Dock and Harbour Engg - Removed

Introduction
04-03-2024 Civil Engineering Department, NIT Patna 2

Introduction
Water Transportation:
The water transportation can further be subdivided into two categories:
 Inland transportation and

 Ocean transportation.
Inland Water transportation

Inland Water transportation is either in the form of river
transportation or canal transportation.
Ocean Water transportation

It is adopted for trade and commerce. It is estimated that about 75%
of international trade is carried out by shipping. The development
of navy force is intended for national defense. Ocean water
transportation has an limitation and it possesses high flexibility

Water Transportation
Advantages
The following are the advantages of water transport:
 The maintenance cost is less.

 It is comparatively less expensive that the rail and road transport.
 It is good for carrying heavy goods.
 Water transportation is used in defense in the form Navy.
 An important role is played by the water transport in foreign trades.
Disadvantages
The following are the disadvantages of water transport:
 Navigation becomes difficult during the monsoons.

 The fear of ships sinking is always a concern.
 It is a slow means of transport.
 It is not suitable for small businesses.
 The goods have to be loaded at the specific places due to the difference in depth and water volumes.
Harbours
A harbour can be defined as a sheltered area of the sea in which vessels could be launched, built or taken
for repair; or could seek refuge in time of storm; or provide for loading and unloading of cargo and
passengers.
Harbours are broadly classified as depending on the

protection needed:
 Natural harbour, e.g. Mumbai, Kandla

 Semi-natural harbour, e.g. Visakhapatnam
 Artificial harbours, e.g. Chennai

Harbours
Natural harbours
 Natural formations affording safe discharge facilities for ships on

sea coasts, in the form of creeks and basins, are called natural
harbours.
 With the rapid development of navies engaged either in
commerce or war, improved accommodation and facilities for
repairs, storage of cargo and connected amenities had to be
provided in natural harbours.
 The size and draft of present day vessels have necessitated the
works improvement for natural harbours.
 The factors such as local geographical features, growth of
population, development of the area, etc. have made the natural
harbours big and attractive. Bombay and Kandla are, examples
of natural harbours

Harbours
Natural harbours

Harbours
Semi-Natural harbours
 This type of harbour is protected on sides by headlands protection and it requires man-made
protection only at the entrance.
 Vishakhapatnam is a semi-natural harbour.

Harbours

Harbours
Artificial harbours
 Where such natural facilities are not available, countries having a seaboard had to create or construct
such shelters making use of engineering skill and methods, and such harbours are called artificial or
man-made harbours.
 Madras is an artificial harbour.
 Thus, a naval vessel could obtain shelter during bad weather within a tract or area of water close to
the shore, providing a good hold for anchoring, protected by natural or artificial harbour walls against
the fury of storms

Harbours
Artificial harbours

Harbours
Natural roadsteads
 A deep navigable channel with a protective natural bank or shoal to seaward is a good example of a
natural roadstead as shown in figure.
 A confined area naturally enclosed by islands as in a creek if available is known as a circumscribed
natural roadstead.

Harbours
Artificial roadsteads
 These may be created suitably by constructing a breakwater or

wall parallel to the coast or curvilinear from the coast.
 As an alternative a circumscribed artificial roadstead could be
formed by enclosing tract provided good anchorage, by
projecting solid walls called jetties, from the shore.
 Another method is to create a confined basin of small area having
a narrow entrance and exit for ships.
 Such roadsteads with smaller inner enclosures and wharf and
with loading and unloading facilities are commonly provided for
fishing vessels.

Harbours
From their utility and situation, harbours are further classified into five types:
 Harbours of refuge including naval bases

 Commercial harbours, connected with ports
 Fishery harbours
 Military harbour e.g. Mumbai, Kochi
 Marina harbour
It is necessary to study the requirements of these types of harbours and provide for such requirements.
Harbour of refuge:
The harbour which is used for ships in a storm is known as harbour of refuge.
Requirements of harbour of refuge are:
 Ready accessibility
 Safe and commodious anchorage
 Facilities for obtaining supplies and repairs
Harbours
Requirements of commercial harbour:
 Spacious accommodation for the mercantile

marine.
 Ample quay space and facilities for
transporting; loading and unloading cargo.
 Storage sheds for cargo.
 Good and quick repair facilities to avoid
delay.
 More sheltered conditions as loading and
unloading could be done with advantage in
calmer waters.

