TOPIC 3: DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

OBJECTIVES
1. Be able to determine the dimensions of physical quantities in
terms of fundamental dimensions.

2. Understand the Principle of Dimensional Homogeneity and

its use in checking equations and reducing physical problems.

3. Be able to carry out a formal dimensional analysis using

Buckingham’s Pi Theorem.

4. Understand the requirements of physical modelling and its

limitations.
 WHAT IS “DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS”?

Dimensional analysis …

… is a means of simplifying a physical problem …

… by appealing to dimensional homogeneity to reduce

the number of relevant variables.
DIMENSIONAL HOMOGENEITY

12 m + 25 m = 37 m
L L

12 m + 25 mm = 12.025 m
L L (or 12025 mm)

12 m + 25 kg meaningless!
L M
DIMENSIONAL HOMOGENEITY

2000 kg + 2 m3 meaningless!
M L3

2000 kg ÷ 2 m3 = 1000 kg m−3

M L3

4.5 N × 2 m = 9 N m (J)
F L
MLT-2
 USES OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

• Checking equations

• Presenting and interpreting experimental data

• Attacking problems not amenable to a direct theoretical

solution

• Establishing the relative importance of particular physical

phenomena

• Physical modelling
 CHECKING EQUATIONS
1 3
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡
2
L (LT-1)T (LT-2)T3
L LT

1 2
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡
2
L (LT-1)T (LT-2)T2
L L

1
What about 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 ?
2
 CHECKING EQUATIONS:
Unit-Dependent Equations
1 2
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡
2
This equation is true for all constant-acceleration motion

𝑢 = 2.5 m s −1

𝑎 = 9.81 m s−2
𝑠 = 2.5𝑡 + 4.905𝑡 2
This equation is only correct if 𝑠 is in metres and 𝑡 is in seconds ...
... and you ought to say that!
 USES OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

• Checking equations

• Presenting and interpreting experimental data

• Attacking problems not amenable to a direct theoretical

solution

• Establishing the relative importance of particular physical

phenomena

• Physical modelling
 USES OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

• Checking equations

• Presenting and interpreting experimental data

• Attacking problems not amenable to a direct theoretical

solution

• Establishing the relative importance of particular physical

phenomena

• Physical modelling
 REDUCED VARIABLES:
Force on a Sphere in a Crossflow
Drag force 𝐹 depends on:
approach-flow speed 𝑈 U
D
F

sphere diameter 𝐷 , 
density 𝜌
viscosity 𝜇 𝐹~𝑈, 𝐷, 𝜌, 𝜇

5 variables ... ... but 3 constraints (M, L, T)

 only 2 independent dimensionless groups ...
... most naturally taken as
𝐹 π𝐷2
𝑐𝐷 ≡ (𝐴 = )
1 2 4
𝜌𝑈 𝐴
2 𝑐𝐷 = 𝑓(Re)
𝜌𝑈𝐷
Re ≡
𝜇
 REDUCED VARIABLES:
Force on a Sphere in a Crossflow

(From Schlichting, H., Boundary-Layer Theory)

 USES OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

• Checking equations

• Presenting and interpreting experimental data

• Attacking problems not amenable to a direct theoretical

solution

• Establishing the relative importance of particular physical

phenomena

• Physical modelling
RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF PHYSICAL PHENOMENA

𝜌𝑈𝐿 mass × acceleration sum of all forces

Re = =
𝜇 viscous force

If the Reynolds number is large ... then viscosity is likely to

be unimportant.
 USES OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

• Checking equations

• Presenting and interpreting experimental data

• Attacking problems not amenable to a direct theoretical

solution

• Establishing the relative importance of particular physical

phenomena

• Physical modelling
 PHYSICAL MODELLING

Side weir, Valehouse reservoir

1/100 - scale model tested in the Pariser Hydraulics Lab

Maximum flow capacity in the laboratory: 1 L s-1

What is the maximum flow capacity at full scale? 100000 L s-1
 DIMENSIONS AND UNITS

A dimension is the type of a physical quantity.

A unit is a means of assigning a numerical value to that quantity.

250 mm = 0.25 m

Same quantity (a length).

