GRADE 8 ENHANCED SCIENCE 8:

rd
3 Quarter Week 4-5 Handout in Enhanced Chemistry
Chemistry is the study of MATTER and the changes it undergoes such as chemical or physical. Whenever matter undergoes a
physical or chemical change, there is also an accompanying change in energy. Physical change (e.g when ice cream melts) happens
when the change in a substance still keeps its chemical identity (no new substances are formed). When new substances are formed
(products) from the starting substances (reactants), the change is called chemical change (e.g. when paper burns). Energy is either
given-off (exothermic) or absorbed (endothermic) during each process.
Matter is characterized by its properties: physical or chemical. Physical properties are those that can be observed and measured
without changing the composition or identity of a substance. Chemical property of a substance can be observed only if it will undergo
chemical change.

CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER
Matter can be classified into substance (elements and compounds) and mixtures. Substances like elements (e.g. pure gold)
and compounds (e.g. H20) have a definite or fixed, composition and distinct properties.
Substances are materials with constant composition. This means that their composition will be the same no matter where you
find them. Sodium chloride (NaCl), water (H2O) ,neon(Ne), carbon dioxide (CO2), and iron filings ( Fe) , copper wire ( Cu) are examples
of substances. All elements found in the periodic table and all compounds are therefore substances.
Sugar tastes sweet while water is tasteless. They have different properties and composition. A mixture is formed when a
teaspoon of sugar is added and stirred into a glass of distilled water. Sugar and water retain their properties and composition in the
mixture. A mixture therefore is a combination of two or more substances that retain their distinct identity and these substances present
however vary in composition.

• Elements: Metals, Nonmetals and Metalloids

Elements like copper and carbon are substances that are made up of only one type of atom. Atoms of elements are
made up of smaller particles and are not broken down by ordinary chemical means. Elements can be classified as metals,
nonmetals and metalloids. Metals have certain characteristic physical properties: they are usually shiny ( metallic luster),
have high densities, are ductile and malleable, usually high melting points, are usually hard, are usually solid at room
temperature and conduct electricity and heat as well. While there are several metals (e.g alkali and alkaline earth) that are of
low densities, usually soft, and have low melting points, these alkali metals ( Li, Na, K, and Cs) and alkaline earth metals (
Ca, Ba, and Sr) are extremely reactive, and are seldom found in their elemental, metallic form. Metals corrode, gradually
wearing away like that of the rusting of iron. Metals generally belong to the s and d blocks in the periodic table.
Many of the properties of metals, including large atomic radius, low ionization energy, and low electronegativity, are
due to the fact that the electrons in their outer shell can be removed easily. One characteristic of metals is their ability to be
hammered into desirable shapes and to be deformed without breaking. This property is malleability. Another property is
ductility, the ability of a metal to be drawn into wire. Because the outer electrons can move freely, metals are good heat and
electrical conductors.
Likewise, non-metals are typically brittle and tend to break and therefore are not easily molded into shapes. They are
located on the right side (p-block) of the periodic table, are very different from metals. Their surface is dull and they are poor
conductor of heat and electricity. As compared to metals, they have low density and melt at low temperatures. Nonmetals
have high ionization energies and electronegativities. They are generally poor conductors of heat and electricity. Solid
nonmetals ( e.g carbon rod) are generally brittle, with little or no metallic luster. Most nonmetals have the ability to gain
electrons easily.
Metalloids have characteristic properties of both metals and non-metals. The intermediate conductivity of metalloids
means they tend to make good semiconductors, which means that they both insulate and conduct electricity. Metalloids
typically conduct heat and electricity better than nonmetals but not as better than the metals. They are generally found near the
zigzag lines in the periodic table. They can be shiny or dull and their shape is easily changed.
The electronegativities and ionization energies of the metalloids are between those of the metals and nonmetals, so
the metalloids exhibit characteristics of both classes. Silicon, for example, possesses a metallic luster, yet it is NOT an efficient
conductor of electricity and heat and also shows brittleness. The boiling points, melting points, and densities of the metalloids
vary widely. The table below shows the characteristic properties of metallic, metalloids and nonmetals

