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SIDNEY SECKLER FERREIRA FILHO

TREATMENT
OF WATER
A practical guide
FOR STUDENTS AND
Conception, design and
PROFESSIONALS
operation of treatment plants
Machine Translated by Google

WATER TREATMENT
CONCEPTION, DESIGN AND OPERATION
OF TREATMENT STATIONS

SIDNEY SECKLER FERREIRA FILHO

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© 2017, Elsevier Editora Ltda.

All rights reserved and protected by Law No. 9,610, of 02/19/1998.

No part of this book, without prior written authorization from the publisher, may be reproduced or transmitted
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ISBN: 978-85-352-8740-0
ISBN (electronic version): 978-85-352-8810-0

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NATIONAL BOOK EDITORS UNION, RJ

F441t

Ferreira Filho, Sidney Seckler

Water treatment: conception, design and operation of treatment plants /
Sidney Seckler Ferreira Filho. - 1st ed. - Rio de Janeiro: Elsevier, 2017.
he. ; 27 cm.
Includes bibliography
ISBN: 978-85-352-8740-0

1. Hydraulic engineering. 2. Water supply. I. Title.

17–42215 CDD: 627

CDU: 627
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ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Sidney Seckler Ferreira Filho

Civil Engineer graduated from the Polytechnic School of USP (1988). Master in Hydraulic and Sanitary
Engineering from the Polytechnic School of USP (1993). PhD in Hydraulic and Sanitary Engineering from the
USP Polytechnic School (1996). Associate Professor of the Department of Hydraulic and Environmental
Engineering at the Polytechnic School of USP, carrying out teaching and research activities since 1989 and
participating in more than twenty-five years of professional activities in the area of Sanitation, involving
numerous studies of conception, design, dimension -System and operation of water supply treatment plants
for public and private sanitation companies in Brazil and Latin America.

iii
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DEDICATION

To my dear and beloved wife, Ligia Hiromi Uegama Ferreira, may God allow the winds to always unite our paths and hearts towards eternity.

To our dear children, Laura Nami and Guilherme Dai, gifts that God gave us and who are the lights of our lives.

Give freely what you received freely

iv
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THANKS

To the families, who receive and welcome, instruct, embrace and clarify, and are always the safe haven on our
evolutionary journeys.
To Professor Kokei Uehara, an example of a human being and a teacher, who taught me the love of teaching
and whose teachings are always the correct and safe light in times of difficulty.
To the Polytechnic School of the University of São Paulo, especially to my colleagues from the Department of
Hydraulic and Environmental Engineering, for the countless hours of interaction and learning. To the countless
undergraduate and postgraduate students, who always asked disturbing questions, encouraging me to study more
and move forward. To the various sanitation companies, in particular, the Companhia de Saneamento Básico do
Estado de São Paulo (Sabesp), for allowing studies and experimental investigations to be carried out on the
premises of their water treatment plants and which today enrich this book with numerous examples and case studies.
To the engineers, technicians and professionals who worked and still work at the Guaraú water treatment plant
(Sabesp) – where it all began, in 1990 –, for learning on a real scale the problems experienced in the operation of
water treatment plants.

in
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PREFACE

Writing a book is not an easy task, however, it can become very enjoyable when the goals you set
guided it are clearly defined.
One of the most common questions we ask when deciding to write a book is what will differentiate it
from those already on the market. The more traditional books that deal with the treatment of public water
supply are normally divided into two categories. The first are those that focus on the basic fundamentals of
processes and unit operations that make up the treatment of water supplies, without covering design and
operational aspects in depth. The second category focuses in more depth on design aspects, but with little
theoretical content and the foundation of unitary processes. In this way, the proposal is to enable a
combination of both, that is, a book that enables the correct and safe sizing of treatment units, without
abandoning or disregarding the reasons and justifications for their design.

Most technical and professional books on water supply treatment written in English focus on classical
treatment technologies and are complemented with processes and unit operations that aim to remove
organic and inorganic contaminants not efficiently removed by the conventional water supply treatment.
Many of these technologies are not yet applicable in Brazil, either due to their high implementation costs or
due to operational and equipment maintenance difficulties. Such aspects are especially relevant when
considering that the main clients are municipal and state sanitation companies, which, due to their
peculiarity, deal with numerous difficulties in their implementation in the national territory. Although
conventional water supply treatment has limitations, when treatment plants are well designed, designed
and operated, their potential in relation to the production of treated water that meets potability standards is
quite high, and its adoption cannot be ruled out. in countries that have financial limitations that restrict the
use of non-conventional treatment processes. The second motivation for the materialization of this book is,
therefore, the possibility of discussing with great emphasis the potentialities and limitations of adopting
conventional water treatment plants for public supply, aiming at the best possible use, avoiding the use of
technologies of high-cost treatment that is not justifiable from a technical and scientific point of view.

