ABUBAKAR TATARI ALI POLYTECHNIC BAUCHI

IN AFFLIATION WITH
ABUBAKAR TAFAWA BALEWA UNIVERSITY BAUCHI

DIRECTORATE OF DEGREE PROGRAMME

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE EDUCATION
COURSE TITLE: SCIENCE METHOD
ASSIGNMENT
BY
AISHA MUHAMMAD ADAM
20/50206/U/BH/6

APRIL, 2024
National Policy of Education
Introduction
Education in Nigeria is an instrument par excellence for effecting
national development. It has witnessed active participation by non-
governmental agencies, communities, and individuals as well as
government intervention. It is, therefore, desirab 0
le for the nation to spell out in clear and unequivocal terms the
philosophy and objectives that underlie its investment in education. The
National Policy on Education seeks to fulfill that role. Government has
stated that for the benefit of all citizens, the country’s educational goals
shall be clearly set out in terms of their relevance to the needs of the
individuals and those of the society, in consonance with the realities of
our environment and the modern world. The need for a national policy
on education came about as a result of the 1969 National Curriculum
Conference which was attended by a cross section of Nigerians. The
conference was a culmination of expressions of general dissatisfaction
with the exiting education system which has become irrelevant to
national needs, aspirations and goals. After the National Curriculum
Conference, a seminar of participants drawn from a wide range of
interest groups within Nigeria was convened in 1ST3 ~he seminar, which
included voluntary agencies and external bodies, deliberated on what a
national policy on education for an independent and sovereign Nigeria
should be. The outcome of the seminar was a draft document which,
after due comments were received from the states and other interest
groups, led to the final document, the National Policy on Education, first
published in 1977, the 2nd and 3rd editions were published in 1981 and
1993 respectively in keeping with the dynamics of social change and the
demands on education. The fourth edition was in 2004. This edition was
necessitated by some policy innovations and changes, and the need to
update the 3rd edition (1998) .the fifth edition was published in 2007
while the six edition in 2013. The sixth edition accommodated some
recent development such as:
a. The lifting of the suspension order on Open and Distance Learning
programme by Government;
b. Revitalization and expansion of the National Mathematics Centre
(NMC):
 c. Establishment of Teachers Registration Council (TRC);
d. Introduction of Information and Communication Technology (ICT)
into the school system
e. Prescription of French Language in the primary anc secondary
school curriculum as a second officiai language;
Philosophy and Goals of Education in Nigeria
a. A nation's policy one is government's way of realizing that part of
the national goal which can be achieved using education as a tool.
No policy on education, however, can be formulated without first
identifying the overall philosophy and goals of the nation
NATIONAL SYLLABUS
What is the national curriculum?
The national curriculum is outlined by the Department for Education
(DfE) as a set of subjects and standards used by primary and secondary
schools to ensure that children learn the same things. It covers what
subjects are taught and the standards and levels that children are
expected to reach in each subject, depending on their age.

Private schools and academies don’t have to follow the national

curriculum. Academies have much more flexibility with what they choose
to cover in their curriculum.

The national curriculum breaks subject knowledge into key stages. In

primary school, these are Key Stage 1 (years 1 and 2) and Key Stage 2
(years 3-6). Key Stages 3 and 4 are for secondary school students.

The Secretary of State for Education published the programmes of study

for each national curriculum subject, outlining the ‘matters, skills and
processes’ to be taught at each stage.

Compulsory national curriculum subjects taught in primary schools are:

 English

 Maths

 Science

 Design and technology

  History

 Geography

 Art and design

 Music

 PE

 Computing

 Ancient and modern foreign languages

Subject matter is introduced to pupils in KS1, being expanded upon in

KS2 along with the introduction of other subjects (e.g. ancient and
modern foreign languages).

Religious education (RE) is another national curriculum subject taught in

primary school, however, parents can decide whether they want their
children to take part in RE lessons.

Other subjects, including personal, social and health education

(PSHE) and citizenship and sex education are optional national
curriculum subjects that become more prevalent in KS3 and KS4.
However, the importance of including PSHE lessons in the school
curriculum from a young age is being increasingly encouraged.

At KS4, the arts, design and technology, humanities and modern foreign
languages are not compulsory national curriculum subjects after the age
of 14. At this point pupils will have options and can decide what subjects
they want to take. Whilst having the entitlement to study these subjects,
the core subjects are still compulsory.

When was the first national curriculum introduced?

Do you know when the first national curriculum was introduced? Many
people think that it’s been around for a long time, but it was only
actually introduced in 1988. Before the national curriculum was
introduced, teachers usually decided what to teach and how they taught
their lessons. Their decisions were influenced by textbooks, or exam
syllabuses.
The national curriculum was introduced by the Education Reform Act of
1988 by Kenneth Baker. Teaching some elements of the national
curriculum began in September 1989. When the national curriculum was
first introduced, it applied to schools in England and Wales. It now only
applies to schools in England. It has changed and been updated since it
was introduced in 1988 to ensure that what children learn is up-to-date
and relevant.

