Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 79 (2008) 133–142

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Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science

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Facies depositional setting, mineral maturity and sequence stratigraphy

of a Holocene drowned valley, Tamaki Estuary, New Zealand
Ghada M.S. Abrahim*,1, Scott L. Nichol 2, Robin J. Parker 1, Murray R. Gregory
School of Geography, Geology and Environmental Science, The University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland, New Zealand

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Tamaki Estuary in northern New Zealand is a mixed-energy estuary that comprises three facies zones: (1)
Received 26 May 2007 a wave- and tide-influenced inlet with sandspit; (2) a tide-dominated, funnel-shaped zone with wide
Accepted 11 March 2008 intertidal flats and sandy tidal bars, and (3) a mixed fluvial influenced and tidal meandering upper zone.
Available online 20 March 2008
Each zone preserves a Holocene record of sedimentation that was reconstructed using six cores ranging
between 3- and 6-m depth. Sample analyses included textural and mineralogical composition, organic
Keywords: and carbonate content, and radiocarbon dating of in situ shells. The Tamaki Estuary valley fill consists of
Tamaki Estuary
transgressive marine sands and tidal bar sands in the lower estuary, mud and sand facies in the middle
lithofacies
sequence stratigraphy
estuary, and mud and peat facies in the upper estuary. These facies were deposited in a marine–fluvial
mineral maturity complex that included barriers, tidal flats and peat swamps. Based on radiocarbon dating, marine
estuaries transgression in the Tamaki Estuary started at least 7500 yr BP. Transgressive System Tract (TST) sedi-
Auckland ments were deposited on a pre-Early Holocene surface composed of massive compact grey plastic mud.
New Zealand Sediments of this initial transgressive stage consist of sandy muds with shell material in the lower
estuary and mud to muddy sands with thin peat layers in the upper estuary. Deposition of Highstand
System Tract (HST) sediments coincided with sea-level stabilisation at or near present day levels ca
6500 yr BP and HST sedimentation continues to the present day. In addition to conventional lithos-
tratigraphic characterization, the mineralogical composition of the sediments, in particular the pro-
portion of quartz and feldspar (i.e. Q/F ratio), is proposed as a diagnostic tool for distinguishing
depositional system tracts in siliciclastic sequences.
Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction In this paper, we present further evidence of the effect of valley

Numerous studies have related modern estuarine systems to
their respective sedimentation processes to emphasize the strong
relationship between morphostratigraphy and the relative impor-
tance of waves, tides and rivers (e.g. Roy, 1984; Nichol, 1991;
Cooper, 2001). In this context, Dalrymple et al. (1992) and Zaitlin
et al. (1994) proposed a facies model for estuaries that identified
key morphostratigraphic characteristics of wave-dominated and
tide-dominated end-member process settings. The model has
proven a robust summary of estuarine stratigraphy and evolution,
and provided a framework to explain cases that differ from the
model. In particular, the antecedent topography of an incised valley
is increasingly being recognized as a factor to account for variability
in estuarine morphology and facies organization (Heap and Nichol,
1997; Dillenburg et al., 2000; Cooper, 2001; Burningham, 2007).
* Corresponding author. Present address: Geoenvironmental Services, 27 Erne
Crescent, Dannemora, Auckland, New Zealand
E-mail address: g_abrahim@yahoo.com (G.M.S. Abrahim).
1
Present address: Geoenvironmental Services, 27 Erne Crescent, Dannemora,
Auckland, New Zealand.
2
Present address: Geoscience Australia, GPO Box 378, Canberra, ACT, Australia.
morphology on estuarine facies development for a Holocene
system that has attained an advanced stage of infill and therefore
potentially preserves a detailed record of marine and fluvial
processes and interactions. Our case study is the Tamaki River
Estuary, located within the urban area of Auckland, North Island,
New Zealand (Fig. 1). This reconstruction is based on shallow
stratigraphic sampling and an understanding of present day estu-
ary morphology and facies differentiation. A secondary objective of
this study is to investigate variability in the mineral maturity of
estuarine sediments using quartz/feldspar ratios as a proxy for
sediment reworking and transport history. It will be demonstrated
that the Q/F ratio may be a useful tool in sequence stratigraphic
analysis of siliciclastic sediments.
Early investigations of New Zealand estuarine geology were
related to harbour maintenance and dredging and were often
descriptive with a local focus (Hume et al., 1992). Over the last three
decades, investigations have broadened to include sediment bud-
get modelling in urbanised estuaries, the environmental conse-
quences of siltation together with various aspects of pollution (e.g.
McDougall, 1976; Davies-Colley and Healy, 1978; Paton, 1983) and
the geomorphic classification of New Zealand estuaries (Hume and

0272-7714/$ – see front matter Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ecss.2008.03.007
134 G.M.S. Abrahim et al. / Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 79 (2008) 133–142

Fig. 1. Longitudinal zonation and mud ratio in surficial sediments of Tamaki Estuary.