Different numbers (because different units).
PRIMARY (OR FUNDAMENTAL) DIMENSIONS

Mass M (kilogram, kg)

Length L (metre, m)
Time T (second, s)

Temperature Θ (kelvin, K)

Electric current I (ampere, A)

Luminous intensity C (candela, cd)
Amount of substance n (mole, mol)
 DERIVED DIMENSIONS
Quantity Symbol Dimensions
Area 𝐴 L2
Geometry Volume 𝑉 L3
Second moment of area 𝐼 L4
Velocity 𝑈 LT–1
Acceleration 𝑎 LT–2
Angle 𝜃 1
Kinematics
Angular velocity 𝜔 T–1
Volume flow rate 𝑄 L3T–1
Mass flow rate 𝑚ሶ MT–1
Force 𝐹 MLT–2
Moment, torque 𝑇 ML2T–2
Dynamics Energy, work, heat 𝐸, 𝑊 ML2T–2
Power 𝑃 ML2T–3
Pressure, stress 𝑝, 𝜏 ML–1T–2
Density 𝜌 ML–3
Viscosity 𝜇 ML–1T–1
Kinematic viscosity 𝜈 L2T–1
Fluid properties Surface tension 𝜎 MT–2
Thermal conductivity 𝑘 MLT–3Θ–1
Specific heat 𝑐𝑝, 𝑐𝑣 L2T–2Θ–1
Bulk modulus 𝐾 ML–1T–2
 METHODS FOR WORKING OUT DIMENSIONS

1. From a basic definition

d𝑈
e.g. 𝜇 in 𝜏 = 𝜇 (stress = viscosity × velocity gradient)
d𝑦

2. From a formula involving that quantity

𝜌𝑈𝐿
e.g. 𝜇 in Re = (Reynolds number)
𝜇
ALTERNATIVE CHOICES FOR PRIMARY DIMENSIONS

Example
Find the dimensions of 𝜇 in the {FLT} rather than
the {MLT} system.
THE PRINCIPLE OF DIMENSIONAL HOMOGENEITY

All additive terms in a physical equation must

have the same dimensions.
 BUCKINGHAM’S PI THEOREM

(1) If a problem involves:

𝑛 relevant variables
𝑚 independent dimensions
then it can be reduced to a relationship between
𝑛 − 𝑚 non-dimensional parameters Π1 ,..., Π𝑛−𝑚 .

(2) To construct these non-dimensional 𝚷 groups:

(i) Choose 𝑚 dimensionally-distinct scaling variables.
(ii) For each of the 𝑛 − 𝑚 remaining variables construct a
non-dimensional Π of the form
Π = (variable)(scale1 )𝑎 (scale2 )𝑏 (scale3 )𝑐 ⋯
where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, ... are chosen so as to make each Π non-
dimensional.
 EXAMPLE

Obtain an expression in non-dimensional form for

the pressure gradient in a horizontal pipe of circular
cross-section.

Show how this relates to the expression for frictional

head loss.
 EXAMPLE

The tip deflection, 𝛿, of a cantilever beam is a

function of tip load, 𝑊, beam length, 𝑙, second
moment of area, 𝐼, and Young’s modulus, 𝐸.

Perform a dimensional analysis of this problem.

 EXAMPLE SHEET

Use dimensional analysis to investigate how the

capillary rise, ℎ, of a liquid in a tube varies with
tube diameter, 𝑑, gravity, 𝑔, fluid density, 𝜌,
surface tension, 𝜎, and contact angle, 𝜃.
Variable Dimension # variables: 𝑛=6
ℎ L # independent dimensions: 𝑚 = 3 (M, L, T)
𝑑 L # dimensionless groups: 𝑛−𝑚 =3
𝑔 LT −2
ρ ML−3 Choose 𝑚 = 3 dimensional scales: 𝑑, 𝑔, 𝜌
𝜎 MT −2 Non-dimensionalise other variables: ℎ, 𝜎, 𝜃
𝜃 1
ℎ
Π1 = Π3 = 𝜃
𝑑

Π2 = 𝜎𝑑𝑎 𝑔𝑏 𝜌𝑐
M0 L0 T 0 = MT −2 L𝑎 (LT −2 )𝑏 (ML−3 )𝑐
M: 0 = 1 + 𝑐 ⇒ 𝑐 = −1
T: 0 = −2 − 2𝑏 ⇒ 𝑏 = −1
L: 0 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 3𝑐 ⇒ 𝑎 = −2
𝜎
−2
Π2 = 𝜎𝑑 𝑔 𝜌 −1 −1 =
𝜌𝑔𝑑 2
 ℎ 𝜎
Π1 = Π2 = Π3 = 𝜃
𝑑 𝜌𝑔𝑑 2