The national curriculum was introduced because there were concerns

that there were inequalities in the curriculums being offered by different
schools. The national curriculum therefore set out what children should
be taught, with the aim of ensuring that each pupil is given the same
standard of education.

The national curriculum provides pupils with an introduction to core

knowledge that they need to know in order to be educated citizens.

How are pupils tested and assessed with the national curriculum?
The different tests and assessments that are taken by pupils in KS1 and
KS2 are also outlined by the national curriculum. These tests and
assessment include:

 Year 1 phonics screening check: assessment taken in June to

assess a child's reading ability. Children read out 40 words to
a teacher, the teacher will then decide whether a child needs
further help with reading. This test is then repeated in Year 2.

 KS1 English: English reading assessment along with grammar,

punctuation and spelling.

 KS1 maths

 KS2 national tests: Taken in May at the end of KS2. These

include English reading, grammar, punctuation and spelling
and a maths assessment.

What are the aims of the national curriculum?

The DfE state the aims of the national curriculum are to:

Provide pupils with an introduction to the essential knowledge they need

to be educated citizens. It introduces pupils to the best that has been
thought and said and helps engender an appreciation of human
creativity and achievement.

The national curriculum is just one element in the education of every

child. There is time and space in the school day and in each week, term
and year to range beyond the national curriculum specifications.

Numeracy and Mathematics

The national curriculum for maths aims to ensure pupils become fluent
in the fundamentals of mathematics, can reason mathematically and can
solve problems by applying their mathematical knowledge.

The following areas of mathematics are covered by the national

curriculum in KS1 and KS2:

 Number - number and place value

 Number - addition and subtraction

 Number - multiplication and division

 Number - fractions

 Measurement

 Geometry - properties of shapes

 Geometry - position and direction

 Statistics

English and Literacy

The national curriculum for English aims to promote high standards of
language and literacy by providing pupils with a strong understanding of
the spoken and written word. Pupils should be able to read easily and
fluently, acquire a wider vocabulary and understanding of grammar and
punctuation. As the understanding of the English language underpins all
areas of education, pupils should be able to apply phonic knowledge and
respond to questions.

Here are the areas of English and literacy covered by the national
curriculum:
  Spoken language

 Reading - word reading

 Reading - comprehension

 Writing - transcription

 Writing - composition

 Writing - vocabulary, grammar and punctuation

 Spelling and handwriting

Science
The national curriculum for science aims to ensure that all pupils
develop scientific knowledge and conceptual understanding through the
disciplines of biology, chemistry and physics. Pupils should develop an
understanding of the nature, processes and methods of science through
different types of science enquiries and are equipped with the scientific
knowledge to understand the uses and implications of science today and
in the future.

The areas of science covered by the national curriculum are:

 Working scientifically - question, observe, use equipment,

perform tests, identify and classify, gather and record data

 Plants

 Animals including humans

 Everyday materials

 Living things and their habitats

 Rocks

 Light

 Forces and magnets

 States of matter

 Sound
  Electricity

 Earth and space

 Evolution and inheritance

KS2 Curriculum
Key Stage 2 (KS2) is the stage of learning students reach when they're 7
- 11 years old, in Year 3 to Year 6. The following topics are compulsory
for all students in this stage according to the KS2 curriculum:

 English

 Science

 Maths

 Geography

 History

 Ancient and modern foreign languages

 Art and design

 Music

 Design and technology

 Physical education

 Religious education

 Computing (this is often referred to as ICT - information and

communication technology).

In the KS2 curriculum, the teaching differs from KS1 in a number of

ways. Students in KS2 are taught subjects at a greater level of depth.
They're expected to progress in their learning and engage more fully
with their topics, showing a deeper understanding.

For example, in English, the KS2 curriculum encourages pupils to gather

themes and concepts from their reading, and be able to make links
between texts. In KS1, reading is more focussed on student's
comprehension.
At the end of each key stage, students are tested in their SATs
(Standard Assessment Tests). These tests look to assess children and
compare their work to the age-related expectations that the curriculum
sets out. At the end of KS2, pupils' SATs grades will influence their
targets for their further education at secondary school.

It's important that pupils have a proper grasp of the curriculum and
content they've been taught over the years. Their SATs are an
opportunity to show this.

SATs also measure the effectiveness of a school's teaching, as they can

measure how pupils progress from KS1 to KS2 and if the recommended
number of pupils work to the expected standard.