Herdendorf, 1988). A major advance in estuarine research in New
Zealand has been the estimation of sedimentation rates through
a variety of dating techniques, notably isotope dating [Lead (Pb210),
Carbon (C14) and Cesium (Cs137)] and pollen analysis (e.g. Hume and
McGlone, 1986; Sheffield et al., 1995; Abrahim, 2000, 2005). Further
advances include process modelling of sediment dynamics and
movement, and the impact of factors such as waves and tides using
computer modelling techniques (e.g. Kruger, 1980; Burton and
Healy, 1985; Curtis, 1985). Research on estuarine sediments in New
Zealand has also investigated changes in sedimentation patterns as
related to human impact and urbanization (Hume and McGlone,
1986; Trotter, 1990; Hume et al., 1992; Abrahim, 2001; Abrahim and
Parker, 2002, 2008; Swales et al., 2002; Abrahim et al., 2007).
However, studies of the longer-term evolution of estuaries in New
Zealand are less advanced and often focus on the tectonically active
coastal areas where estuarine stratigraphic records are complicated
by uplift events (e.g. Berryman et al., 1992; Davis and Healy, 1993;
Wilson et al., 2007). In contrast, modern Tamaki Estuary has formed
in a tectonically stable region of New Zealand and therefore
represents a simpler glacio-eustatic context.
2. Study site
Tamaki Estuary is one of the largest semi-enclosed water bodies
in the Auckland metropolitan area of northern New Zealand (Fig. 1).
The central channel is 17-km long and relatively narrow (<100 m)
and curves through broad intertidal flats flanked by low coastal
cliffs and mangrove stands (Hume, 1979). The water body occupies
w1680 ha and the enclosing catchment covers w9740 ha (ARC,
1992). The estuary is fed by several tributaries of which Otara,
Otahuhu, and Pakuranga creeks are the largest. The estuary valley is
funnel-shaped, decreasing in width from 1500–2000 m at the
 G.M.S. Abrahim et al. / Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 79 (2008) 133–142
mouth to 350–700 m along the middle reaches and 200 m at its
head. The main tidal channel is scoured to a depth of 13.8 m at its
seaward end and shallows to 1–2 m at the estuary head (Abrahim,
2005). Tides are low mesotidal, increasing from a neap range of 1.9
to 2.7 m on mean spring tides. The estuary is sheltered from open
ocean wave activity by islands of the Hauraki Gulf, which reduce
fetch distances to less than 10 km.
Local geology comprises basement of Miocene Waitemata
Group strata, which consist of alternating sandstone and mudstone
beds. Parts of the catchment are covered with deposits of Quater-
nary rhyolitic tephra forming poorly consolidated, pumice-rich
sediments. These deposits originated from distal eruptive centres of
the central North Island and are widespread in the Auckland region.
Other parts are covered with Quaternary basaltic rocks, which form
tuffs and scoria cones, craters and basaltic lava flows (Newnham
and Lowe, 1991; Newnham et al., 1999).
Sea-level history for Tamaki Estuary is based on the Holocene
sea-level curve for New Zealand (Gibb, 1986). This curve tracks
postglacial sea-level rise from 33.5  2.5 m at approximately
10,000 yr BP to relative stillstand by about 7000 yr BP, with two
short stillstands ca 9200 yr BP and ca 7500 yr BP. Gibb (1986) also
suggests that a small positive sea-level rise of about 0.5 m above
the present day datum occurred about 4500 yr BP. Evidence for this
highstand has also been reported for other sites on the tectonically
stable northern coast of New Zealand (Woodroffe et al., 1983; Hicks
and Nichol, 2007) and is likely to have affected Tamaki Estuary.
Present day morphology of Tamaki Estuary shows a distinct
north to south longitudinal zonation in terms of channel shape,
flow regime (tide and wave), surface sediments, and organic and
carbonate content Abrahim (2002). Thus, surface sediments range
from sand and shell lag deposits at the estuary entrance, through
muddy sands to very fine sands over much of the intertidal area,
and the upper estuary is characterized by high mud content. Mud
also dominates tidal feeder creeks. The generally headward fining
trend in the grain size of surface sediments is illustrated in Fig. 1.
Based on physical properties (e.g. shape of the channel, mean grain
size, organic and carbonate content) the estuary can be divided
longitudinally into three zones, as follows.
2.1. Estuary mouth zone
This zone is open to the Hauraki Gulf and is noted for wave
action and direct marine influence. The Tahuna Torea sandspit is
300-m long and forms the boundary to the funnel zone to the south
(Fig. 1). Strong tidal flows have prevented sediment accumulation
in the constricted channel adjacent to the sandspit, which has been
scoured to a depth of 11–13 m at low tide. A wide intertidal flat