ℎ 𝜎
=𝑓 2
,𝜃
𝑑 𝜌𝑔𝑑

4𝜎 cos 𝜃
Balancing forces: ℎ=
𝜌𝑔𝑑
ℎ 𝜎
=4× 2
× cos 𝜃
𝑑 𝜌𝑔𝑑
Π1 = 4Π2 cos Π3
 EXAMPLE SHEET

Find an expression for the rate of flow, 𝑄, over a

weir if it is assumed to be proportional to the
width of the weir, 𝑏, and is a function of the
upstream freeboard (i.e., height above the
crest), 𝐻, and gravitational acceleration, 𝑔.
Variable Dimension # variables: 𝑛=3
𝑄/𝑏 L2 T −1 # independent dimensions: 𝑚 = 2 (L, T)
𝐻 L # dimensionless groups: 𝑛−𝑚 =1
𝑔 LT −2
Choose 𝑚 = 2 dimensional scales: 𝐻, 𝑔
Non-dimensionalise other variable: 𝑄/𝑏

Π1 = (𝑄/𝑏)𝐻 𝛼 𝑔𝛽
L0 T 0 = L2 T −1 L𝛼 (LT −2 )𝛽
T: 0 = −1 − 2𝛽 ⇒ 𝛽 = −1/2
L: 0 = 2 + 𝛼 + 𝛽 ⇒ 𝛼 = −3/2

−3/2 −1/2 𝑄
Π1 = (𝑄/𝑏)𝐻 𝑔 =
𝑏 𝑔𝐻 3
 𝑄
Π1 = = constant, 𝐶
𝑏 𝑔𝐻 3

𝑄 = 𝐶𝑏 𝑔𝐻 3
 EXAMPLE SHEET

The period of oscillation, 𝑡, of a simple pendulum is assumed to

depend upon its length, 𝑙, bob mass, 𝑚, maximum displacement
angle, 𝜃max , and gravitational acceleration, 𝑔.

(a) Perform a dimensional analysis to establish how 𝑡 varies with

these parameters.

(b) If the period of oscillation for a given pendulum on earth is 3 s,

what will it be (for the same amplitude oscillations) on the
moon (𝑔 = 1.62 m s −2 )?

(c) What other parameters do you think 𝑡 might depend upon

(weakly) in practice?
Variable Dimension # variables: 𝑛=5
𝑡 T # independent dimensions: 𝑚 = 3 (M, L, T)
𝑙 L # dimensionless groups: 𝑛−𝑚 =2
𝑚 M
𝜃max Choose 𝑚 = 3 dimensional scales: 𝑙, 𝑔, 𝑚
1
𝑔 LT −2 Non-dimensionalise other variables: 𝑡, 𝜃max

Π1 = 𝑡𝑙𝑎 𝑔𝑏 𝑚𝑐 Π2 = 𝜃max
M0 L0 T 0 = TL𝑎 (LT −2 )𝑏 M 𝑐
M: 0 = 𝑐 ⇒𝑐=0
T: 0 = 1 − 2𝑏 ⇒ 𝑏 = 1/2
L: 0 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑎 = −1/2
𝑔
Π1 = 𝑡𝑙 −1/2 𝑔1/2 =𝑡
𝑙
 𝑔
Π1 = 𝑡 Π2 = 𝜃max
𝑙

𝑔
𝑡 = 𝑓(𝜃max )
𝑙

𝑙 𝑙
Small-amplitude oscillation: 𝑡= 𝑓(0) =𝐶
𝑔 𝑔

Mechanics course: 𝐶 = 2π
(b) If the period of oscillation for a given pendulum on earth is 3 s,
what will it be (for the same amplitude oscillations) on the moon
(𝑔 = 1.62 m s−2 )?

𝑔
Π1 = 𝑡 Π2 = 𝜃max Π1 = 𝑓 Π2
𝑙

For the same amplitude oscillation 𝜃max :

𝑔 𝑔
𝑡 = 𝑡
𝑙 𝑙
moon earth

𝑙 is the same (same pendulum):

𝑔earth 9.81
𝑡moon =𝑡 =3 = 7.38 s
𝑔moon 1.62
 PHYSICAL MODELLING

Perform experiments at one scale ... in order to deduce

results at another.