Harbours
Fishery harbour: Military harbour:
 It is used for loading and unloading of  It is used to accommodating naval crafts and
catch. It should have refrigeration stores serves as a supply depot. The layout of this
with plenty of space for storing the catch. greatly influenced by its location.

Harbours
Marina harbour:

Harbours
Depending upon the water body or location in which the harbour is build:
 Canal harbour
 Lake harbour
 River harbour
 Sea/Ocean harbour

Harbours
Accessibility and size of harbours
 Accessibility depends on the location of the harbours.

 The harbour entrance should be designed and located for quick easy negotiation by ships, overtaken by
storms.
 At the same time, it should be narrow enough not to expose the harbour to the effects of the stormy
sea.
 The entrance is generally placed of the sea, with a passage to the interior of the harbour so arranged as
to minimize the effect of rough seas.
Thus; the size is determined by:
 Accommodation required.
 Convenience for maneuvering and navigation.
 Adaptability to natural features.

Harbours
Entrance Width
 As regards the entrance width, the narrower the entrance better is the interior protected, consistent with
the easy and quick entry or exit of the biggest vessel using the harbour. For the design of entrance
following empirical formula suggested by Stevenson with limited application.
Where,
h = reduced height of diminutive wave inside the harbour at a distance D metre from the mouth
l = width of entrance mouth in m
L = width of harbour in m
H = height of unrestricted wave at the entrance mouth in m

Harbours
Site selection
The guiding factors which play a great role in choice of site for a harbour are as follows:
 Availability of cheap land and construction materials

 Transport and communication facilities
 Natural protection from winds and waves
 Industrial development of the locality
 Sea-bed subsoil and foundation conditions
 Traffic potentiality of harbour
 Availability of electrical energy and fresh water
 Favorable marine conditions
 Defense and strategic aspects
 In addition to the this, following surveys and map study is also required: Topographical map, contour
map, tide survey, tidal stream map, wave height survey.

Harbours
Shape of the harbour
The following principles should be kept in mind:
 In order to protect the harbour from the sea waves, one of the pier heads should project a little beyond
the other.
 Inside the pier heads, the width should widen very rapidly.
 The general shape of the harbours should be obtained by a series of straight lengths and no re-entrant
angle should be allowed

Harbours
Harbour Depth
The depth of the channel is determined by the following formula
𝐻
𝐷 = 𝐷1 + + 𝐷2
3
Where,
D = depth of channel
D1 = draft of the largest ship to be accommodated
H = height of storm waves
D2 = allowance for squat of the moving ship

Harbours
Harbour planning
The important facts to be studied and scrutinized can be enumerated as follows:
 It is necessary to carry out a thorough survey of the neighborhood including the foreshore and the
depths of water in the vicinity
 The borings on land should also be made so as to know the probable subsurface conditions on land. It
will be helpful in locating the harbour works correctly.
 The nature of the harbour, whether sheltered or not, should be studied.
 The existence of sea insect undermine the foundations should be noted.
 The problem of silting or erosion of coastline should be carefully studied.
 The natural metrological phenomena should be studied at site especially with respect to frequency of
storms, rainfall, range of tides, maximum and, minimum temperature and of winds, humidity, direction
and velocity of currents, etc.

Harbours
Features of a Harbour
Followings are the constituents of a harbour:
 Entrance channel
 Approach channel
 Berthing basin
 Break waters
 Turning basin to allow gradual turning of the ship
 Quays and wharves
 Jetties and piers
 Docks
 Slipways
 Other ancillaries such as godowns, sheds, buoys, lights, fire protection tower etc.

Harbours
 Entrance channel  Approach Channel

Harbours
 Breakwater  Turning basin

Harbours
 Sheltered basin  Pier

Harbours
 Wharf  Quay

Harbours
 Jetty  Mooring Dolphin

Harbours
 Fender

Harbours
Requirements of a good Harbour
Followings are the requirements of a harbour:
 The ship channels should have sufficient depth for the draft of the visiting vessels to the harbor.
 The bottom of the harbor should provide secured anchorage to hold the ships against the force of
strong winds
 The land masses or breakwater must be provided to protect against the destructive wave action
 The entrance of the harbor should be wide enough to provide the ready passage for shipping and at the
same time it should be narrow enough to restrict the transmission of excessive amount of wave energy
in time of storms..

Harbours
Defects in Harbour
Followings defects have been noticed in the construction of many harbour:
 The depth of water is found insufficient for the ships to be berthed safely.
 The size of harbour is found insufficient to accommodate the increased traffic.
 The quay or landing area between the berths is very narrow and there is not enough room for the cargo
to be stored.
 The whole area is very congested and obstruct the functioning of the harbour.