Today, when designing a water treatment plant, whatever it may be, it is of fundamental importance that
the treatment and disposal of its liquid and solid waste are considered. In Brazil, only from the 1990s
onwards did environmental agencies begin to require that new water treatment plants be designed with
sludge treatment units generated in solid-liquid separation processes.
Due to little Brazilian experience on the subject in question, most of the technical literature in Portuguese
does not consider the subject completely, and it is often focused on in different publications. It is imperative
to recognize that it is no longer possible to separate the design of liquid phase treatment units from solid
phase treatment units, since the two phases are closely linked.
Therefore, the third motivation that justifies this book was the need to contextualize the conception, design
and operation of solid phase treatment systems and their interrelationships with the design of the units that
make up the liquid phase.
Finally, the fourth and biggest motivation for this book was the preparation of material that shared my
experience in countless projects and operation of water supply treatment plants and which, for numerous
reasons, are not covered in most technical books that discuss the subject. Since most of my professional
life was directly linked to the Basic Sanitation Company of the State of São Paulo (Sabesp), much of my
learning took place on the premises of its numerous water treatment plants.
Practical experience, associated with solid academic training obtained at the Polytechnic School of the
University of São Paulo, has enabled many water quality and water supply treatment problems to be solved
without the adoption or implementation of sophisticated treatment technologies. and high cost.
This experience is described in this book through several case studies discussed and available videos, so
that the reader can judge whether the proposed solutions can be adopted in their water production systems
duly adapted to their operational reality.

we
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Preface vii

In summary, after reading this book, you will be able

to: • Make a combination of theoretical and practical aspects that enables the conception, design and operation of
conventional water supply treatment plants. • Explore the potential of what is
known as conventional water supply treatment, evaluating the modifications that can be made from an operational
point of view and that enable the maximization of its efficiency. • Consider the conception and design of the
units that make up the solid
phase treatment of part of the water treatment plant as a whole, seeking to analyze their interference with the
operation of processes and unit operations of the liquid phase. • Have access to the author's compilation of
more than twenty years of experience in the design
and operation of conventional water supply treatment plants and seek to pass it on to the reader so that this
knowledge is not lost and dissipated over time but rather replicated in consistent and adapted to the most
different conditions, if applicable.

As this is a book more focused on the design and operation of water treatment plants, it was decided to forgo
extensive theoretical discussions on the topics considered. When necessary, a brief theoretical explanation of an
important point will be provided, if it is really necessary to justify the adoption of a design parameter or some operational
procedure that enables the optimization of the process or unit operation.
The book has a total of thirteen chapters, which distribute the theme as follows.
Chapters 1 to 7 focus on the unitary processes involved in the treatment of the liquid phase, discussing the
necessary steps for the clarification and disinfection of water for public supply.
Chapter 8 presents a discussion about the different oxidizing agents that can be used in the treatment of water
supplies and their potential and applicability.
Chapters 9 and 10 explain some techniques used to remove organic compounds in the treatment of water supplies,
more specifically organic compounds that are precursors of disinfection by-products and compounds that cause taste
and odor.
Finally, Chapters 11 to 13 are dedicated to the design and treatment of waste generated in conventional plants,
more specifically filter washing water and sludge generated in solid-liquid separation processes.

This book can be used in undergraduate and postgraduate courses, remembering that its focus is on design and
operation aspects. Each chapter contains some calculation and sizing examples, illustrating the application of
fundamental design concepts discussed in the text. To theoretically complement any point, the reader is suggested to
consult specific scientific articles cited in the references at the end of the chapters.
In addition to its use in civil and environmental engineering courses, this book can also be used by professionals in
the sector, as issues of design and operation of water treatment plants are extensively discussed, in addition to the
presentation of numerous case studies and illustrative videos.
Finally, it is worth highlighting that the case studies presented consist of professional experiences lived by the
author, but, often, the proposed solution was not necessarily the best for the problem in question. In this context, it is
recommended that the reader, whenever possible, outline their problems and their specific constraints and evaluate
whether the proposed solution can be adapted to their reality.
So, if, in some way, this book can be useful, I can affirm that the mission has been accomplished and I invite the
reader, then, to share his knowledge among his peers, ensuring that it is not lost and can be useful for future
generations.
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SUMMARY

Chapter 1 – Design of Water Treatment Plants for Supply

Audience: Historical Evolution, Current Situation and Future Perspectives 1

Chapter 2 – Coagulation 17

Chapter 3 – Flocculation 65

Chapter 4 – Gravitational Sedimentation 115

Chapter 5 – Dissolved Air Flotation 167

Chapter 6 – Filtration 199

Chapter 7 – Disinfection 267

Chapter 8 – Chemical Oxidation 301

Chapter 9 – Removal of Organic Compounds and Control of the Formation of Disinfection Byproducts
325