SCHEME OF WORK
A scheme of work is a kind of plan that outlines all the learning to be
covered over a given period of time (usually a term or a whole school
year).
[1][2]
defines the structure and content of an academic course. It splits an
often-multi-year curriculum into deliverable units of work, each of a far
shorter weeks' duration (e.g. two or three weeks). Each unit of work is
then analysed out into teachable individual topics of even shorter
duration (e.g. two hours or less).
Better schemes of work map out clearly how resources (e.g. books,
equipment, time) and class activities (e.g. teacher-talk, group work,
practicals, discussions) and assessment strategies (e.g. tests, quizzes,
Q&A, homework) will be used to teach each topic and assess students'
progress in learning the material associated with each topic, unit and the
scheme of work as a whole. As students progress through the scheme of
work, there is an expectation that their perception of the
interconnections between topics and units will be enhanced.
Schemes of work may include times and dates (deadlines) for delivering
the different elements of the curriculum. Philosophically, this is linked to
a belief that all students should be exposed to all elements of the
curriculum such that those who are able to "keep up" ("the best" / elite)
do not miss out on any content and can achieve the highest grades. This
might be described as a "traditionalist" view.
There is a conflicting philosophical view that deadlines should be
avoided and that each class should progress at its own pace: such that
no student is "left behind". Whilst the remaining students "catch up",
those students who understand quickly should be placed in a "holding
pattern" full of puzzles and questions that challenge them to connect
recent learning with longer-established learning (they may also be
encouraged to spend a small amount of time enhancing their
understanding by supporting teaching staff in unpicking underlying
errors/questions of fellow students who have not grasped recent ideas
as quickly). This view might be described as a "Mastery" approach. In
mathematics teaching in England it is strongly supported by the
Government-funded National Centre for Excellence in Teaching
Mathematics[3] based on research guided by the globally-exceptional
performance of schools in Singapore and Shanghai.
Curriculum
The scheme of work is usually an interpretation of a specification
or syllabus and can be used as a guide throughout the course to monitor
progress against the original plan. Schemes of work can be shared with
students so that they have an overview of their course.
The ultimate source of the specification or syllabus is a curriculum.
Curricula are typically defined by Government and hence by law and/or
regulation. Accordingly, each country has its own (though some
countries choose to adopt curricula defined by other countries).
In generating a scheme of work, it is vital to have detailed regard to the
legally-required curriculum of the country in which the scheme of
work is to be delivered. These are typically defined, in detail, by subject.
Understanding the subtleties and nuances of their presentation is of vital
importance when defining the most useful schemes of work.
England
For maintained schools[4] and exam boards[5] in England, the National
Curriculum is set by Department for Education [4] such that all children
growing up in England have a broadly similar education.
The curriculum for Primary education (ages 4/5 to 11) and Secondary
education (ages 11 to 18) in England is divided into five Key Stages. Key
stages 1 and 2 are delivered at Primary Schools. Key Stages 3, 4 and 5
are delivered at Secondary Schools.
England - Mathematics
English Primary Schools: Key Stages 1 & 2 [ages 5 to 11)
The expectations for delivering the National Curriculum for mathematics
in England at Key Stages 1 and 2 are tightly defined with clear time-
linked objectives. The Department for Education has provided an initial
annual scheme of work[6] (or set of expectations) for each
school/academic year from Year 1 (age 5/6) to and including Year 6
(age 10/11). This does not specify the order of teaching each topic
within each year; but does provide guidance and does set out the
expectations of what is to be taught and learned by the end of each
year of students' primary education.
English Secondary Schools: Key Stages 3 and 4 [ages 11 to 16]
The National Curriculum for mathematics in England is also tightly
defined at Key Stages 3 and 4. [6] However, each individual English
school's mathematics department is given greater freedom to decide
when and how to deliver the content. By contrast to the national
curriculum for England's primary schools, there are no annual
expectations. Instead, guidance is set by reference to what is to be
taught and learned by the end of Key Stage 3 [the end of year 9 (ages
13/14)] and by the end of Key Stage 4 [the end of year 11 (ages
15/16)].
It is notable that the curriculum for Key Stage 4 is intended by the
Department for Education to examine all learning from Key Stages 1 to
4. In particular, topics listed in Key Stage 3 explicitly form part of the
curriculum for Key Stage 4[6] (such that the foundations of earlier
learning are reinforced whilst building upon them). Accordingly, students
who have struggled with the harder-to-understand elements in the past
are given the opportunity to master the Key Stage 3 content whilst
others build higher, in parallel.
English Secondary Schools: GCSEs [typically age 15/16+]
It is mandatory in England for students to have taken a GCSE in
mathematics by the year of their sixteenth birthday.
It is notable that the subject content agreed between the Department of
Education and The Office of Qualifications and Examinations Regulation
(Ofqual) [the exam board regulator for GCSEs, AS-Levels and A-Levels]
[7]
is highlighted in subtly different ways to the subject content of the
national curriculum for Key Stage 4.[6]
The latter features two levels of expectation (plain text versus {bold
and 'braces'}); the former features three (plain text, underlined
text and bold text). The subtly of the distinction enabled more
perceptive students, parents and educators to determine (or speculate
about) the way in which content is (or should be) distributed between
the two different sets of GCSE mathematics examinations (Foundation
and Higher): these two sets overlap (suggesting the underlined topics
exist in the intersection between the two sets of topics).
It is also notable that the curriculum for GCSE is intended by the
Department for Education to examine all learning from Key Stages 1 to
4. In particular, topics listed in Key Stage 3 explicitly form part of the
curriculum for Key Stage 4[6] and the GCSE (such that the foundations of
earlier learning are reinforced whilst building upon them). Accordingly,
students who have struggled with the harder-to-understand elements in
the past are given the opportunity to master the Key Stage 3 content
whilst others build higher, in parallel.
English Secondary Schools: AS and A-Levels [typically age 17+]
AS and A-Levels in mathematics are not mandatory.
Accordingly, there is no national curriculum for AS and A-Level
mathematics in England. However, there is agreed subject content
required by the Department for Education for AS and A
level specifications in mathematics

