIMULATION

THE CASE PRIMARY HYPOTHESIS

FIGURE 4.1 A female dead body freely hang-

Observed premises material around the bamboo rafter, and then

Accepted (major) premises Accepted (major) premises

FIGURE 4.6 Observable evidence in the body

Accepted (major) premises

the vertical flow of urine along the axis of the

Accepted (major) premises

and thatch dust are trace evidence that transfer

Observed premises FIGURE 4.9 Downward stains of urine along the

Accepted (major) premises

hanging (Sauvageau, 2009). Cortical impairment

Reconstruction The consistency in the course of the blood

Conjoined reconstruction Postscript

CASE 4–2: A CASE OF ASSISTED HANGING

Accepted (major) premises

Ecchymosis in the tip of the tongue bitten

FIGURE 4.14 In the case of the female individ-

the process of hanging for the two other

Chapter 3 General Crime Scene Procedure 17

Chapter 4 Scheme for Investigating Cases of Death by Hanging 29

Chapter 5 Scheme for Investigating Cases of Death due to Traumatic Injuries 81

Chapter 6 Scheme for Exhuming Buried Human Remains 133

Chapter 7 Scheme for Investigating Cases of Death due to Burns 143

7.3 Case Studies—Cases 7–1 and 7–2 145

Chapter 9 Scheme for Investigating Cases of Death due to Electrocution 195

Chapter 10 Scheme for Investigating Cases of Death by Drowning 209

Chapter 11 Scheme for Investigating Cases of Death due to Poisoning 225

Chapter 12 Scheme for Investigating Sexual Assault Cases 235

Chapter 13 Scheme for Investigating Cases Involving Firearms 247

Chapter 14 Scheme for Investigating Cases of Explosions 275

14.4. Discussion 303

Chapter 15 Scheme for Investigating Structure Fires 309

Chapter 16 Scheme for Investigating Vehicle-Related Incident Scenes 323

• In each case situation, simple- to-

Kit for preparing swabs: Toothpicks to make 3.10 DESIRABLE PRE-DEPLOYMENT

FIGURE 3.5 Close-up view of the head of the

FIGURE 4.39 Note the tucked- in state of the

FIGURE 4.42 Close-up view of the salivary track

FIGURE 4.57A Close-

CASE 4–15: A CASE OF SELF-STRANGULATION