Chapter 10 – Control and Removal of Taste and Odor Causing Compounds in Supply Water
357

Chapter 11 – Design of Solid Phase Treatment Systems in Water Treatment Plants

381

Chapter 12 – Equalization, Treatment and Recovery of Filter Washing Water 407

Chapter 13 – Densification, Dehydration and Final Disposal of Waste 429

viii
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CHAPTER 1

Design of Water Treatment Plants for Public

Supply: Historical Evolution,
Current Situation and Future Perspectives

It is likely that the reader is aware of the main operations and unit processes that make up a
conventional water treatment plant for public supply. However, it is interesting to discuss how, historically,
it was possible to establish its conception and current definition.
The water treatment process can be seen as a set of water manipulations in its most different
presentations, so that it can be considered suitable for public supply. This means stating that the physical-
chemical and microbiological quality of the water meets certain quality standards defined by regulatory
agencies.
The design of water treatment plants that is currently known is the result of a huge set of empirical
and scientific developments that have occurred over time and that should be part of our future.
In order to better present this conception, it is interesting to discuss a little about the chronology of the
events that enabled its development ( CRITTENDEN et al., 2012 ).
• 4000 BC – Reports in Sanskrit and Greek recommended that “impure waters” should be boiled,
exposed to the sun or filtered through beds of sand before consumption.
• 1500 BC – In some Egyptian engravings, artifacts made by hand are presented in order to enable
the separation of solids present in water used for consumption (Fig. 1-1).

Figure 1-1 Egyptian artifact made for separating solids.

Note that, a long time ago, ancient people were fully convinced that, to guarantee the improvement of
the aesthetic quality of water used for consumption and other purposes, it was necessary to filter it or use
any other mechanism that would make separation possible. of solids present in the liquid phase. Although
in an incipient way, the best “quality” waters were valued, even if direct quantification was not possible.

• 500 BC – Considered the father of medicine, Hippocrates observed that rainwater should be boiled
and filtered before consumption. It is also reported that he noticed that the waters
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CHAPTER 2

Coagulation

CONTAMINANTS PRESENT IN NATURAL WATER

The coagulation process is the first unitary operation that makes up a water treatment plant
Conventional (ETA), whether full cycle or a variant thereof (direct filtration and in-line filtration).
Conventional water treatment plants are a set of unitary operations in series and, in order for the processes
downstream of the coagulation stage to be operated properly, their operation must occur under ideal conditions.

The importance of the coagulation process lies in the fact that one of the main objectives of water supply
treatment is to guarantee the production of treated water with aesthetic characteristics suitable for human
consumption, that is, it is necessary to guarantee its clarification. Contaminants present in the liquid phase can be
classified as shown in Figure 2-1 .

Natural waters

Suspended Solids Dissolved

Totais (SST) compounds

organic SST inorganic SST Inorganic Organic

Synthetics Natural

Figure 2-1 Classification of contaminants present in natural waters.

Contaminants present in natural waters may have different origins and different physicochemical characteristics
that will tend to impact the treatment process. The first distinction that can be made regarding these concerns their
physical size. Particles with dimensions greater than 1 ÿm are classified as suspended particles, and particles with
ÿ3
dimensions less than 10 ÿm are defined as dissolved particles. In turn, it is defined that particles that have a physical
ÿ3
dimension between diameters of 10 1 ÿm are characterized as colloidal particles. mm e

From an analytical point of view, a distinction can be made between suspended particles and dissolved and
colloidal particles through a total suspended solids (TSS) analysis, which essentially involves the filtration of a
volume of sample through a membrane of filtration that has an average pore diameter of around 1.2 ÿm. In this way,
the material retained in the filtering membrane is called SST, and the portion present in the filtrate is defined as
soluble, incorporating both dissolved and colloidal fractions.
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CHAPTER 3

Flocculation

COLLOIDAL PARTICLE AGGREGATION MECHANISMS The

flocculation stage is one of the most important in the water treatment process. Although qualitative
knowledge about this dates back to the 1930s, from a quantitative point of view, progress has only been
achieved recently. The design parameters and relevant operational considerations currently established
for flocculation units used in the treatment of supply water are still, in essence, empirical and obtained
based on the results of numerous designed installations, in which their successes and failures.

The essence of the purpose of the flocculation process is to enable the aggregation of colloidal particles
so that they can be removed from the liquid phase by solid-liquid separation processes, such as gravitational
sedimentation, dissolved air flotation or so on. filtration, in the case of installations designed as direct filtration.

DEFINITION OF
FLOCULATION Physical process in which colloidal particles are brought into contact with each other,
in order to enable an increase in their physical size, thus altering their particle size distribution.

