margin of safety.

(v) The amplitude under service conditions should be within the

permissible limits, generally prescribed by the
manufacturers.
(vi) All rotating and reciprocating parts of the machine should be so
balanced that the unbalanced forces and
moments are minimised. (This, of course, is the responsibility of the
mechanical engineers).
(vii) The foundation should be so planned as to permit subsequent
alteration of natural frequency by changing
the base area or mass of the foundation, if found necessary subsequently.
From the practical point of view, the following additional requirements
should also be fulfilled:
(viii) The ground-water table should be below the base plane by at least
one-fourth of the width of the
foundation. Since ground-water is a good conductor of waves, this limits
the propagation of vibration.
(ix) Machine foundations should be separated from adjacent building
components by means of expansion
joints.
(x) Any pipes carrying hot fluids, if embedded in the foundation, must be
properly isolated.
(xi) The foundation should be protected from machine oil by means of
suitable chemical treatment, which is
acid-resistant.
(xii) Machine foundations should be taken to a level lower than the level of
foundations of adjoining structures.
In this connection, it is perhaps pertinent to remember Richart’s chart.
* Explain clearly the factors to be considered in deciding the depth
of footing. (Unit – 1)
The important criteria for deciding upon the depth at which footings have
to be installed may be set out as
follows:
1. Footings should be taken below the top (organic) soil, miscellaneous
fill, debris or muck. If the thickness of
the top soil is large, two alternatives are available:
(a) Removing the top soil under the footing and replacing it with lean
concrete; and (b) removing the top soil in
an area larger than the footing and replacing it with compacted sand and
gravel; the area of this compacted fill
should be sufficiently large to distribute the loads from the footing on to a
larger area.
The choice between these two alternatives, which are shown in Fig. 15.12
(a) and (b) will depend upon the
time available and relative economy.
2. Footings should be taken below the depth of frost penetration. Interior
footings in heated buildings in cold
countries will not be affected by frost. The minimum depths of footings
from this criterion are usually specified
in the load building codes of large cities in countries in which frost is a
significant factor in foundation design.
The damage due to frost action is caused by the volume change of water
in the soil at freezing
temperatures. Gravel and coarse sand above water level, containing less
than 3% fines, cannot hold water and
consequently are not subjected to frost action. Other soils are subjected
to frost-heave within the depth of frost
penetration.
construction. The
caisson is sunk into position, and upon reaching its final position, a
concrete seal is placed at its bottom in
water. Finally, the inside is pumped dry and filled with concrete.
(b) Pneumatic Caissons: These are of box-shape, closed at the top, with a
working chamber at the bottom
from which water is kept off with the aid of compressed air. Thus
excavation is facilitated in the dry, and the
Caisson sinks as excavation proceeds. Finally, the working chamber is
filled with concrete, upon reaching the
final location at the desired depth.
(c) Floating or Box Caissons: These are also of box-shape, closed at the bottom
and open at the top. This
type of Caisson is cast on land, launched in water, towed to the site, and
sunk into position by filling it with
sand, gravel, concrete, or water.
*What is mat foundation? List the situation where the mat foundation is considered economical.
A ‘raft’ or a ‘mat’ foundation is a combined footing which covers the entire
area beneath of a structure
and supports all the walls and columns. This type of foundation is most
appropriate and suitable when the
allowable soil pressure is low, or the loading heavy, and spread footings
would cover more than one half the
plan area. Also, when the soil contains lenses of compressible strata
which are likely to cause considerable
differential settlement, a raft foundation is well-suited, since it would tend
to bridge over the erratic spots, by
virtue of its rigidity. On occasions, the principle of floating foundation may
be applied best in the case of raft
foundations, in order to minimise settlments.
It is needed under the following situations:
Structures like chimneys, silos, cooling towers, buildings with basements
where continuous water proofing is
Needed
For foundations where differential settlement can be a major concern
For soft soils strata or site with pockets of weak soil
In situations where individual footings may touch or overlap each other.
Common Types of Raft Foundations
Common types of raft foundations in use are illustrated in Fig. Fig.(a)
represents a true raft which is a flat
concrete slab of uniform thickness throughout the entire area; this is
suitable for closely spaced columns,
carrying small loads. (b) represents a raft with a portion of the slab under
the thickened column; this provides
sufficient strength for relatively large column loads. (c) is a raft with
thickened bands provided along column
lines in both directions; this provides sufficient strength, when the column
spacing is large and column loads
unequal. (d) represents a raft in which pedestals are provided under each
column; this alternative serves the
same purpose as (b). (e) represents a two-way grid structure made of
cellular construction and of intersecting
structural steel construction (Teng, 1949). (f) represents a raft wherein
basement walls have been used as ribs
or deep beams.
A raft foundation usually rests directly on soil or rock: however, it may
rest on piles as well, if hard stratum is
not available at a reasonably small depth.
Types of Raft Foundation
Plane Slab Rafts: For fairly small and uniform spacing of columns and when
the supporting soil is not too
compressible.
Beam and Slab: For large column spacing and unequal column loads.
Slab with Column Pedestals: For columns with heavy loads which may require
large shear strength or
flexural strength of slab.
Cellular Rafts: For compensated foundations to avoid differential
settlements in weak soils.
Piled Rafts: For heavy structures on soft soils in order to share the loads
with piles.
Strip Rafts or Grid Rafts: For economical design where a complete slab may
be avoided.