extends north from the spit to Karaka Bay. Surface samples from
this part of the estuary are dominated by sand, which forms up to
96% of the total sediment. The coarsest sand fraction is largely
confined to the main channel of the estuary and may represent lag
materials that were too heavy to be moved by regular tides. The
mud fraction is typically very low while carbonate content in the
sand fraction is significant (23–55%) and consists mainly of broken
shells. Other organic material does not exceed 1.4% of sediment by
weight.
2.2. Estuary funnel zone
The central zone consists of a funnel-shaped channel that ex-
tends from the area slightly north of Panmure Basin to the Tahuna
Torea sandspit (w3.8-km distance). This zone is characterized by
linear sand and shell bars located either along the banks or within
the channel. South of the sandspit, an elongated sand bar flanks the
channel and can be traced southwards towards Panmure Basin. The
channel in this area is approximately 10-m deep at low tide near
135
Half Moon Bay and 12 m in the middle part of the zone. Carbonate
content varies from 5 to 29% and organic material does not exceed
4% by weight. Surface sediment texture shows a wide variation, but
generally fines upstream. The sand fraction ranges from 67 to 96%,
with the lower values found at the head of the funnel just before
the Panmure ‘‘narrows’’. This topographic restriction marks a sig-
nificant change in sediment character between the lower and the
upper reaches of the estuary (KRTA, 1989) and defines the bound-
ary between the funnel zone and the upper estuary zone.
2.3. Upper estuary zone
The upper reaches of Tamaki Estuary are noted for tidal
meandering channels with minor fluvial influence. Sand and mud
point bars and low crescent-shaped shoals are present on the
convex side (inner banks) of estuary meanders. These features
extend from the uppermost parts of the estuary at Otara to the
middle zone of the channel headwards of Panmure Basin. The latter
is a drowned explosion crater that has been breached by the sea
and partially infilled with sediments. The connection between
Panmure Basin and Tamaki Estuary is restricted, but allows for tidal
exchange such that it drains fully at low tide (Hume and Herden-
dorf, 1988). The Panmure ‘‘narrows’’ reach depths of 8–10 m due to
tidal scouring. South of Panmure several point bars are found
where the estuary temporarily widens and channel depths in this
area vary from 2 to 7 m. Further south, the channel shallows (1–
2 m) and narrows progressively headwards. Mangrove swamps are
present in narrower creek areas. The sediments of this zone are
mainly mud and sandy mud. Samples collected from this zone have
mud contents of between 52 and 99% with peak values at the head
of the estuary. Mud content is also high in the mangrove-sheltered
intertidal flats of Otara and Otahuhu Creeks. Organic matter con-
tent is between 5 and 19% and high especially in the sheltered areas
containing root and debris from the mangroves. Carbonate content
decreases gradually headwards from 7 to 0% in this zone.
3. Comparison with estuarine facies model
Sediment distribution and morphology of Tamaki Estuary
indicate that it does not conform to either the wave-dominated or
tide-dominated estuary types of Dalrymple et al. (1992). According
to Dalrymple et al. (1992) wave-dominated estuaries are charac-
terized by a barrier in their seaward parts, a central basin and a bay-
head delta in the landward zone, with the result that sediment
distributions are, respectively, coarse-fine-coarse. Although Tamaki
Estuary has a sandspit barrier in the seaward zone with coarse
fraction sediments, the lack of a central basin with its fine fraction
sediments and the absence of a coarse sediment bay-head delta
distinguish it from the classical wave-dominated type. Tide-domi-
nated estuaries are usually funnel-shaped with tidal sand bars and
tidal fluvial channels. While Tamaki Estuary has this funnel shape,
elongated sand bars are poorly developed and it lacks upper flow
regime tidal flats that typify the central zone of tide-dominated
systems. Instead, the mid-estuary reach of Tamaki is a 150-m wide
constriction near Panmure that limits deposition to narrow tidal
flats. In view of these observations, the mixed features of the
Tamaki Estuary may find further explanation in the antecedent
topography and its evolutionary history as recorded in subsurface
deposits.
4. Materials and methods
Multiproxy analyses were carried out on vibracores of sub-
surface deposits collected along the tidal flats of the Tamaki Estu-
ary. Six vibracores ranging between 3 and 6 m in length and 36
surface samples were taken from the lower, middle and upper
136 G.M.S. Abrahim et al. / Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 79 (2008) 133–142