For the separation of colloidal particles by solid-liquid separation processes to occur satisfactorily, it is
necessary to ensure that the physical dimension of the flakes reaches an adequate value. Thus, by ensuring
the aggregation of particles present in the coagulated water and their subsequent increase in physical
dimension, as a consequence, there is a decrease in their concentration in the liquid phase, as shown in
Figure 3-1.

Figure 3-1 Presentation of the flocculation process: aggregation of colloidal particles.

It is important to emphasize that, for the flocculation process to proceed satisfactorily, it is necessary to
guarantee the destabilization of the colloidal particles through correct operation of the coagulation process.
From a physical point of view, the coagulation process is responsible for the destabilization of colloidal
particles and should not be seen as a unitary operation responsible for the aggregation of colloidal particles.
Therefore, theoretically, the particle size distribution of colloidal particles present in raw and coagulated
water is essentially the same.
When coagulated water is subjected to the flocculation process, there is a change in the particle size
distribution of the colloidal particles, with an increase in their average diameter and a decrease in their
concentration (Fig. 3-2).
With its physical increase, it is therefore possible to guarantee its greater removal in separation units
solid-liquid, which guarantees greater efficiency of the treatment process as a whole.
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CHAPTER 4

Gravitational Sedimentation

SEPARATION OF COLLOIDAL PARTICLES BY GRAVITATIONAL SEDIMENTATION

Once the colloidal particles have been subjected to the coagulation and flocculation processes, it is necessary
to ensure their removal from the liquid phase. As mentioned in the previous chapters, the coagulation and
flocculation processes will allow, through the aggregation of colloidal particles, to acquire a physical diameter
such that they provide a sedimentation speed high enough to be removed by gravitational sedimentation.

DEFINITION OF GRAVITATIONAL
SEDIMENTATION Physical process in which colloidal particles are removed from the liquid phase
through gravitational sedimentation processes.

Thus, once the granulometric distribution of the colloidal particles present in the liquid phase has changed as
a result of an adequate operation of the coagulation and flocculation processes, there will be a critical particle,
which will present a critical sedimentation rate and will tend to be removed in the processing units. sedimentation
located downstream (Fig. 4-1).

Particles removed in
Raw water
sedimentation unit
Coagulated water

Flocculated water
frequency
Relative

Critical Diameter ÿ Speed

critical sedimentation

Particle diameter
Figure 4-1 Expected particle size distribution for colloidal particles present in the liquid phase and their removal in
sedimentation units.

Gravity sedimentation processes can be divided into four main types, namely: • Discrete sedimentation
(Type I). • Flocculent sedimentation
(Type II). • Zone sedimentation (Type
III). • Compression sedimentation
(Type IV).
The sedimentation processes to be covered in this chapter will basically be Type I and Type II, as they are the most common in
conventional clarifiers and in high-rate clarifiers in the conventional treatment of supply water.

Type I sedimentation classically occurs in sandboxes and pre-sedimentation units, and its main characteristic
is the fact that the physical dimension of the particles to be removed does not change over time, and, therefore,
their speed of Sedimentation also remains constant.
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CHAPTER 5

Dissolved Air Flotation

SEPARATION OF COLLOID PARTICLES BY DISSOLVED AIR FLOTATION The dissolved
air flotation process is a very attractive option as a solid-liquid separation process, and its use in
the treatment of supply water dates back to the early 1960s. the development of theoretical conceptual
models regarding the functioning of its main constituent parts (air saturators, reaction zone and
clarification) and supported by very promising experimental results, the number of installations grew
dramatically ( EDZWALD; HAARHOFF, 2012 ).
The principle of the dissolved air flotation process involves reducing the specific mass of the floc, so that its value is lower than the
specific mass of the water. In this way, the flake will tend to rise vertically and separate from the liquid phase. The reduction in the specific
mass of the flake is guaranteed by the adhesion of air particles released into the liquid phase under controlled conditions.

DEFINITION OF DISSOLVED AIR FLOTATION

Physical process in which colloidal particles are removed from the liquid phase by reducing their
specific mass through the incorporation of air particles.

As seen in Chapter 4 , the sedimentation rate of colloidal particles in the liquid phase can be
calculated by Newton's law, which can be expressed as follows:

4. g. (
r
ÿ

r
) . d
f f
in =
s (Equation 5-1)
3. C
. d r

ÿ1
in s = sedimentation velocity of the particle in relation to the fluid (LT = acceleration of )
ÿ2
g gravity (LT
ÿ3

ÿf = ) specific mass of the flake (ML ÿ3

)

floc specific mass of water (ML ÿ = d = )

diameter
f (L) = drag coefficient
C d

The particles formed during the coagulation and flocculation process have specific mass values of around 1,020 to 1,200 kg/m 3.
Therefore, when immersed in the liquid phase, they will tend to have a descending speed called critical sedimentation speed ( The
tendency will be for the floc to settle, since its specific mass is greater than ). As shown in Figure 5-1(Condition 1), s

that of water.