Table 1. Characteristic properties of metals, metalloids and nonmetals

Property Metals Metalloids Nonmetals

Appearance
Ductility/malleability
boiling point/melting point
Conductivity
nature of solution/ type of
bonds
Particles present in
solution
shiny surface (metallic
luster )
malleable and ductile
(flexible) as solids
high melting point, high
density
Conduct heat and
electricity
metallic oxides are basic
in nature, ionic bonded,
form ionic compounds
exist as cations in aqueous
solution
can be shiny or dull
shapes is easily changed
vary widely
tend to make good
semiconductors
oxides can be acidic or
basic ,exhibit amphoteric
property
may exist as cations or
anions
dull surface ( non-
lustrous)
brittle , hard or soft, tend
to break
low melting point and low
density
poor conductors of heat
and electricity
nonmetallic oxides are
acidic in nature.
Covalently bonded , form
covalent compounds
exist as anions, oxyanions
in aqueous solution
 • Compounds: Ionic and Covalent

Compounds are substances that are made up of atoms of two or more elements chemically combined in fixed
proportions. Water, for example, is made up of hydrogen and oxygen atoms. Carbon dioxide is made up of carbon and oxygen
atoms. Table salt is made up of sodium and chlorine. Water, carbon dioxide and sodium chloride are therefore compounds.
Unlike elements, compounds can be decomposed, or broken down by simple chemical reactions. Compounds are either
covalent compounds (in which the smallest units are discrete, individual molecules) or ionic compounds (in which positive
and negative ions are held together by electrostatic forces of attraction).
Ionic compounds ( for example sodium chloride, NaCl) are defined as being compounds where two or more ions are
held next to each other by electrostatic force of attraction. The formation of an ionic bond is the result of the transfer of one or
more electrons from a metal into a non-metal. The result is that one of the ions will have a positive charge (called a "cation")
and the other will have a negative charge (called a “ anion’’). A covalent compound (for example carbon dioxide, C02) is a
compound in which the atoms that are bonded share electrons rather than transfer electrons from one to the other. While ionic
compounds are usually formed when metals bond to nonmetals, covalent compounds are formed when two nonmetals bond to
each other.
• Acids, Bases and Salts
Compounds can also be classified into acids, bases and salts. Acids are substances which ionize in water to produce
hydrogen ion (H+ or free p+). Solutions of all acids taste sour, turn blue litmus paper to red, react with certain metals (Zn, Fe,
etc.) to generate hydrogen gas, and react with bases to form salts and water. Table 2 presents some common acids and their
uses.

Table 2. Some common acids and their uses

Name Formula Occurrence/Uses

acetic acid CH3COOH responsible for the sour of vinegar, for cooking purposes
component of eye drops and metal suppositories, mild
boric acid H3B03
antiseptic
responsible for the sour taste of lemons, limes, grapefruits,
citric acid C6H807
and oranges
component of muriatic acid, responsible for stomach’s
hydrochloric acid HCl
acidity, for cleaning purposes
formic acid HCOOH causes the sting red ant bites
lactic acid CH3CH0HC00H gives sour milk its sharp taste
good rust and stain remover and used in various commercial
oxalic acid H0(C0)20H
cleaning preparations
manufacture of fertilizers, detergents, food additives,
phosphoric acid H3P04
especially in soft drinks
its characteristic odor contributes to the cheese flavor, salts
propionic acid CH3CH2C00H of this acid is used to retard the growth of molds and help
preserves freshness of baked goods
responsible for the corrosiveness of acid rain, for the
Sulfuric acid H2S04
manufacture of fertilizers, explosives, dyes, papers

Bases are substances which ionize to produce hydroxide ions in water. Solutions of bases taste bitter, feel slippery to
the touch, and turn red litmus to blue, react with oils and grease, and also react with acids to form salts and water. Ammonium
hydroxide, or ammonia water is a base, is often used in the home for cleaning purposes because bases generally dissolve
grease (fats). Milk of magnesia (magnesium hydroxide), which is used as an antacid, is a base; lye (sodium hydroxide), which
is used in the manufacture of soap, is another familiar example of base. Some common bases and their uses are presented in
table 3.