estuary (Fig. 1). In the laboratory, cores were split, visually logged age of 7700  270 yr BP on plant debris. The blue-grey muds of
and quantitatively analysed for sediment texture, composition and Facies 1 may therefore represent either a weathering product of
burrow traces. Grain size variation and mud percentage of 174 Waitemata Group strata or early Holocene sedimentation in a low
sediment samples were measured using a Galai CIS-100 compu- energy, non-estuarine environment.
terised grain size analysis system. Organic matter content was
determined using the percent weight Loss on Ignition (LOI) method 5.2. Facies 2
(Stewart, 1989). Seven selected shell samples were submitted for
radiocarbon (C14) activity by radiometric analysis at the University This facies consists of greenish black to dark greenish grey,
of Waikato. Radiocarbon dates were calibrated following the poorly to moderately sorted, fine to medium sand with mud. Shell
method of Stuiver and Reimer (1993) and Stuiver and Braziunas and shell hash are common. The facies ranges in thickness from 40
(1993) and are listed in Table 1. to 100 cm and occurs only in the middle estuary zone where
X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) analyses were conducted using a Philips marine and fluvial sand sources are equally distal. A basaltic ash
PW 1840 diffractometer employing monochromated Cuka radia- layer (4-cm thick) of unknown age was recovered at a depth of
tion generated at 40 kV and 50 mA and a Philips PW 1729 X-ray 192 cm within this facies in core TE-3. The ash layer occurs 50 cm
generator in the Department of Geology, Auckland University. below a shell layer which yielded an uncalibrated radiocarbon age
Sediment samples (56) were dried and then ground into a powder. of 5830  160 yr BP (Wk 7826). This facies is interpreted as a tidal
The powder was back packed into standard aluminium holders and channel deposit on the basis of the dominantly sandy texture and
scanned for 2–62 2-Theta for 20 min. The quartz/feldspar ratio was preservation of shell hash, the latter a characteristic product of
based on XRD intensities measured at 4.26 Å (quartz) and 3.19 and sorting along a tidal channel floor.
3.21 Å (feldspar) (Moros et al., 2004).
5.3. Facies 2a
5. Lithofacies properties and interpretation
This is a local variant and is only present in the basal interval of
The postglacial valley fill sediments of Tamaki Estuary consist of core TE-9. It consists of 130 cm thick beds of sandy mud, muddy
seven lithofacies, defined on the basis of sediment texture, colour, sand and mud with scattered wood pieces and fine organic lami-
shell material, organic content, contact relationships and archi- nations. The lower contact of this lithofacies is sharp and is
tecture, as follows (Fig. 2a, b). underlain by a peat layer. The relatively high organic matter
content, wood pieces and the fine grained texture of the sediment
5.1. Facies 1 suggest a low energy, shallow to marginal tidal channel environ-
ment influenced by contributions from local vegetation and fluvial
This facies consists of dense blue-grey, inorganic mud that is processes.
massive and devoid of macrofossils. It occurs at depths ranging
between 2.5 and 6.7 m. These depth variations likely reflect the 5.4. Facies 3
irregular, old topographic surface of the estuary. In core TE-2
(Fig. 3a), the contact between this facies and the overlying unit This facies is found in all the recovered cores except core TE-2. It
suggests erosional processes with fragments of the lower lighter- consists of medium to dark grey sandy mud alternating with dark
coloured facies reworked within the overlying sediment, recog- grey muddy sand. Shell fragments are common either as distinct
nized as rip-up clasts. This suggests erosion and possible scouring horizons or scattered throughout the unit. Shell material (Austro-
along the contact. Similar deposits have been described from other venus stutchburyi) sampled from cores TE-1, TE-3, TE-7 and TE-9 at
parts of the Auckland region. In particular, Newnham and Lowe depths ranging from 137 to 520 cm gave uncalibrated radiocarbon
(1991) described pale grey inorganic mud deposits (dated at ca ages ranging from 5830  160 to 7490  200 yr BP (Table 1, Fig. 2a).
10,800  260 yr BP and located 5 km from Tamaki Estuary) that are X-Radiography of the basal part of this facies in TE-1 shows it to be
devoid of any macroscopic plant remains and suggest they may be extensively bioturbated with vertical, circular burrows filled with
the result of weathering and reworking of underlying Waitemata pyrite. A rhyolitic ash layer is enclosed within this facies in cores TE-
Group sandstones and mudstones. Heap and Nichol (1997) also 1 and TE-7 and is recognized as the regional Tuhua tephra dated to
recorded similar sediments from the Weiti River Estuary and ca 6130 yr BP by Newnham and Lowe (1991).
interpreted them as lowstand to transgressive fluvial terrace de- The facies is consistent with shallow, subtidal to tidal marine
posits on the basis of weathering characteristics and a radiocarbon conditions as indicated by its muddy texture, shell content, bio-
turbation and stratigraphic position. Bioturbation in lower parts of
the deposit suggest relatively low energy conditions that changed
Table 1 gradually to shallow tidal deposits as reflected by the beds of artic-
Radiocarbon dating results obtained from shell material in cores recovered from
Tamaki Estuary. Laboratory codes from University of Waikato Radiocarbon Dating
ulated shell. Accumulation of these materials in distinct beds may be
laboratory. Conventional ages calibrated to one standard deviation using a delta-R the work of tides and locally generated waves. Further possibilities
value of 11 12 yr (regional average for NZ according to the Marine Reservoir include storm events or seasonal changes in discharge. An abun-
Correction Database, McFadgen and Manning, 1990; Higham and Hogg, 1995) dance of broken shell material in this facies of the upper estuary zone
Core Lab code Depth Material Conventional Calibrated suggests local reworking by tidal and/or fluvial processes.
(cm) C14 age (yr BP) C14 age (yr BP)
TE-1 Wk-6372 520 Austrovenus 7490  200 7760–8150 5.5. Facies 4
stutchburyi
TE-2 Wk-7051 660 Maoricolpus 4670  200 4650–5250 This facies is composed of greenish black, fine to medium sand
roseus
TE-2 Wk-7053 570 Dosina 4060  110 3950–4260
with abundant black organic detritus and wood fragments. It occurs
zealandica only in cores TE-3 and TE-4, and varies in thickness from 75 to
TE-3 Wk-7826 140 A. stutchburyi 5830  160 6040–6420 350 cm. Other components include shell fragments and basaltic
TE-4 Wk-7827 100 A. stutchburyi 2030  130 1450–1770 pebbles. The sandy texture of the sediments, the presence of
TE-7 Wk-7943 160 A. stutchburyi 7350  130 7680–7940
organic detritus, wood fragments, basaltic chips and the near ab-
TE-9 Wk-9557 367 A. stutchburyi 6494  114 6870–7160
sence of bioturbation suggest high energy conditions. Rare burrows
 G.M.S. Abrahim et al. / Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 79 (2008) 133–142 137

