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Enhanced Chemistry Week 4 5 Handout
Enhanced Chemistry Week 4 5 Handout
rd
3 Quarter Week 4-5 Handout in Enhanced Chemistry
Chemistry is the study of MATTER and the changes it undergoes such as chemical or physical. Whenever matter undergoes a
physical or chemical change, there is also an accompanying change in energy. Physical change (e.g when ice cream melts) happens
when the change in a substance still keeps its chemical identity (no new substances are formed). When new substances are formed
(products) from the starting substances (reactants), the change is called chemical change (e.g. when paper burns). Energy is either
given-off (exothermic) or absorbed (endothermic) during each process.
Matter is characterized by its properties: physical or chemical. Physical properties are those that can be observed and measured
without changing the composition or identity of a substance. Chemical property of a substance can be observed only if it will undergo
chemical change.
CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER
Matter can be classified into substance (elements and compounds) and mixtures. Substances like elements (e.g. pure gold)
and compounds (e.g. H20) have a definite or fixed, composition and distinct properties.
Substances are materials with constant composition. This means that their composition will be the same no matter where you
find them. Sodium chloride (NaCl), water (H2O) ,neon(Ne), carbon dioxide (CO2), and iron filings ( Fe) , copper wire ( Cu) are examples
of substances. All elements found in the periodic table and all compounds are therefore substances.
Sugar tastes sweet while water is tasteless. They have different properties and composition. A mixture is formed when a
teaspoon of sugar is added and stirred into a glass of distilled water. Sugar and water retain their properties and composition in the
mixture. A mixture therefore is a combination of two or more substances that retain their distinct identity and these substances present
however vary in composition.
Elements like copper and carbon are substances that are made up of only one type of atom. Atoms of elements are
made up of smaller particles and are not broken down by ordinary chemical means. Elements can be classified as metals,
nonmetals and metalloids. Metals have certain characteristic physical properties: they are usually shiny ( metallic luster),
have high densities, are ductile and malleable, usually high melting points, are usually hard, are usually solid at room
temperature and conduct electricity and heat as well. While there are several metals (e.g alkali and alkaline earth) that are of
low densities, usually soft, and have low melting points, these alkali metals ( Li, Na, K, and Cs) and alkaline earth metals (
Ca, Ba, and Sr) are extremely reactive, and are seldom found in their elemental, metallic form. Metals corrode, gradually
wearing away like that of the rusting of iron. Metals generally belong to the s and d blocks in the periodic table.
Many of the properties of metals, including large atomic radius, low ionization energy, and low electronegativity, are
due to the fact that the electrons in their outer shell can be removed easily. One characteristic of metals is their ability to be
hammered into desirable shapes and to be deformed without breaking. This property is malleability. Another property is
ductility, the ability of a metal to be drawn into wire. Because the outer electrons can move freely, metals are good heat and
electrical conductors.
Likewise, non-metals are typically brittle and tend to break and therefore are not easily molded into shapes. They are
located on the right side (p-block) of the periodic table, are very different from metals. Their surface is dull and they are poor
conductor of heat and electricity. As compared to metals, they have low density and melt at low temperatures. Nonmetals
have high ionization energies and electronegativities. They are generally poor conductors of heat and electricity. Solid
nonmetals ( e.g carbon rod) are generally brittle, with little or no metallic luster. Most nonmetals have the ability to gain
electrons easily.
Metalloids have characteristic properties of both metals and non-metals. The intermediate conductivity of metalloids
means they tend to make good semiconductors, which means that they both insulate and conduct electricity. Metalloids
typically conduct heat and electricity better than nonmetals but not as better than the metals. They are generally found near the
zigzag lines in the periodic table. They can be shiny or dull and their shape is easily changed.
The electronegativities and ionization energies of the metalloids are between those of the metals and nonmetals, so
the metalloids exhibit characteristics of both classes. Silicon, for example, possesses a metallic luster, yet it is NOT an efficient
conductor of electricity and heat and also shows brittleness. The boiling points, melting points, and densities of the metalloids
vary widely. The table below shows the characteristic properties of metallic, metalloids and nonmetals
Compounds are substances that are made up of atoms of two or more elements chemically combined in fixed
proportions. Water, for example, is made up of hydrogen and oxygen atoms. Carbon dioxide is made up of carbon and oxygen
atoms. Table salt is made up of sodium and chlorine. Water, carbon dioxide and sodium chloride are therefore compounds.