Harbours
Ship Characteristics
The characteristics of ship affects the harbour design in the following respects:
 The principal types of vessels are likely to visit the harbour will determine the land requirement.
 The depth and width of the channel will depend on the size of the largest vessel likely to use the
waterways.
 The number of lanes of the channel will depend upon the quantum of traffic at the harbour.
 The factors such speed of ship, alignment of channel etc. also have impact on the development of the
harbour.

Harbours
Harbour Planning Survey
Following two survey are carried out:
 Hydrographical Survey
This survey consists in locating the sore line at low and high tide level and positions of all obstructions or
structures in water and along the shore. This survey becomes easy at places where local tertiary and minor
trigonometrical controls are available.
 Topographical Survey
This survey is carried out to obtained the ground contours at interval of 0.5m to 1.5m. The higher contour
interval is used for rough terrain and in area where there is little or no construction of importance exists.
It includes the following details:
 Location of existing buildings and other structures
 Location of borings and test pits
 Prominent land marks
Natural Phenomena
Some of the natural and meteorological phenomena which primarily affect the location and design of
the harbour.
They are as follows
• Coastal currents and evidences of sitting, including littoral

drift or coast erosion.
• Tides and tidal range.
• Wind, wave and their combined effect on harbour
structures.

Natural Phenomena
Littoral Drift
• The sand drifts in the proximity of fore shores are known as

littoral drifts.
Process
• On exposed coasts, the shore line undergoes gradual and
continuous change. Such change consists of erosion at certain
places and depositions at others.
• This process of erosion and deposition is caused by current flow
created by waves impinging on the shore line.
• These waves are caused by the prevailing winds and tend to stir
up and move the lighter particles of sand in suspension.
• The wind tends to carry the drifting sand in a zig-zag way. Thus
such sand drifts in the proximity of fore shores are known as
Littoral drifts.

Natural Phenomena
Wind
• Air in motion. Horizontal movement of air due to

pressure differences in air caused due to temperature
differences.
• In common practice phrases as calm, slight breeze,
strong breeze, gale, storm etc. are used to indicate the
intensity of speed of wind.
Characteristics of Wind
• Direction
• Frequency (Duration)
• Intensity (Speed)

Natural Phenomena
Wind Rose diagram
The wind rose located in the top right corner of each data map
shows the general wind direction and speed for each sampling
period. The circular format of the wind rose shows the
direction the winds blew from and the length of each "spoke"
around the circle shows how often the wind blew from that
direction.
Factors for Seasonal Wind Patterns
• Action of water mass

• Location
• Rotation of earth

Tides
 Tides on the coast-line are caused by the sun and moon.
 The effect of tides is to artificially raise and lower the mean sea level during certain stated periods.
 This apparent variation of mean sea level is known as the tidal range.

Tides
Spring Tides and Neap Tides:
 At new and full moon or rather a day or two after (or twice in each lunar month), the tides rise
higher and fall lower than at other times and these are called Spring tides.
 Also one or two days after the moon is in her quarter i.e. about seven days from new and full
moons (twice in a lunar month), the tides rise and fall less than at other times and are then called
Neap tides.

Waves and Wind
 The uneven surface of water is known as waves. The ‘sea wave’ is by far the most powerful force
acting on harbour barriers and against which the engineer has to contend.
 The wave has the impulse of a huge battering ram and equipped with the point of a pick axe and
chisel edge”.
 It is the most in compressible natural phenomena.
 The formation of storm waves takes place in the open sea due to the action of wind.

Waves and Wind
 Crest: Highest point of a wave
 Trough: Lowest point of a wave
 Wave Length: Distance between two successive crest
 Height: Vertical distance from crest to trough
 Wave period: Time taken to travel a distance of one wave length
 Wave frequency: Reciprocal of wave period
 Fetch: Straight line stretch of open water available for wave growth without interruption of land

Waves and Wind
Water waves are of five types:
 Deep sea waves

 Shallow sea waves
 Waves of oscillation
 Waves of translation
 Surfs: Low height and long waves
Oscillatory Waves: The oscillatory waves are stationary. Originally all waves are oscillatory.
Translatory Waves: The former are stationary, while the latter possess forward motion. But all
translator waves originally start as waves of oscillation and, become translator by further wind action.
The harbour engineer’s main concern is the translator wave.