Fig. 2. (A) Stratigraphy of Tamaki Estuary cores TE-1, TE-2, TE-3, TE-4, TE-7 and TE-9. (B) Sedimentary facies of Tamaki Estuary infill, based on six vibracores collected along the
valley axis. HST ¼ Highstand Systems Tract (F4, F5, F6, F7), TST ¼ Transgressive Systems Tract (F2, F2a, F3), LST ¼ Lowstand Systems Tract (F1).

in this facies may be indicative of high sediment accumulation
rates, with its sandy character making sediments unfavorable to
infaunal burrowers (Shanmugam et al., 2000). These characteristics
are consistent with tidal current deposition, possibly within a sand
bar (note that the zone from which both TE-3 and TE-4 were
recovered represents a contemporary sand bar).
5.6. Facies 5
This dark grey muddy sand facies occurs in all the cores. It is
dominated by fine sand with mud, and fine organic laminations and
shell are common. The thickness of this facies decreases headwards
from 630 to 160 cm and in all cores it has a coarsening upward
trend, along with an increased shell concentration (cores TE-1 and
TE-4), while organic materials and charcoal increase in cores TE-2,
TE-7 and TE-9. In core TE-2, the lower part of Facies 5 consists of
medium grey sandy muds and muddy sands that unconformably
overlie Facies 1 with rip-up clasts from the underlying pre-
Holocene blue-grey muds (Fig. 3a). An uncalibrated radiocarbon
age of 2030  130 yr BP (Wk7827) was obtained from a shell of
Austrovenus stutchburyi recovered from 100 cm in TE-4. Abundant
shells of the gastropod Maoricolpus roseus and the bivalve Dosinia
138 G.M.S. Abrahim et al. / Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 79 (2008) 133–142
Fig. 3. (A) Photograph of core TE-2 showing erosion contact between pre-Holocene blue-grey muds (F1) and the overlying muddy sands (F5) containing rip-up clast of F1 muds. (B)
Bioturbated bed of vertical and horizontal circular burrows from core TE-1.
zealandica are present throughout the facies. A specimen of the
latter (at a depth 570 cm) yielded an uncalibrated radiocarbon age
of 4060  110 yr BP (Wk 7053). In the same core, a bed of muddy
peat with a shelly horizon dominated by M. roseus 660-cm depth
gave an uncalibrated radiocarbon age of 4670  200 yr BP (Wk
7051). In core TE-1 this facies is extensively bioturbated with ver-
tical and horizontal cylindrical burrows (Fig. 3b). The burrows are
filled with relatively coarse sand suggesting crustacean dwelling
burrows.
The presence of rip-up mud clasts derived from underlying pre-
Holocene sediments indicate scouring of channel bed sediments
under high energy conditions. The preservation of abundant shell
fragments and burrows throughout the overlying Facies 5 sedi-
ments suggest that shallow, subtidal conditions prevailed after this
initial erosive period. The mud-rich fine sands in this facies indicate
low and gradual sand supply contemporaneous with settling
conditions of suspended materials (fine sand and mud). Lateral
variations in thickness and lithology and vertical changes in grain
size may indicate shifting in the main channel or accreting banks
associated with channel migration.
5.7. Facies 6
This facies is made up of fine to very fine, well-sorted dark
greenish sand. Mean grain size increases seawards towards the
lower estuary zone. Facies 6 forms the surface deposit in cores TE-1,
TE-2, TE-3, and TE-4 and its thickness varies from 30 to 60 cm.
Contact with underlying facies is gradual. Shells and shell frag-
ments are common and occur as distinct layers of Austrovenus
stutchburyi and rare specimens of the gastropod Zeacumantus
lutulentus. The organic content in this facies is invariably low. This
facies is interpreted as a capping facies in the lower and middle
estuary zones and therefore represents sediment deposition under
contemporary tidal flat conditions.
5.8. Facies 7
This facies is sampled only in cores TE-7 and TE-9 from the
upper reaches of the estuary, where its thickness varies from 40 to
45 cm. It consists of brown sandy mud to muddy sand. Sand grains
are poorly sorted and sub-rounded. Bioturbation is common. A
shell layer of Austrovenus stutchburyi caps this facies in core TE-7. It
represents the present day relatively low energy interaction
between marine and fluvial conditions and is distinguished from
Facies 6 by relatively high mud content.
6. Sequence stratigraphic interpretation
Lateral and vertical relationships of the Tamaki valley fill sedi-
ments have been established on the basis of: (1) detailed lithologic
description and facies characterization of the recovered cores; (2)
mineralogy and macro- and microfaunal content; and (3) relative
age determinations using pollen, radiocarbon ages and tephra
chronology. This data framework is used to assign a sequence
stratigraphic nomenclature to the Tamaki facies succession and
thereby establish relationships between facies development and
local sea-level history.
6.1. Lowstand System Tract (LST)
Sediments of Facies 1 are assigned to this tract. There is a clear
contrast between these sediments and the overlying materials in
terms of colour, texture, bedding, sedimentary structures, miner-
alogy and plasticity. This leads to the inference that Facies 1 sedi-
ments are pre-Holocene deposits. The absence of shell material
suggests that a non-marine depositional environment existed prior
to marine transgression of the valley. This is supported by paly-
nological data from a 10-cm thick peat bed at the base of TE-9 from
the upper estuary that indicates a mixture of terrestrial forest and
 G.M.S. Abrahim et al. / Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 79 (2008) 133–142 139