vfb
df

db

df
vs
vb

db
db db

Condition 1 Condition 2
Figure 5-1 Aggregation of n air bubbles of diameter d in a flake of diameter d f .
b
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CHAPTER 6

Filtration

SEPARATION OF COLLOID PARTICLES BY FILTRATION The

filtration process is the last unitary process whose function is to guarantee the removal of colloidal
particles present in the liquid phase, hence its great importance in the water supply treatment process.
The need for the filtration process as a constituent part of water treatment plants is justified since, no
matter how well the operation of gravitational sedimentation or dissolved air flotation units may be, they
are not capable of guaranteeing the removal of 100% of colloidal particles present in the liquid phase.
In this way, all particles that are not removed in the sedimentation or flotation steps must be removed in
the filtration process.
If, by chance, the filtration units are not functioning satisfactorily, there will be a tendency for the
quality of the filtered water to deteriorate, which may not only compromise its aesthetic characteristics,
but also pose risks to the operation of the disinfection stage.

DEFINITION OF
FILTRATION Physico-chemical process in which colloidal particles are removed from the liquid
phase through their percolation through a granular medium, ensuring the production of filtered water
with aesthetic characteristics suitable for drinking purposes.

Although, from a technological point of view, filtration can occur in different ways, traditionally, the
filtration used in the conventional treatment of supply water involves the percolation of water in a granular
medium, having a specific height and particle size ( Fig. 6-1 ).

Height

Figure 6-1 Filtration systems used in the treatment of supply water – percolation in granular media.

Although water filtration for public supply purposes expanded significantly from the beginning of the
20th century, it was only in the mid-1950s that we began to understand in greater depth the main
mechanisms involved in water filtration. process of retaining particles in the filtering medium (IVES, 1970).
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CHAPTER 7

Disinfection

CONCEPTUALIZATION OF THE DISINFECTION

PROCESS The main objective of treating water supplies is to produce water that is adequate from an
aesthetic point of view and safe from a microbiological point of view. Therefore, it is necessary to provide
technological alternatives that make it possible to guarantee the physical removal and inactivation of
pathogenic microorganisms that may be present in the liquid phase.
The processes of coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation and filtration are essentially responsible for removing colloidal
particles present in the liquid phase and, among these, pathogenic microorganisms are incorporated, which are also particles
of organic origin. However, as it is not possible to guarantee the microbiological safety of treated water solely through its
physical removal, it is necessary to have an additional process that allows the inactivation of pathogenic microorganisms
present in the liquid phase.

DEFINITION OF DISINFECTION
Physical-chemical process that aims to economically eliminate pathogenic microorganisms present
in the liquid phase.

It is convenient to differentiate between disinfection and sterilization processes. The latter aims to eliminate all forms of
life in the liquid phase, while disinfection aims to remove pathogenic microorganisms. It is important to keep in mind,
therefore, that treated water, even when subjected to disinfection processes, still contains microbiological life forms that tend
to develop in the distribution system.

The concept of disinfection, therefore, can be seen in a more comprehensive way than just restricted to the inactivation
of pathogenic microorganisms present in the liquid phase ( Fig. 7-1 ).

In the spring
Reduction due to the choice of source
Reduction for water source protection

At the station Analysis of

of treatment multiple barriers
Reduction Risk reduction
by removal of catastrophe

Water
disinfected

At the station No system

of treatment of distribution
Reduction Reduction
by inactivation for protection

Figure 7-1 Integrated view of the disinfection process in the treatment of water supplies.

As shown in Figure 7-1, the concept of disinfection can be understood as a set of actions that aim to guarantee the
,

microbiological safety of treated water. In general, the disinfection process is understood as simply the inactivation of
pathogenic microorganisms through the addition of chemical agents. However, the microbiological safety of water is made
up of a sum of actions, namely:
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CHAPTER 8

Chemical Oxidation

USE OF CHEMICAL OXIDATION IN TREATMENT

OF SUPPLY WATER
Chemical oxidation has been widely used in the treatment of water supplies as a solution to a wide range of problems,
for example, the removal of inorganic compounds (iron [Fe] and manganese [Mn]), the minimization of taste and odor
problems , color removal, among others. As chlorine is traditionally used in the treatment of water supplies as a disinfectant,
most water treatment plants also use it as an oxidizing agent. However, given the technical restrictions associated with the
formation of chlorinated organic compounds (disinfection byproducts), the use of chlorine as an oxidizing agent has been
restricted and made it possible to use alternative oxidizing agents (US ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY, 1999).

DEFINITION OF CHEMICAL
OXIDATION Physical-chemical process that involves the addition of oxidizing agents in the treatment
process with the aim of solving multiple water quality problems.