Waves and Wind
Surf: The composite phenomenon when breakers develop in a
more or less continuous belt along the shore or over some sub-
merged bank is called surf.
Clapotis: When a wave strikes a vertical breakwater in deep

water, it is reflected back and on meeting another advancing
wave of similar amplitude will merge and rise vertical in a wall
of water. This phenomenon is called clapotis.

Waves and Wind
Height and Length of Waves
The length and height attained by waves largely depend upon the effective surface area of the sea.
The surface area giving rise to the a wave is called Fatch and usually is measured in km. This length
across which the wave action is generated is called an Active Zone.

Waves and Wind
The height of wave may be obtained by empirical formal given by Thomes Stevenson:
H = 0.34 𝐹
Where F is the Fetch length in km.
It has been observed that the height of crest of wave above the still water level is greater than the
depth of the trough below the still water level. Still water level is the level of water surface in which
there is no wave. If l is the length of the wave and h is the wave height from crest to trough then
height of the crest above the still water level is given by:
ℎ2
(i) h/2+0.7854
𝑙
ℎ2
(ii) Depth of trough below still water level = h/2 – 0.7854
𝑙

Waves and Wind
The distance between crests of a wave is know as the wave length. The wave length influences the force of
the wave. The length of wave is estimated by Bertin’s formula:
𝑔𝑙 2
L=
2𝜋
L = 1.56 𝑡 2
Where L is the length of wave in m and t is the period for two successive waves in seconds.
The length of wave along with the depth of water, determines the velocity of water particles in the wave.
The maximum length of waves has been observed from 180 m to 300 m.
The ratio of wave length to its height is found as follows for different conditions of the wind:
1. For strong storms and heavy sea : 18
2. For strong wind and rough sea : 20
3. For moderate wind and light sea : 33
Waves and Wind
Wave Action
When a sea wave breaks against any sea structure or an obstacle it gives rise to the following important
forces:
 A direct horizontal force causing compression.

 A deflected vertical force tending to share of any
projections on the face of the wall.
 A down ward vertical force due to the collapse of
the wave which disturbs the mound construction
of the foundation and sea bed.
 A suction due to the return of the water after
striking the obstacle which disturbs the mounds in
the foundation.

Waves and Wind
Effect of Wave Action
 A powerful impact of short duration coupled with a hydrostatic pressure of short duration is
produced.
 A vibratory effect on the whole structure is produced.
 Impulse is imparted to the water contained in the joints or pores producing internal pressure in
different directions.
 Alternate expansion and contraction of the confined air in the pores and cavities of the structure.
The evaluation of these forces is practically impossible. However the effect of the following factors
can be considered.
 Dynamic value of wave action

 Air compression
 Water hammer effect
Currents
 Horizontal movement of water.
Causes:
 Difference in temperature and salinity

 Turbidity of water
 Tides
 Wind blowing over ocean surface
 Types of ocean currents
 Primary ocean: Produced by density differences due to temperature and salinity of sea water. Steeper
the gradient, faster the current.
 Turbidity: Caused by mixing of bottom sediments with sea water resulting in an increased density of
water locally. For example landslide underwater.
Docks
It is a place in harbour where ships are loaded, unloaded, built and repaired.
The important facts of Docks:
 Docks are enclosed areas for berthing the shops

to keep them afloat at a uniform level to facilitate
loading and unloading of cargo.
 Necessary for discharge of cargo.
 As ships requires a number of days for
discharging cargo, during which period they
need a uniform water level.
 If ship is subjected to a vertical movement by the
tides, great inconvenience will be felt in lifting
the cargo from the ship and special arrangements
will be needed for lifting cargo.
Docks
Docks are classified as:
 Wet Docks
 Dry Docks
Wet Docks
 Docks required for berthing of ships or

vessels to facilitate loading and unloading
of passengers and cargo are called as Wet
docks.

Docks
Dry Docks
 Dry docks are used for repairs of ships.

 It is a long excavated chamber having
side walls, a semi circular end wall and
a floor.
 The open end of the chamber is
provided with a gate and acts as the
entrance to the dock.

Ports
 The term port is used to indicate a

harbour where terminal facilities, such a
stores, landing of passengers and cargo,
etc. are added to it.
 Thus, a harbour consists of the

waterways and channels as far as the
pier head lines and a port includes
everything on the landward side of those
lines i.e. piers, slips, wharves, sheds,
tracks, handling equipment, etc.