fern-rich local flora (Abrahim, 2005). The peat likely formed in
a shallow swamp or depression that flanked the palaeo-Tamaki
River but was later river-incised during either a relative drop in sea-
level or channel migration, as evidenced by a mixed deposit of
organic matter and sand above the peat layer. In either scenario,
deposition of the peat and weathering of clay required a low sea-
level and a degree of subaerial exposure.
6.2. Transgressive System Tract (TST)
The surface separating the pre-Holocene sediments from the
overlying facies succession forms the base of the TST. Sediments of
this stage consist of sandy mud with shell material in the lower
estuary and mud to muddy sand with thin peat layers in the upper
estuary. The uppermost estuary is considered to reflect the
interplay between tidal and fluvial influenced processes. The depth
of this basal surface varies within the valley fill due to differential
erosion of pre-Holocene deposits as well as inferred variable sedi-
mentation rates.
At the estuary mouth, pre-Holocene mud was not recovered in
core TE-1. A radiocarbon age of 7490  200 yr BP from shell at the
lower part of the core suggests that transgression had reached this
part of the estuary at a time consistent with known sea-level
history (Gibb, 1986). In the middle estuary zone, core TE-7
encountered the underlying pre-Holocene mud. The overlying
valley fill sediments in this part of the estuary consist of fine
materials such as muddy fine sand with a sharp upward decline in
carbonate content and bioturbation. Headwards in the estuary, core
TE-9 did not penetrate pre-Holocene sediments but here a peat
layer is present at the core base.
capped by a regressive sand deposit containing shell material and
shell layers.
7. Sediment mineralogy
XRD analysis shows that quartz and feldspar are the major
components of the estuarine sediments. Quartz proportions range
from 37 to 96%. Feldspars are represented mostly by the plagioclase
group and in bulk samples range from 5 to 41%. The high quartz
content in Tamaki Estuary sediments can be traced to local sources
of rhyolitic tephra around the Waitemata Harbour and in cliffs
alongside the estuary. Petrographic analysis of the sand fraction
shows that quartz grains are mostly clear or translucent white and
mainly sub-angular to sub-rounded or well rounded with relatively
smooth surfaces indicating long transportation. Occasional euhe-
dral bipyramid quartz grains are consistent with an acidic volcanic
source (Fig. 4). Other components include white to grey feldspars,
lithic fragments and minor (w2% wt) heavy minerals, notably
orthopyroxene, magnetite, olivine and amphibole.
8. Quartz/feldspar ratio (Q/F)
In general terms, as weathering proceeds, the ratio of the
weathering-resistant quartz to less resistant feldspar within any
particular size fraction will increase. Hence the magnitude of the
quartz/feldspar ratio should increase from the lower to the upper
horizons of any normal shallowing-upward siliciclastic succession