Traditionally, the use of chemical oxidation in the treatment of water supplies can be carried out
in pre-, inter- and post-oxidation ( Fig. 8-1 ).

Pre-oxidation Inter-oxidation Post-oxidation

Coagulation Flocculation Sedimentation Filtration Disinfection

Figure 8-1 Application points for oxidizing agents in conventional water treatment plants.

Pre-oxidation involves the application of the oxidizing agent to raw water, which can be carried out before coagulation,
close to it or immediately after. Interoxidation makes it possible to dose the oxidizing agent in the decanted water, and,
therefore, its application is carried out at some point between the decanters and the filtration system.
In turn, the main objective of post-oxidation is to enable the operation of the disinfection stage, with the oxidizing agent being
applied after filtration and upstream of the contact tank.
The application of the oxidizing agent in pre-, inter- and post-oxidation must solve specific quality and treatment problems,
and is normally used with the objectives presented below (CRITTENDEN et al., 2012).

Oxidation of inorganic compounds, typically iron and manganese in

reduced oxidation states
Certain types of raw water from surface springs may present concentrations of Mn +2, and their removal from the liquid phase requires their oxidation to MnO 2
+2
of iron and manganese under the presentation of
Fe +3 Fe and Mn +4, in order to enable their precipitation in the form of Fe(OH) . Normally, oxidation 3

of inorganic compounds present in raw water requires that the application of the oxidizing agent be carried out in pre-oxidation,
since oxidized and insoluble species can be removed in the sedimentation and filtration stages.
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CHAPTER 9

Removal of Organic Compounds and

Control of the Formation of Disinfection Byproducts

ORGANIC COMPOUNDS AND THEIR PRESENCE IN SUPPLY WATER Until the

beginning of the 1970s, the biggest concerns regarding the presence of organic compounds in
supply water were due to their ability to impart color to treated water. With the progressive development
of different analytical techniques, for example, liquid chromatography (HPLC) and gas chromatography
associated with mass spectrometry (GC-MS), it has become possible to identify numerous organic
compounds that may be present in waters. natural and treated, and which can potentially pose risks to human health.
Conventional treatment of supply water aims to ensure the removal of suspended and colloidal
particles, that is, to enable adequate clarification of the treated water, as well as guaranteeing its
microbiological safety, and was not originally designed for the removal of organic compounds. present in
the liquid phase (Fig. 9-1). Therefore, its action in removing organic compounds in the aqueous phase is
limited and must, therefore, be complemented, either with additional unit processes, or by modifying the
operational conditions of the treatment process.

Natural Waters

Total Suspended Solids Dissolved Compounds

SST SST
Inorganic Organic
Organic Inorganic

Synthetics Natural

Effective action

Partial action
Conventional treatment of
supply water
Figure 9-1 Spectrum of contaminants present in natural waters and the action of conventional water supply treatment.

Although the conventional treatment of water supplies does not aim to ensure the removal of organic
compounds present in the liquid phase, it can enable, albeit partially, their removal from the liquid phase
and the consequent compliance with current potability standards.
Organic compounds that may be present in raw and treated water may originate from biogenic and
anthropogenic processes, and their concentrations in aqueous media may vary from ng/L to mg/L.
According to their origin, they can be classified as listed below ( CRITTENDEN et al., 2012 ).
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CHAPTER 10

Control and Removal of Taste and Odor

Causing Compounds in Supply Water

ORIGIN OF TASTE AND ODOR PROBLEMS IN SUPPLY WATER

Taste and odor problems in water supplies are not a relatively recent environmental issue. There are reports of numerous
actions developed by sanitation companies to minimize this since the beginning of the 20th century (MALLEVIALE; SUFFET, 1987).

Water treatment plants were initially designed as a constituent part of public water supply systems, with the objective of
providing water aesthetically suitable for human consumption. Until the beginning of the 20th century, its exclusive unitary operation
was the filtration stage, which aimed to remove colloidal particles that could harm its acceptability by the population.

However, with the consolidation of the Industrial Revolution and the emergence of large urban conglomerates, as well as the
advent of the First World War, new quality requirements began to be imposed on water supplies, highlighting the control of
concentrations of organic and inorganic chemical compounds that could cause harm to human health.

As a result, several operational modifications and unit operations began to be incorporated into water treatment, highlighting
the processes of chemical oxidation and adsorption on activated carbon. Although these treatment technologies have been adopted
due to the establishment of increasingly restrictive potability standards, new criteria have been imposed regarding the minimum
aesthetic standards required for water supplies, including the absence of taste and odor.