Unlike elements, compounds can be decomposed, or broken down by simple chemical reactions. Compounds are either
covalent compounds (in which the smallest units are discrete, individual molecules) or ionic compounds (in which positive
and negative ions are held together by electrostatic forces of attraction).
Ionic compounds ( for example sodium chloride, NaCl) are defined as being compounds where two or more ions are
held next to each other by electrostatic force of attraction. The formation of an ionic bond is the result of the transfer of one or
more electrons from a metal into a non-metal. The result is that one of the ions will have a positive charge (called a "cation")
and the other will have a negative charge (called a “ anion’’). A covalent compound (for example carbon dioxide, C02) is a
compound in which the atoms that are bonded share electrons rather than transfer electrons from one to the other. While ionic
compounds are usually formed when metals bond to nonmetals, covalent compounds are formed when two nonmetals bond to
each other.
• Acids, Bases and Salts
Compounds can also be classified into acids, bases and salts. Acids are substances which ionize in water to produce
hydrogen ion (H+ or free p+). Solutions of all acids taste sour, turn blue litmus paper to red, react with certain metals (Zn, Fe,
etc.) to generate hydrogen gas, and react with bases to form salts and water. Table 2 presents some common acids and their
uses.
Bases are substances which ionize to produce hydroxide ions in water. Solutions of bases taste bitter, feel slippery to
the touch, and turn red litmus to blue, react with oils and grease, and also react with acids to form salts and water. Ammonium
hydroxide, or ammonia water is a base, is often used in the home for cleaning purposes because bases generally dissolve
grease (fats). Milk of magnesia (magnesium hydroxide), which is used as an antacid, is a base; lye (sodium hydroxide), which
is used in the manufacture of soap, is another familiar example of base. Some common bases and their uses are presented in
table 3.
Salts are crystalline compounds formed by the reaction of an acid and a base. The salt most familiar to all of us is
table salt -- sodium chloride. Salts are ionic compounds composed of cations (positively charged ions) and anions (negative
ions) and therefore electrically neutral (without a net charge). Salts are generally soluble in water. When salts are dissolved in
water, they are called electrolytes, and are able to conduct electricity. Baking soda is the salt of sodium
bicarbonate. Magnesium sulfate, also called Epsom salts, is often found in the home.
The difference in properties of acids and bases as seen in table 4.
ACIDS BASES
taste sour taste bitter
feel slippery to the touch
turn blue litmus paper to red turn red litmus to blue
react with oils and grease
react with certain metals (Zn, Fe, etc.) to produce react with acids to form salts and water
hydrogen gas,
ionize in water to produce hydrogen ion (H+ or free p+) ionize to produce hydroxide ions in water
donate proton (H+ or free p+) to a base Accept proton(H+ or free p+) from an acid
Matter
Anything with mass and volume (occupies space).
Substance Mixture
Matter with constant composition Matter with variable composition
Elements Compounds Heterogeneous mixtures Homogeneous mixtures
Substances made up of Made up of two or more Mixtures that are made up Also called
only one type of atom type of atoms of elements of more than one phase solutions. Mixtures that
that are chemically are made up of only one
combined phase
Examples are gold(Au), Examples are water, Examples are sand in Examples are salt
silver(Ag), carbon (C), carbon dioxide, sodium water , soil, chicken soup, solution, pure air, metal
oxygen bicarbonate (Na2C03), halo-halo, and oil in alloys, rubbing alcohol,
( 0) and copper( Cu) carbon monoxide, sodium water and vinegar.
chloride (NaCl)
SOME USES OF METALS, METALLOIDS AND NONMETALS ACCORDING TO THEIR PROPERTIES
Most metals have high tensile strength which means they can support a heavy load. Because of this property, metals can be used for
constructing buildings and bridges. Metals are used to make weapons, knives and saws due to their hardness. They are also used for making
cooking utensils and car engines because they can withstand high temperature. Because metals are malleable, they can be formed into all sorts
of shapes. Most electrical wires are made from copper. Metals in solid form can conduct electricity.
Aluminum is a very light metal and resistant to corrosion and often used in packaging food in the form of aluminum tins and wrappers.