6.3. Highstand System Tract (HST)

The Maximum Flooding Surface (MFS) separating the TST and

the overlying HST is indicated on the basis of changes in sediment
texture, facies geometry and radiocarbon age. These three proper-
ties mark a turn-around from transgression to regression.
In core TE-2, recovered from the funnel zone of the estuary,
a sharp lithologic change separates pre-Holocene mud from shelly
sands (Facies 3) with localized mixed layers of peat and muddy
sand. Shell radiocarbon ages range from 4670  200 yr BP just
above the basal contact to 4060  110 yr BP for a capping shell layer.
This age range postdates the accepted age of ca 6500 yr BP for
stillstand on the New Zealand coast (Gibb, 1986), and as a conse-
quence the age data and erosional contact suggest a loss of sedi-
mentary record in this part of estuary (in vicinity of core TE-2)
representing at least 2000 years. This time gap may well reflect the
location of core TE-2 in a former area of channel meander in which
erosional processes were active. Following this break in the record
the thick (660 cm) Holocene succession deposited since
4670  200 yr BP indicates a relatively high sedimentation rate in
this part of the estuary. In core TE-4, HST sediments are represented
by a tidal sand bar (Facies 4) on the western side of the estuary near
the Panmure Basin (Fig. 1 for location). This unit, which is around
350-cm thick, consists of cross-bedded medium to fine sands
alternating with thinner muddy sands.
Similar HST tidal bars are found in the funnel part of the estuary.
They form linear to elongate sand bodies a few metres in width and
several tens of metres long. In the headward reaches of the estuary
(core TE-9), the HST is represented by facies 7 and 5, which are
regressive fluvial influenced sands. The whole section comprises
alternations of thin mud, sandy mud and muddy sand. These
deposits are suggestive of storm deposits following erosion in the
catchment area and subsequent river channel deposition of mixed
siliciclastic materials during high rainfall events. In the lower and Fig. 4. SEM micrograph of sand grains from the Tamaki Estuary: (A) Bipyramid quartz
middle parts of the estuary, the entire estuarine succession is grains from core TE-3; (B) well rounded quartz grain from core TE-1.
140 G.M.S. Abrahim et al. / Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 79 (2008) 133–142

(Ellis and Mellor, 1995). Quartz-rich sands are indicative of a higher
energy environment in which both mechanical abrasion and
chemical weathering are high (Brewer, 1976; Marshall, 1977; Santos
et al., 1986). Assuming a single sediment source, differential
weathering between the two minerals makes it possible to use the
Q/F ratio as an indicator of the direction of net sediment transport
(Healy and Dell, 1982; Hamill and Ballance, 1985). Higher Q/F ratios
in sediments may also be interpreted as indicative of extensive
reworking and re-deposition (Ruhe, 1956).
In Tamaki Estuary sediments the average Q/F ratio increases
upward across the system tracts (Table 2). Thus, within Facies F1
(LST) the average Q/F ratio is 1.2, increasing to 3.0 in Facies F2–F2a–
F3 (TST) and to 4.0 in Facies F4–F5–F6–F7 (HST). Table 2 indicates
variability in Q/F ratios for TST and HST conditions and this is linked
to variability in depositional and sediment reworking processes
characteristic of estuarine environments (Dalrymple et al., 1992).
Nevertheless, the average values indicate that the lower layers of
these sediments are richer in feldspar compared to upper layers.
The vertical increase in Q/F ratios in Tamaki Estuary sediments is
considered to reflect several factors, as follows:
1. Provenance: the original Tamaki valley fill sediment was rich in
feldspar derived from the nearby basaltic rocks of the Auckland
Volcanic Field;
2. Climate: the climate was cooler and drier before 5000 yr BP
(Newnham et al., 1993; Elliot et al., 1995). Cool and dry weather
discourages the chemical weathering of feldspar to clay min-
erals (Muhs et al., 2001; Kuhn and Diekmann, 2002; Andersson
and Worden, 2006);
3. Sedimentation rate: in the undisturbed sediment succession of
Tamaki Estuary, the accumulation rate was higher after the
rapid rise in the sea-level about 10,000 yr BP (Abrahim, 2005).
With high sedimentation rates feldspar-rich sediments are
covered more quickly and hence are isolated from weathering
processes and mineral breakdown. Depending on sample
depth, the Q/F distribution reflects a decrease in the intensity of
mineral alteration as depth increases and TST and LST condi-
tions prevail.
9. Discussion
a central basin facies. This is attributed to the restricted form of the
incised valley within which Tamaki Estuary has formed during the
Holocene transgression and highstand. As such, Tamaki Estuary
may therefore be classified as a mixed-energy estuary, being nei-
ther fully wave-dominated nor tide-dominated (sensu Dalrymple
et al., 1992) but having elements of each. In particular, the sandspit
at the estuary mouth is consistent with a wave-dominated estuary
and the linear bars along the main channel are features reflecting
localized tide-dominance. As a result, muddy sediments that in
a wave-dominated estuary would accumulate in the central basin
have been forced into tidal flats along the estuary margins.
This contrast between Tamaki Estuary and the facies model is
not unique, having been reported for other estuaries in New Zea-
land. For example, Heap and Nichol (1997) and Kennedy et al.
(2008) describe estuaries (Weiti River and Whanganui Inlet,
respectively) where the combination of high sedimentation rates
and shallow valley form is recognized as the limiting factor on
development of a low energy central basin. Similarly, Wilson et al.
(2007) report poor preservation of central basin deposits for the
narrow Pakarae River Estuary located on the tectonically active east
coast of North Island. In this case, coseismic uplift is recognized as
a trigger for rapid fluvial progradation into the Pakarae Estuary and
truncation of central basin deposits in the stratigraphic record
(Wilson et al., 2007). Together, these studies show that central
basin development and preservation is particularly sensitive to the
combined effects of allocyclic controls such as accommodation
space, tectonism and sedimentation rates. These are factors that
have only recently been explicitly recognized for incised valley
estuarine models (Boyd et al., 2006) and deserve further attention.
One possible consequence of the morphological control on
facies development in the Tamaki Estuary has been the degree of
weathering of mineral sands within the system, as recorded in Q/F
ratios. These results show clear differences between sands from
lowstand, transgressive and highstand deposits, with a trend
towards higher quartz content for each successive systems tract. In
terms of environmental processes, this suggests multiple cycles of
sediment reworking to produce the quartz-rich highstand facies.
We postulate that this degree of reworking is due to the strongly
channelised form of Tamaki Estuary at highstand. However, this
hypothesis requires further testing using Q/F ratios from a range of
deposits in other estuarine systems.