As a consequence of the development of large cities and their deficiencies in collection, removal, sewage treatment and
industrial pollution control services, taste and odor problems in water supply have become very complex, difficult and extremely
difficult technological solution
onerous.
In general, the presence of odor and taste in water supply can be caused by the following reasons (MALLEVIALE; SUFFET,
1987):

• Presence of inorganic constituents in high concentrations, such as iron, chloride, sulfate, sulfur gas
dric, among others.
• Presence of organic compounds of anthropogenic origin (phenols, nitrophenols) and other compounds
aromatics (carbon tetrachloride, tetrachloroethylene, etc.).
• Odor and taste in water supply originating from the treatment process. In general, problems of this nature are associated with the
action of the oxidizing and/or disinfectant agent and its reactions with organic compounds, which may be of biogenic and/or
anthropogenic origin. • Odor and taste in water supplies originating from the public
water distribution system. Depending on the physical conditions of water distribution networks, their design and layout, as well as the
characteristics of raw and treated water, it is common for them to present high concentrations of iron and manganese, which can
cause a metallic taste in the water distributed. . Microbiological growth in distribution networks has also been the cause of
numerous odor and taste problems, as well as the presence of high concentrations of the disinfectant agent itself. • Presence of
organic compounds of biogenic origins. It is known that numerous microorganisms, notably certain algae, especially cyanobacteria,
as well as certain fungi, are responsible for the production of
organic compounds resulting from their metabolism, which, under certain conditions that are not yet fully known, are released into the
liquid phase. These organic compounds are responsible for numerous odor and taste problems in water supplies, and are
undoubtedly the most difficult to remove.
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CHAPTER 11

Design of Phase Treatment Systems

Solid in Water Treatment Plants

ORIGIN OF WASTE GENERATED IN THE TREATMENT PROCESS

OF SUPPLY WATER
The treatment and disposal of solid waste generated by supply water treatment processes have received attention in Brazil
only in recent years. While in the United States and certain European countries the problem of treatment and disposal of solid waste
generated in water treatment plants (ETAs) has been studied extensively since the 1970s, in Brazil, only recently have environmental
control bodies given importance to its treatment and final disposal.

One of the great difficulties in choosing engineering alternatives that cover the treatment of waste generated in ETAs is the scarcity
of data and national literature on the subject, basically because, in Brazil, few ETAs have presented solutions that aim to minimize the
amount of solid waste generated, its treatment and final disposal. Most ETAs in Brazil still dispose of their waste in the rainwater
drainage system, which is subsequently directed to the receiving body, causing siltation of water bodies and relevant aesthetic and
visual problems.

Currently, the design and construction of new ETAs require the implementation of solid phase treatment, which, in a way, facilitates
their design. However, in Brazil, there are numerous ETAs built before the 1990s, without solid phase treatment systems and whose
implementation is enormously difficult.

Therefore, the challenges currently imposed to solve the problem related to the treatment of waste generated in ETAs are
significant, not only due to the need to implement works, acquire equipment and operate the system, but also due to their high
operational costs, as well as the difficulties imposed in the final disposal of the sludge.

Unfortunately, it must be emphasized that the implementation of solid phase treatment systems in ETAs, even though it allows the
solution of a relevant environmental problem, leads to an increase in the operational costs of the treatment process and which must
be duly included in the operator's remuneration. of the water supply system, whether public or private.

In general, waste generated in ETAs can be divided into the following four broad categories (ASCE; AWWA; EPA, 1996). • Waste
generated during water treatment

processes aimed at removing color and turbidity. In general, the solid waste produced includes sludge generated in the decanters
(or possibly from flotation devices with dissolved air) and the water used to wash the filters. • Solid waste generated during
softening processes. • Waste generated in non-conventional
treatment processes aimed at reducing organic compounds present in raw
water, such as saturated granular activated carbon, air from drag processes

com ar etc.
• Liquid waste generated during processes aimed at reducing inorganic compounds present in raw water, such as membrane
processes (reverse osmosis, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, etc.).

In Brazil, most of the ETAs in operation were designed as conventional full-cycle or variant types (direct filtration, in-line filtration,
etc.), with no significant number of ETAs equipped with activated carbon adsorption processes. granular, air entrainment or membrane
processes. In this way, the waste generated by these treatment processes will not be considered, focusing only on the waste generated
by conventional water treatment plants and their variants.
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CHAPTER 12

Equalization, Treatment and Recovery of

Filter Washing Water

DESIGN OF EQUALIZATION, TREATMENT AND RECOVERY SYSTEMS

OF FILTER WASHING WATER
The main residues produced in conventional full-cycle water treatment plants are the sludge generated in the solid-liquid separation
units (conventional or canister decanters and dissolved air flotation devices) and the water from washing the filters. lters. As mentioned in
Chapter 11, because both wastes have distinct characteristics, the design of solid phase treatment systems for conventional full-cycle ETAs
,

(WTPs) involves their segregation and subsequent treatment. In general, the sludge discharged by sedimentation units or by dissolved air
flotation has a low flow rate and high solids concentration, while the filter washing water has a high flow rate and low solids concentration.