Laboratory-scale model ... of a full-scale prototype

 COMPLETE DYNAMICAL SIMILARITY

All (relevant) dimensionless groups must be the

same in model and prototype.

Π1 model = Π1 prototype
Π2 model = Π2 prototype
...
 EXAMPLE
A prototype gate valve which will control the flow in a conduit conveying paraffin is
to be studied in a model. List the significant variables on which the pressure drop
across the valve would depend. Perform dimensional analysis to obtain the relevant
non-dimensional groups.

A 1/5-scale model is built to determine the pressure drop across the valve with water
as the working fluid.

(a) For a particular opening, when the velocity of paraffin in the prototype is
3.0 m s–1 what should be the velocity of water in the model for dynamic
similarity?

(b) What is the ratio of the quantities of flow in prototype and model?

(c) Find the pressure drop in the prototype if it is 60 kPa in the model.

(The density and viscosity of paraffin are 800 kg m–3 and 0.002 kg m–1 s–1 respectively.
Take the kinematic viscosity of water as 1.010–6 m2 s–1).
Variable Dimension # variables: 𝑛=6
Δ𝑝 ML−1 T −2 # independent dimensions: 𝑚 = 3 (M, L, T)
ℎ L
# dimensionless groups: 𝑛−𝑚 =3
𝑑 L
𝑉 LT −1 Choose 𝑚 = 3 dimensional scales: 𝑑, 𝑉, 𝜌
𝜌 ML−3 Non-dimensionalise other variables: Δ𝑝, ℎ, 𝜇
𝜇 ML−1 T −1

Π1 = Δ𝑝𝑑 𝑎 𝑉 𝑏 𝜌𝑐 Π3 = 𝜇𝑑 𝑎 𝑉 𝑏 𝜌𝑐
M 0 L0 T 0 = ML−1 T −2 L𝑎 (LT −1 )𝑏 (ML−3 )𝑐 M 0 L0 T 0 = ML−1 T −1 L𝑎 (LT −1 )𝑏 (ML−3 )𝑐
M: 0 = 1 + 𝑐 ⇒ 𝑐 = −1 M: 0 = 1 + 𝑐 ⇒ 𝑐 = −1
T: 0 = −2 − 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑏 = −2 T: 0 = −1 − 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑏 = −1
L: 0 = −1 + 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 3𝑐 ⇒𝑎=0 L: 0 = −1 + 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 3𝑐 ⇒ 𝑎 = −1
Δ𝑝 𝜇
Π1 = Δ𝑝𝑉 −2 𝜌−1 = Π3 = 𝜇𝑑 −1 𝑉 −1 𝜌−1 =
𝜌𝑉 2 𝜌𝑉𝑑

1 𝜌𝑉𝑑
Replace Π3 by Π3′ = =
ℎ Π3 𝜇
Π2 =
𝑑
 A 1/5-scale model is built to determine the pressure drop across the valve with water as the
working fluid.
(a) For a particular opening, when the velocity of paraffin in the prototype is 3.0 m s–1 what
should be the velocity of water in the model for dynamic similarity?
(b) What is the ratio of the quantities of flow in prototype and model?
(c) Find the pressure drop in the prototype if it is 60 kPa in the model.
𝜌𝑝 = 800 kg m−3 𝜌𝑚 = 1000 kg m−3
𝜇𝑝 = 0.002 kg m−1 s−1 𝜈𝑚 = 1.0 × 10−6 m2 s −1 𝜈 = 𝜇/𝜌
length𝑚 1 Δ𝑝 ℎ 𝜌𝑉𝑑
= = 𝑓( , )
length𝑝 5 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑑 𝜇
Π1 Π2 Π3
𝜌𝑉𝑑 𝜌𝑉𝑑 Δ𝑝 Δ𝑝
(c) =
(a) = 𝜌𝑉 2 𝜌𝑉 2
𝜇 𝑝
𝜇 𝑚 𝑝 𝑚
2
𝑉𝑝 𝜇/𝜌 Δ𝑝 𝑝 𝜌𝑝 𝑉𝑝
𝑝 𝑑𝑚 0.002/800 1 =
= = × = 0.5 Δ𝑝 𝜌𝑚 𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑚 𝜇/𝜌 𝑚 𝑑𝑝 1.0 × 10−6 m2 s −1 5 𝑚
800
𝑉𝑝 1 = × 0.52
𝑉𝑚 = = × (3.0 m s−1 ) = 6.0 m s −1 1000
0.5 0.5
= 0.2
Δ𝑝 𝑝 = 0.2 × Δ𝑝 𝑚
(b) 𝑄𝑝 velocity × area 𝑝
= = 0.5 × 52 = 12.5 = 0.2 × (60 kPa)
𝑄𝑚 velocity × area 𝑚
= 12 kPa
 EXAMPLE SHEET
The safety of nuclear and chemical plants depends on the knowledge of the rise velocity of “slugs” of gas
in liquid-containing pipes. The rise velocity, 𝑈, of such bubbles is assumed to depend on pipe diameter,
𝐷, gravitational acceleration, 𝑔, liquid density, 𝜌, viscosity, 𝜇, and the surface tension, 𝜎.
(a) Use dimensional analysis to show that
Fr = 𝑓(Rb, Eo)
where
𝑈
Fr = Froude number
𝑔𝐷
𝜌 𝑔𝐷3
Rb = buoyancy Reynolds number
𝜇
𝜌𝑔𝐷2
Eo = Eötvös number
𝜎