Its property of being a good conductor of heat and resistant to corrosion makes it useful in the making of cooking utensils such as saucepans,
spoons and others. Its alloys are light and have a high tensile strength and thus popularly used in the construction of airplane bodies and some
motor car parts.
Copper is a good conductor of electricity and is ductile. Copper is used for electrical cables. Gold and silver are very malleable, ductile
and very nonreactive and this is the reason why there are used to make intricate jewelry. Gold does not tarnish that’s why it’s especially suitable
for jewelry making.
Metal alloys like steel can be engineered to have high resistance to shear, torque and deformation. The strength and resilience of
metals has led to their frequent use in high-rise building and bridge construction, as well as most vehicles, many appliances, tools, pipes, non-
illuminated signs and railroad tracks. For example, brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. It is resistant to corrosion and has a pleasing color;
therefore it is used to make decorative articles.
Nonmetals account for a large portion of Earth's total known elemental mass—that is, the composition of the earth’s crust, waters,
and atmosphere. Table 7 presents the distribution of percentages of these nonmetals
Table 7. Percentage by mass of nonmetals on the earth’s crust, water and atmosphere
Nonmetals % by mass
Oxygen 49.2
Silicon 27.7
Hydrogen 0.87
Chlorine 0.19
Phosphorus 0.11
Carbon 0.08
Sulfur 0.06
Nitrogen 0.03
Fluorine 0.03
Oxygen, sulfur and selenium are nonmetals. Oxygen is the most abundant element on the earth’s crust, comprising about half of its
mass. Oxygen and its compounds are considered essential biologically. Oxygen is a diatomic gas (02), elemental sulfur(S) and selenium (Se)
have molecular formulas S8 and Se8 respectively.
Sulfur is sometimes applied in pure form as a fungicide, or in matches, fireworks, and gunpowder. Sulfur compound called mercaptan,
an ingredient in the skunk's distinctive aroma is usually added to natural gas (which has no odor) so that gas leaks can be detected by its smell.
Because selenium is photovoltaic (able to convert light directly into electricity) and photoconductive (meaning that its resistance to
the flow of electric current decreases in the presence of light), it has important uses in photocells and solar cells. Photocopiers use selenium in
toners, and compounds containing selenium are used to tint glass red, orange, or pink.
Carbon (C) , silicon( Si) , germanium (Ge) , tin( Sn) and lead( Pb) have properties quite different from each other. Carbon is a
nonmetal. Silicon and germanium are metalloids. Tin and lead exhibit typical metallic properties. Diamond, graphite and fullerene are allotropes
of carbon. Diamonds are used to make jewelry and because of their hardness they are used to make abrasives, to drill and cut steels and other
hard materials. Graphite is a conductor of electricity and is an excellent dry lubricant. The lead in a pencil is actually graphite.
Silicon is the second most abundant which occurs widely in the form of silica and quartz. Silica is used in the manufacture of glass
and ceramics .Silicon is used to make rubbery cookware that does not stick to the food. It is used to make a compound used in the implants of
breasts. Silicon dioxide is the main ingredient in glass. Silicon is also used to make a rubbery water proof adhesive. Lead (Pb) on the other
hand is used for plates of lead-acid batteries and also as a shield for radiation. Solder, an alloy is 50% Sn and 50 % lead.
Halogens are group of reactive nonmetals. Fluorine compounds (fluorides) are added into toothpaste. Fluorides make teeth resist
attack by acid. And thus prevent tooth decay. Chlorine is used for disinfecting swimming pools and in drinking water to kill bacteria. It is also
used as an industrial bleaching agent for paper and textiles. Iodine (e.g tincture of iodine) is used as an antiseptic because it will kill the germs
on the skin without damaging it.
Nitrogen and phosphorous are nonmetals. Elemental nitrogen is a diatomic gas (N 2), while phosphorous exists as P4 molecules. Liquid
nitrogen is applied for quick-freezing foods, and for preserving foods while being transported to another place. Nitrogen compounds like
ammonia are used in fertilizers and cleaning materials. Ammonium nitrate ( NH 4NO3) is applied primarily as a fertilizer and also used in the
manufacture of explosives. Phosphorus on the other hand is used in the production of safety matches, smoke bombs, and other incendiary
devices.