Ports
Classification of ports
Depending upon the location, the ports can be classified as;
 Canal ports
 River ports and
 Sea ports
 The term free port is used to indicate an isolated, enclosed and policed area for handling of cargo; etc. for the
purpose of reshipping without the intervention of customs.
 It is furnished with the facilities for loading and unloading; for storing good and reshipping them by land or water;
and for supplying fuel.
 Free port thus indicates an area within which goods can be landed, stored, mixed, blended, repacked, manufactured
and reshipped without payment of duties and without the intervention of custom department.
 Depending upon the commodities dealt with or their use, the ports can also be classified as grain ports, coaling
ports, transshipment ports, ports of call, etc.
 Depending upon the size and location, the ports can also be grouped as major ports, intermediate ports and minor
ports.
 A major port is able to attract trade and it commands a really pivoted position for the extension of communications.

Ports
Port design
The design of a port should be made while keeping in mind the following requirements:
 The entrance channel should be such that the ships can come in and go out easily.
 The ships should be able to turn in the basin itself.
 The alignment of quays should be such that the ships can come along side easily even when there is
an on-shore wind.
 The width behind the quay should be sufficient to deal with the goods.
 There should be enough provision for railway tracks to take care for loading and unloading of cargo.

Ports
Requirements of a good port
 It should be centrally situated for the hinterland. For a port, the hinterland is that part of the country
behind it which can be served with economy and efficiency by the port.
 It should get good tonnage i .e. charge per tonne of cargo handled by it.
 It should have good communication with the rest of country.
 It should be populous.
 It should be advance in culture, trade and industry.
 It should be a place of defense and for resisting the sea-borne invasion
 It should command valuable and extensive trade.
 It should be capable of easy, smooth and economic development.
 It should afford shelter to all ships and at all seasons of the years
 It should provide the maximum facilities to all the visiting ships including the servicing of ships.

Breakwater
 A breakwater is a structure constructed for the purpose of protecting the harbour area from the
effect of waves as to provide safe berthing for vessels.
 The protective barrier constructed to enclose harbours and to keep the harbour waters undisturbed
by the effect of heavy and strong seas are called breakwaters.

Breakwater
Alignment:
 A good alignment for a breakwater is to have straight converging arms so that the angle of inter
section does not exceed 60 degrees.
 It is desirable to avoid straight parallel or diverging arms running out to sea.
Design of breakwaters:
Following information should he collected before the design of a breakwater:

 Character of coastal currents
 Cost and availability of materials of construction
 Directions and force of prevailing winds
 Nature of the bottom or foundation
 Probable maximum height, force and intensity of waves.

Breakwater
The three important rules to be observed in the design of a breakwater are as under:
 The design should be based on the extreme

phenomena of the wind and waves, and not on the
mean or the average.
 The height of the wave should he determined by
Using the equation H = 0.34 sqrt (F) and the
height of wall should be decided accordingly by
making sufficient allowance for freeboard.
 It should be seen that the material in the
foundation is not subject to scour.

Breakwater
Detrimental forces acting on breakwaters:
 Hydrostatic force: This force reduces the apparent weight and hence, the marine structures suffer
these losses to a great extent unless the foundations are absolutely impervious.
 External forces:
 The intensity of external forces, especially wind and wave action, is enormous.
 The power of wind produces vibrations in the masonry structure and weakens the different courses
of masonry.
 In a similar way, the wave when it recedes induces ‘suction action and it results in the erosion of
the foundation unless it is made safe and secure.

Breakwater
Detrimental forces acting on breakwaters:
 Solvent action of sea water: This quality of sea water causes damage to the materials of
construction
 Sea insects: The concentrated action of sea insects results in the undermining of the hardest and
the soundest building material and it is for this reason that the marine structures are made specially
bulky and strong.

Breakwater
Classification of breakwaters:
Breakwaters are classified mainly into three types:
 Heap or mound breakwater

 Mound with superstructure
 Upright wall breakwater

Breakwater
Heap or mound breakwater
• It is a heterogeneous assemblage of natural rubble, undressed stone blocks, rip rap, supplemented in
many cases by artificial blocks of huge bulk and weight, the whole being deposited without any
regard to bond or bedding.
• This is the simplest type and is constructed by tipping or dumping of rubble stones into the sea till
the heap or mound emerges out of the water, the mound being consolidated and its side slopes
regulated by the action of the waves.
• The quantity of rubble depends upon the depth, rise of tides and waves and exposure.
• On exposed sites, the waves gradually drag down the mound, giving it a flat slope on the sea face.
• As far as possible, such flattening has to be protected.
• The disturbing action of the waves is the most between the high and low water levels.
• Consequently, all protective methods are adopted above the low water level.
• Protection is also very necessary to the top of the mound and outer or exposed face.