(b) Use the figure below to deduce the rise velocity of gas bubbles in pipes of diameter 13 mm carrying
oil of density 950 kg m–3 , dynamic viscosity 0.022 Pa s and surface tension 0.0788 N m–1 .
0.4

0.35 Eo=80
Eo=40
0.3
Eo=20
0.25
Fr

0.2

0.15
Eo=10

0.1

0.05
Eo=5

0
1 10 100 1000 10000
Rb
Variable Dimension # variables: 𝑛=6
𝑈 LT −1 # independent dimensions: 𝑚 = 3 (M, L, T)
𝐷 L
𝑔 LT −2 # dimensionless groups: 𝑛−𝑚 =3
𝜌 ML−3
Choose 𝑚 = 3 dimensional scales: 𝐷, 𝑔, 𝜎
𝜇 ML−1 T −1
Non-dimensionalise other variables: 𝑈, 𝜇, 𝜌
𝜎 MT −2
Π1 = 𝑈𝐷𝑎 𝑔𝑏 𝜎 𝑐
M 0 L0 T 0 = LT −1 L𝑎 (LT −2 )𝑏 (MT −2 )𝑐
M: 0 = 𝑐 ⇒𝑐=0
T: 0 = −1 − 2𝑏 − 2𝑐 ⇒ 𝑏 = −1/2 Π3 = 𝜌𝐷𝑎 𝑔𝑏 𝜎 𝑐
L: 0 = 1 + 𝑎 + 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑎 = −1/2 M 0 L0 T 0 = ML−3 L𝑎 (LT −2 )𝑏 (MT −2 )𝑐
𝑈
Π1 = 𝑈𝐷−1/2 𝑔−1/2 = M: 0 = 1 + 𝑐 ⇒ 𝑐 = −1
𝑔𝐷
T: 0 = −2𝑏 − 2𝑐 ⇒𝑏=1
L: 0 = −3 + 𝑎 + 𝑏 ⇒𝑎=2
Π2 = 𝜇𝐷𝑎 𝑔𝑏 𝜎 𝑐
𝜌𝑔𝐷2
M 0 L0 T 0 = ML−1 T −1 L𝑎 (LT −2 )𝑏 (MT −2 )𝑐 Π3 = 𝜌𝐷 𝑔 𝜎2 1 −1
=
M: 0 = 1 + 𝑐 𝜎
⇒ 𝑐 = −1
T: 0 = −1 − 2𝑏 − 2𝑐 ⇒ 𝑏 = 1/2
L: 0 = −1 + 𝑎 + 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑎 = 1/2
Π2 = 𝜇𝐷1/2 𝑔1/2 𝜎 −1 = 𝜇 𝑔𝐷
𝜎
 𝑈 𝑈 𝜌 𝑔𝐷3 𝜌𝑔𝐷2
Π1 = Question requires: = 𝑓( , )
𝑔𝐷 𝑔𝐷 𝜇 𝜎

𝜇 𝑔𝐷
Π2 =
𝜎

𝜌𝑔𝐷2
Π3 =
𝜎
′
Π3 𝜌𝑔𝐷2 𝜎
Replace Π2 by Π2 = = ×
Π2 𝜎 𝜇 𝑔𝐷
𝜌𝑔1/2 𝐷3/2
=
𝜇
𝜌 𝑔𝐷3
=
𝜇