Table 3. Some Common bases and their uses

Name Formula Occurrence/Uses

Ammonia NH3 for cleaning purposes, oven cleaner
Na0H For removing grease, bottle cleaners in softdrinks and
Caustic soda
industries
Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 to neutralize acidity of soil
Calcium carbonate CaC03 used as liming agent to counteract acidity
Mg0 as an “antacid active ingredient”, as lining to high
magnesium oxide
temperature furnace
Sodium bicarbonate NaHC03 as an “antacid active ingredient” and for baking purposes

Salts are crystalline compounds formed by the reaction of an acid and a base. The salt most familiar to all of us is
table salt -- sodium chloride. Salts are ionic compounds composed of cations (positively charged ions) and anions (negative
ions) and therefore electrically neutral (without a net charge). Salts are generally soluble in water. When salts are dissolved in
water, they are called electrolytes, and are able to conduct electricity. Baking soda is the salt of sodium
bicarbonate. Magnesium sulfate, also called Epsom salts, is often found in the home.
 The difference in properties of acids and bases as seen in table 4.

Table 4. Comparison of acids and bases

ACIDS BASES
taste sour taste bitter
feel slippery to the touch
turn blue litmus paper to red turn red litmus to blue
react with oils and grease
react with certain metals (Zn, Fe, etc.) to produce react with acids to form salts and water
hydrogen gas,
ionize in water to produce hydrogen ion (H+ or free p+) ionize to produce hydroxide ions in water
donate proton (H+ or free p+) to a base Accept proton(H+ or free p+) from an acid

• Mixtures: Homogeneous and Heterogeneous

Mixtures are divided into two classes, homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures. Homogeneous mixture is made
up only one phase in which its composition is the same throughout and the substances present can be separated by physical
methods (e.g. evaporation, filtration). Homogeneous mixtures are also called solutions. For example, consider a sugar solution.
It is prepared by mixing sugar and water. After the sugar dissolves, a homogeneous mixture is formed. Other examples of
homogeneous mixtures include alcohol and water, alloys (solutions of metals), and air.
On the other hand, heterogeneous mixture is made up of more than one phase in which its composition is not
uniform throughout and the substances present can also be separated by physical means.. For example, when a scoop of sand
is added to a glass of water, the particles of sand do not dissolve. They just settle to the bottom of the water. To separate the
sand from the mixture, filtration process can be done. Oil and water, salt and sand, and granite are all examples of heterogeneous
mixtures. There are many methods of separating the components in a mixture. These include the following:
Filtration is a process used to separate an insoluble solid (precipitate) from a
mixture. The precipitates remain settled or remain suspended throughout the mixture. A mixture of silver chloride and
potassium nitrate can be separated by filtration.
Crystallization is a method to separate a soluble solid from its solution based from the different solubility of solids
in water at 25 Celsius. Generally, the solubility of most solids increases as the temperature increases. Therefore when a so-
called saturated solution is cooled, the solubility of the solid substance will decrease and the excess solid will crystallize. Pure
crystals of CuSO4.5H20 can be separated from its solution using this method.
Dissolution is another method in which a mixture of a soluble and insoluble solid substances can be separated by
using an appropriate solvent. The solvent chosen will either dissolve any of the solid substances in the mixture. The one that is
not soluble in the chosen solvent can be removes by filtration. For example, a mixture of table salt and sand can be separated
by dissolution, using water as the appropriate solvent for table salt.
To separate a volatile liquid from a nonvolatile one, simple distillation is usually carried out. On heating, volatile
liquid boils ( usually with lower boiling point) , turns into vapor, condenses back into distil out as pure liquid while the boiling
point) will not distill out during the distillation process. The nonvolatile substance remains as residue in the flask. Only the
evaporation/volatilization and condensation process occur in the simple distillation. Fractional distillation on the other hand,
separate two or more immiscible liquids with different boiling points. The liquid with lowest boiling point ( with smaller
molecular mass) will distill out first, while the liquid with the highest boiling point ( with higher molecular mass) will distill
out last. For example, to separate a mixture of ethanol (Bp is 78 oC) and water ( Bp is 100 oC). Ethanol will distill out first and
followed by water.
Chromatography is a technique used to identify a substance, determine its purity and also to separate two or more
substances in a mixture. The principle involved in this method is based on the fact that different substances have different
solubility in the same solvent. The more soluble ( greater affinity to the solvent) the substance , the faster will it be carried by
the solvent and thus move further ahead of the other less soluble ( lesser affinity to the solvent) substances. Chromatography
helps in identifying color pigments or organic dyes present in foods and detecting harmful materials in pesticides. Paper
chromatography can be used to separate and identify (a) the various components in colored inks( comparing with known
substances) and ( b) a mixture of amino acids (comparing Rf values).Where Rf = distance travelled by the component/distance
travelled by the solvent .
Sublimation is the process of changing solid to the gaseous form without passing through the liquid state.
Naphthalene( can sublime) can be separated from table salt by sublimation. Table 5 shows the general classification of matter.