Breakwater
Heap or mound breakwater

Breakwater
Mound with superstructure
The rubble mounds are formed using available rubble of assorted weights and placed according to their
size. The smaller and lighter material is placed in the body constituting the core of the mound. The size
of the rubble is increased gradually out wards, exposing the bigger sizes to the action of waves, while
smaller sizes for forming the protected core. In situations where rubble is not available concrete blocks
have been used to form the mound. Concrete blocks have the advantage of being heaped at steeper
slope than rubble, resulting in economy of space and material. The size of the blocks also can be
controlled as per requirements of exposure conditions.
Mound with superstructure is two types:

 Mound with super structure found at low water level.
 Mound with super structure found below water level.

Breakwater
 Mound with super structure found at low
water level. A solid superstructure consisting of a quay protected by
a parapet on the sea face is constructed on the top of the
rubble mound. Such a construction is founded about the
low water level.
The advantages of such a construction are:
 It gives a platform for handling cargo.

 It protects the top of the mound.
 It decreases the mass of rubble required for the mound
in proportion to the depth at which it is founded.
Unlike the ordinary or plain mound breakwater, this type of construction makes it possible for ships to
come close to the breakwater wall on the inner or harbor side for loading and unloading cargo.

Breakwater
 Mound with super structure found

below water level.
In this type of construction, the superstructure can be

founded well below the level of disturbance. As
stated earlier the maximum disturbance is created
between the low and high water levels. Thus at such
low levels below the low water level, waves
practically have no disturbing effect. This type of
construction is very economical in terms of mound
material in deep waters.

Breakwater
 Upright wall breakwater
The construction of vertical wall breakwater is found advantageous under the following situation:
 The depth of water is sufficiently large to prevent the breaking of waves. The depth of water
should be twice the height of the greatest storm wave.
 Sea bed is resistance to erosion.
 Foundations are not subject to uneven settlement.

Breakwater
 Mode of failure of Upright wall breakwater
Forces acting on the vertical breakwater cause its failure in the following ways:
 By over turning as a solid mass.
 By the sharing of bed joints or by sliding of one block against the other.
 By the uplifting of the horizontal layers.
 By fracture
 Thus the design should be such that

 The wall or any part of it may not over turn.
 No portion is sheared off.
 No horizontal course is uplifted and dislocated.

Breakwater
 Forces on Upright wall breakwater
 Sharing of bed joints due to horizontal pressure of the wave:

This is prevented by the following forces:
 The resistance offered by the adhesive force of the

mortar joints.
 Frictional resistance to sliding
 Overturning
 Uplifting
 Fracture

Breakwater
 Advantages of Upright wall breakwater
 They need comparatively less construction materials.

 They have no danger of unequal settlement as in the case of mount break water.
 Disadvantages
 They need special care and costly methods of construction.
 They need much height of wall under water resulting in more cost.
 Construction Process
 Staging system

Breakwater
 Method of protection of breakwater structure
 Dumping of concrete blocks

 Paving by Granite blocks
 Weight of protective block
 Tetrapod method

Breakwater

Breakwater

Dock and Harbour Engg - Removed

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Introduction

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The water transportation can further be subdivided into two categories:

 Inland transportation and

Inland Water transportation

Ocean Water transportation

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The following are the advantages of water transport:

 The maintenance cost is less.

The following are the disadvantages of water transport:

 Navigation becomes difficult during the monsoons.

Harbours are broadly classified as depending on the

 Natural harbour, e.g. Mumbai, Kandla

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 Natural formations affording safe discharge facilities for ships on

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 These may be created suitably by constructing a breakwater or

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 Harbours of refuge including naval bases

Requirements of commercial harbour:

 Spacious accommodation for the mercantile

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Fishery harbour: Military harbour:

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Accessibility and size of harbours

 Accessibility depends on the location of the harbours.

Thus; the size is determined by:

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 Availability of cheap land and construction materials

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Shape of the harbour

The following principles should be kept in mind:

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The depth of the channel is determined by the following formula

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The important facts to be studied and scrutinized can be enumerated as follows:

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Followings are the constituents of a harbour:

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 Entrance channel  Approach Channel

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 Breakwater  Turning basin

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 Sheltered basin  Pier

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 Jetty  Mooring Dolphin

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