Π1 = 𝑓(Π2′ , Π3 )

𝑈 𝜌 𝑔𝐷3 𝜌𝑔𝐷2
= 𝑓( , )
𝑔𝐷 𝜇 𝜎
(b) Use the figure below to deduce the rise velocity of gas bubbles in pipes of diameter 13 mm carrying
oil of density 950 kg m–3 , dynamic viscosity 0.022 Pa s and surface tension 0.0788 N m–1 .
0.4

0.35 Eo=80
Eo=40 𝑈
0.3 Fr =
𝑔𝐷
Eo=20
0.25
𝜌 𝑔𝐷3
Rb =
Fr

0.2
𝜇
0.15
Eo=10 𝜌𝑔𝐷2
Eo =
0.1 𝜎
0.05
Eo=5

0
1 10 100 1000 10000
Rb

𝐷 = 0.013 m 𝜌 𝑔𝐷3 From graph: Fr = 0.265

Rb = = 200.5
𝜇
𝜌 = 950 kg m−3 𝑈 = Fr 𝑔𝐷
𝜌𝑔𝐷2 = 19.99
𝜇 = 0.022 Pa s Eo = = 0.265 × 9.81 × 0.013
𝜎
𝜎 = 0.0788 N m−1 = 0.095 m s−1
 INCOMPLETE DYNAMICAL SIMILARITY

Almost impossible to achieve complete similarity!!!

For hydraulic flows that are:

• driven by gravity (e.g. free-surface flows)
• fully turbulent (molecular viscosity unimportant)

𝑈
– maintain Froude number, Fr =
𝑔𝐿

𝜌𝑈𝐿 𝑈𝐿
– sacrifice Reynolds number, Re = =
𝜇 𝜈
 CONDITIONS FOR FROUDE SCALING

For free-surface flows driven by gravity, one can maintain Fr

but sacrifice Re provided:

• Model and prototype are both fully turbulent

– molecular viscosity has negligible effect

• Model and prototype are both hydraulically rough

– surface drag is form drag, not viscous drag
𝑘𝑠 𝑢𝜏
>5
𝜈
OTHER PROBLEMS WITH SCALE-SIMILARITY

• Surface finish (smooth; rough; erodible)

• Horizontal:vertical length scales (e.g. river modelling)

• Other fluid phenomena (e.g. surface tension)

 FROUDE SCALING
The Froude number is the same in model and prototype:

𝑈 𝑈
=
𝑔𝐿 𝑔𝐿
𝑚 𝑝

Scalings:
𝑈𝑚 𝐿𝑚
Velocity: =
𝑈𝑝 𝐿𝑝

5/2
𝑄𝑚 𝐿𝑚
Quantity of flow: =
𝑄𝑝 𝐿𝑝

3
𝐹𝑚 𝐿𝑚
Force: =
𝐹𝑝 𝐿𝑝

𝑡𝑚 𝐿𝑚
Time: =
𝑡𝑝 𝐿𝑝
 EXAMPLE
The force exerted on a bridge pier in a river is to be tested in a 1:10
scale model using water as the working fluid. In the prototype the
depth of water is 2.0 m, the velocity of flow is 1.5 m s–1 and the
width of the river is 20 m.

(a) List the variables affecting the force on the pier and perform
dimensional analysis. Can you satisfy all the conditions for
complete similarity? What is the most important parameter to
choose for dynamic similarity?

(b) What are the depth, velocity and quantity of flow in the model?

(c) If the hydrodynamic force on the model bridge pier is 5 N, what

would it be on the prototype?
NON-DIMENSIONAL GROUPS IN FLUID MECHANICS

mass × acceleration = force1 + force2 + force3 + ⋯

"𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐭𝐢𝐚𝐥 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞"

Many non-dimensional groups are (or are simple powers of)

the fractional contribution of an individual force:

force𝑖 force𝑖
or
total force mass × acceleration
NON-DIMENSIONAL GROUPS IN FLUID MECHANICS

𝜌𝑈𝐿
Reynolds number Re = (viscous flows)
𝜇
𝑈
Froude number Fr = (free-surface flows)
𝑔𝐿

𝜌𝑈 2 𝐿
Weber number We = (surface tension)
𝜎

𝑈
Rossby number Ro = (rotating flows)
Ω𝐿

𝑈
Mach number Ma = (compressible flows)
𝑐