Table 5. General Classification of Matter

Matter
Anything with mass and volume (occupies space).
Substance Mixture
Matter with constant composition Matter with variable composition
Elements Compounds Heterogeneous mixtures Homogeneous mixtures

Substances made up of
only one type of atom
Examples are gold(Au),
silver(Ag), carbon (C),
oxygen
( 0) and copper( Cu)
Made up of two or more Mixtures that are made up Also called
type of atoms of elements of more than one phase solutions. Mixtures that
that are chemically are made up of only one
combined phase
Examples are water, Examples are sand in Examples are salt
carbon dioxide, sodium water , soil, chicken soup, solution, pure air, metal
bicarbonate (Na2C03), halo-halo, and oil in alloys, rubbing alcohol,
carbon monoxide, sodium water and vinegar.
chloride (NaCl)
SOME USES OF METALS, METALLOIDS AND NONMETALS ACCORDING TO THEIR PROPERTIES

Most metals have high tensile strength which means they can support a heavy load. Because of this property, metals can be used for
constructing buildings and bridges. Metals are used to make weapons, knives and saws due to their hardness. They are also used for making
cooking utensils and car engines because they can withstand high temperature. Because metals are malleable, they can be formed into all sorts
of shapes. Most electrical wires are made from copper. Metals in solid form can conduct electricity.
Aluminum is a very light metal and resistant to corrosion and often used in packaging food in the form of aluminum tins and wrappers.
Its property of being a good conductor of heat and resistant to corrosion makes it useful in the making of cooking utensils such as saucepans,
spoons and others. Its alloys are light and have a high tensile strength and thus popularly used in the construction of airplane bodies and some
motor car parts.
Copper is a good conductor of electricity and is ductile. Copper is used for electrical cables. Gold and silver are very malleable, ductile
and very nonreactive and this is the reason why there are used to make intricate jewelry. Gold does not tarnish that’s why it’s especially suitable
for jewelry making.
Metal alloys like steel can be engineered to have high resistance to shear, torque and deformation. The strength and resilience of
metals has led to their frequent use in high-rise building and bridge construction, as well as most vehicles, many appliances, tools, pipes, non-
illuminated signs and railroad tracks. For example, brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. It is resistant to corrosion and has a pleasing color;
therefore it is used to make decorative articles.