Due to its low concentration of total suspended solids and considering that its consumption is between 2%
and 5% of the volume of raw water introduced per day, it is justified, whenever possible, to reuse the water used
to wash the appliances. lters through the treatment process (KAWAMURA, 2000; QASIM; MOTLEY; ZHU, 2000).
In fact, this has been one of the biggest reasons why the implementation of filter washing water treatment
systems has received great attention in recent times.
When analyzing the design of washing water recovery systems in wastewater treatment plants,
conventional full cycle water type, two options can be considered, namely:
• Recovery of washing water from the filters and its full recirculation without separation of solids The
recovery of washing water from the filters and its full recirculation without separation of solids involves the
construction of an equalization system and lifting station, whose function It must be possible to hold the properly
equalized washing water to begin the treatment process. Figure 12-1 presents a flowchart indicating the main
constituent parts of this alternative.

Coagulation Flocculation Sedimentation Filtration Disinfection

Officially

Station AL
Elevator equalization tank

Sludge
equalization tank

Filtered out Filtered out

Densification

Filtered out Filtered out

Dehydration

Cake

Figure 12-1 Design of water recovery systems for washing filters without clarification.
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CHAPTER 13

Densification, Dehydration and Final Waste Disposal

DENSION OF SLUDGE PRODUCED IN SEPARATION UNITS

SÓLIDOÿLÍQUIDO
Waste produced in solid-liquid separation units (conventional horizontal flow and high-rate decanters)
generally used in conventional full-cycle water treatment plants have low solids contents, generally less
than 1.0% . Therefore, it is required to go through stages of densification and dehydration, whose main
function should be to raise its solids content to values that allow it to be handled appropriately, aiming for
its final destination.
The most common alternatives for densifying sludge generated in water treatment processes are: the
use of gravity densifiers, mechanized densifiers or dissolved air flotation ( CORNWELL; Roth, 2011 ;
CRITTENDEN et al., 2012 ).
Gravity densifiers have been used for a long time and, therefore, their use is already established, with
design parameters that enable adequate sizing of the units. In turn, the use of mechanized densifiers is
more recent, and the success of their application in the treatment of sludge generated in water treatment
plants depends fundamentally on the choice of equipment from reputable manufacturers with a good
reputation in the market. The option for dissolved air flotation to densify sludge generated in water treatment
plants is not very common, due to its high operational complexity, being its most common use in the
densification of biological sludge in sanitary sewage treatment plants. medium to large size.

Gravity densifiers are generally circular in geometry and equipped with mechanical sludge removal
systems with relatively simple operation ( Fig. 13-1 ).
When operated properly, this type of thickener can reach solids content values in the condensed sludge
of around 2% to 3%, with something closer to 2% being more common. Solids capture rates in gravity
thickeners tend to vary between 85% and 95%, which allows the clarified liquid to return to the beginning
of the treatment process. Figure 13-2 presents a view of the clarified liquid produced in a gravity thickener.

For the densification stage to occur satisfactorily, it is necessary to precondition the sludge with polymer,
with the most common dosages being around 2 to 6 g/kg ST. As there is a wide variety of polymers
available on the market, the definition of the most suitable product and its respective dosage is a function
of the characteristics of the sludge to be compacted, and must therefore be defined based on specific
experimental tests (DENTEL et al., 1988).

Relevant Point 1: In order for the sludge produced in solid-liquid separation units to be densified
efficiently, it is necessary to precondition it with a polymer, and its choice and respective dosages must be
defined through specific experimental tests.

As the objective of the densification units is the production of dense sludge with solids contents greater
than 2%, their most relevant design parameter for sizing purposes is the applied solids load, and its values
depend on the nature and physical characteristics. -chemistry of the sludge, as well as the efficiency of its
chemical preconditioning. Although important in the design of solid-liquid separation systems, the surface
flow rate should not be used as a design parameter.
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Conception, design and operation of water treatment plants aims to offer

support to different professionals in the areas of civil and environmental
engineering in the development of projects for water treatment plants,
focusing on the most technical and operational aspects. relevant in the sizing
of its various unit processes. The book that addresses the design of liquid
phase process units, recovery and treatment of filter washing water, sludge
densification and dehydration, also discusses the use of different oxidizing
agents in water treatment plants, rowing -tion of disinfection by-products and
control of taste and odor.

Each chapter, richly illustrated and with numerous examples of calculation

and dimensioning that will help the reader understand the most important
topics, also contains real case studies that allow for a fusion between design
and operation, theory and practice, enabling a more comprehensive
understanding for the design of water treatment plants. Reading this text is
recommended for undergraduate and postgraduate students and professionals in the sector