The facies succession preserved within the Tamaki Estuary is 10. Conclusions
broadly consistent with the facies model for wave-dominated
estuaries proposed by Dalrymple et al. (1992) and the sequence 1. Surface sediments of Tamaki Estuary exhibit mixed character-
stratigraphic model for the middle portion (segment 2) of an istics common to both wave- and tide-dominated estuary
incised valley system (Zaitlin et al., 1994). Thus, we recognise types. The Tahuna Torea sandspit forms a conspicuous feature
lowstand (pre-Holocene), transgressive and highstand deposits of the seaward mouth zone and is consistent with the barrier of
that vary in facies character along the estuary in accord with spatial a wave-dominated estuary, but the Tamaki system lacks a cen-
variations in sediment source and transport mechanisms. However, tral basin with its fine fraction sediments and a bay-head delta.
the Tamaki system differs from the idealised case for a wave- Instead, this system has the usual funnel shape and elongated
dominated incised valley system in one main regard; the absence of tidal sand bars that are characteristic of tide-dominated
estuaries.
Table 2 2. A key control on facies form and distribution in Tamaki Estuary
Quartz/Feldspar ratios for constituent facies of the Tamaki Estuary valley fill is the overall valley shape. In particular, the constriction in the
middle reaches of the valley has prevented the formation of
Facies core F1 F2 F2a F3 F4 F5 F6 F7
a low energy central basin and forced coarser sediment to be
TE-1 – – – 2.6 – 4 5.3 –
TE-2 1.4 – – – – 3 4 –
deposited along the valley sides as tidal point bars while finer
TE-3 1.3 2.4 – 3 8.2 4 2 – material is found on lateral mud flats and is concentrated
TE-4 – 2.5 – 2.4 4 3 2 – towards the head of estuary.
TE-7 0.9 1.6 – 6.1 – 6 – 1.5 3. The vertical facies succession in Tamaki Estuary is dominated
TE-9 – – 3.0 5.5 – 7.7 – 2
by transgressive sandy mud to muddy sand that is in erosive
Average of each facies 1.2 2.1 3.0 3.9 6.1 4.6 3.3 1.8 contact with pre-Holocene deposits. This transgressive phase is
Average of each system 1.2 3.0 4.0 noted for the interplay between marine and fluvially influ-
enced conditions as evidenced by interbeds of sand and mud
Systems tract LST TST HST
and numerous shell lags giving a record of channel activity.
 G.M.S. Abrahim et al. / Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 79 (2008) 133–142
Highstand deposition has advanced the estuary to a state of
near-complete infilling and partitioning of sediments between:
(1) sand-dominated channels and bars and (2) muddy sands
and muds on tidal flats and associated mangrove stands.
4. Average quartz/feldspar ratios increase from 1.2 in LST sedi-
ments to 3.0 in TST sediments and to 4.0 in the HST. These
variations suggest the possibility of using Q/F ratios as a proxy
to identify and distinguish different depositional system tracts
in siliciclastic sequences.
Acknowledgments
This paper is based on the doctoral research project by Ghada
M.S. Abrahim carried out in the Geology Department, University of
Auckland. The authors wish to thank Peter Balance, Fadhil Sadooni
and David Jenkinson for their assistance in the field. In addition, we
wish to acknowledge and thank Jack Grant-Mackie (mollusc iden-
tification), Peter Crossley (grain size analysis), and Svetlana Dan-
ilova (XRD analysis). Adnan Aqrawi (StatOil Company) is thanked
for his valuable discussion and advice related to the XRD results.
Finally the paper benefited from helpful and constructive review
comments by Andrew Heap and an anonymous reviewer.
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