Table 6. Properties of metals that determines their use

Property Meaning Examples of Metals

hardness resistance of deformity lead and iron
Density mass per unit volume lead and mercury
Ductility ability to be made into wires copper and magnesium
durability resistance to corrosion zinc and aluminum
melting point ability to liquefy/melt by action of heat sodium
boiling point ability to bubble gas at high temperature gold and mercury
electrical conductivity ability to conduct electricity copper and silver
malleability ability to be made into sheets copper and gold
tensile strength strength of material under stress iron and chromium
thermal conductivity ability to conduct heat aluminum

Nonmetals account for a large portion of Earth's total known elemental mass—that is, the composition of the earth’s crust, waters,
and atmosphere. Table 7 presents the distribution of percentages of these nonmetals

Table 7. Percentage by mass of nonmetals on the earth’s crust, water and atmosphere

Nonmetals % by mass
Oxygen 49.2
Silicon 27.7
Hydrogen 0.87
Chlorine 0.19
Phosphorus 0.11
Carbon 0.08
Sulfur 0.06
Nitrogen 0.03
Fluorine 0.03

Oxygen, sulfur and selenium are nonmetals. Oxygen is the most abundant element on the earth’s crust, comprising about half of its
mass. Oxygen and its compounds are considered essential biologically. Oxygen is a diatomic gas (02), elemental sulfur(S) and selenium (Se)
have molecular formulas S8 and Se8 respectively.
Sulfur is sometimes applied in pure form as a fungicide, or in matches, fireworks, and gunpowder. Sulfur compound called mercaptan,
an ingredient in the skunk's distinctive aroma is usually added to natural gas (which has no odor) so that gas leaks can be detected by its smell.
Because selenium is photovoltaic (able to convert light directly into electricity) and photoconductive (meaning that its resistance to
the flow of electric current decreases in the presence of light), it has important uses in photocells and solar cells. Photocopiers use selenium in
toners, and compounds containing selenium are used to tint glass red, orange, or pink.
Carbon (C) , silicon( Si) , germanium (Ge) , tin( Sn) and lead( Pb) have properties quite different from each other. Carbon is a
nonmetal. Silicon and germanium are metalloids. Tin and lead exhibit typical metallic properties. Diamond, graphite and fullerene are allotropes
of carbon. Diamonds are used to make jewelry and because of their hardness they are used to make abrasives, to drill and cut steels and other
hard materials. Graphite is a conductor of electricity and is an excellent dry lubricant. The lead in a pencil is actually graphite.
Silicon is the second most abundant which occurs widely in the form of silica and quartz. Silica is used in the manufacture of glass
and ceramics .Silicon is used to make rubbery cookware that does not stick to the food. It is used to make a compound used in the implants of
breasts. Silicon dioxide is the main ingredient in glass. Silicon is also used to make a rubbery water proof adhesive. Lead (Pb) on the other
hand is used for plates of lead-acid batteries and also as a shield for radiation. Solder, an alloy is 50% Sn and 50 % lead.
Halogens are group of reactive nonmetals. Fluorine compounds (fluorides) are added into toothpaste. Fluorides make teeth resist
attack by acid. And thus prevent tooth decay. Chlorine is used for disinfecting swimming pools and in drinking water to kill bacteria. It is also
used as an industrial bleaching agent for paper and textiles. Iodine (e.g tincture of iodine) is used as an antiseptic because it will kill the germs
on the skin without damaging it.
Nitrogen and phosphorous are nonmetals. Elemental nitrogen is a diatomic gas (N 2), while phosphorous exists as P4 molecules. Liquid
nitrogen is applied for quick-freezing foods, and for preserving foods while being transported to another place. Nitrogen compounds like
ammonia are used in fertilizers and cleaning materials. Ammonium nitrate ( NH 4NO3) is applied primarily as a fertilizer and also used in the
manufacture of explosives. Phosphorus on the other hand is used in the production of safety matches, smoke bombs, and other incendiary
devices.