LESSON
A lesson plan is a teacher's detailed description of the course of
instruction or "learning trajectory" for a lesson. A daily lesson plan is
developed by a teacher to guide class learning. Details will vary
depending on the preference of the teacher, subject being covered, and
the needs of the students. There may be requirements mandated by
the school system regarding the plan.[1] A lesson plan is the teacher's
guide for running a particular lesson, and it includes the goal (what the
students are supposed to learn), how the goal will be reached (the
method, procedure) and a way of measuring how well the goal was
reached (test, worksheet, homework etc.).
Main classes of symbiotic relationships
While there are many formats for a lesson plan, most lesson plans
contain some or all of these elements, typically in this order:

 Title of the lesson

 Time required to complete the lesson
 List of required materials
  List of objectives, which may be behavioral objectives (what the
student can do at lesson completion) or knowledge
objectives (what the student knows at lesson completion)
 The set (or lead-in, or bridge-in) that focuses students on the
lesson's skills or concepts—these include showing pictures or
models, asking leading questions, or reviewing previous lessons
 An instructional component that describes the sequence of
events that make up the lesson, including the teacher's
instructional input and, where appropriate, guided practice by
students to consolidate new skills and ideas
 Independent practice that allows students to extend skills or
knowledge on their own
 A summary, where the teacher wraps up the discussion and
answers questions
 An evaluation component, a test for mastery of the instructed
skills or concepts—such as a set of questions to answer or a set
of instructions to follow
 A risk assessment where the lesson's risks and the steps taken
to minimize them are documented
 An analysis component the teacher uses to reflect on the lesson
itself—such as what worked and what needs improving
 A continuity component reviews and reflects on content from
the previous lesson
Herbartian approach: Fredrick Herbart (1776-1841)
According to Herbart, there are eight lesson plan phases that are
designed to provide "many opportunities for teachers to recognize and
correct students' misconceptions while extending understanding for
future lessons." These phases are: Introduction, Foundation, Brain
Activation, Body of New Information, Clarification, Practice and Review,
Independent Practice, and Closure.[4]

1. Preparation/Instruction: It pertains to preparing and

motivating children to the lesson content by linking it to the
previous knowledge of the student, by arousing curiosity of
the children and by making an appeal to their senses. This
prepares the child's mind to receive new knowledge. "To
know where the pupils are and where they should try to be
are the two essentials of good teaching." Lessons may be
started in the following manner: a. Two or three interesting
but relevant questions b. Showing a picture/s, a chart or a
 model c. A situation Statement of Aim: Announcement of
the focus of the lesson in a clear, concise statement such as
"Today, we shall study the..."
2. Presentation/Development: The actual lesson commences
here. This step should involve a good deal of activity on the
part of the students. The teacher will take the aid of various
devices, e.g., questions, illustrations, explanation,
expositions, demonstration and sensory aids, etc.
Information and knowledge can be given, explained,
revealed or suggested. The following principles should be
kept in mind. a. Principle of selection and division: This
subject matter should be divided into different sections. The
teacher should also decide as to how much he is to tell and
how much the pupils are to find out for themselves. b.
Principle of successive sequence: The teacher should ensure
that the succeeding as well as preceding knowledge is clear
to the students. c. Principle of absorption and integration: In
the end separation of the parts must be followed by their
combination to promote understanding of the whole.
3. Association comparison: It is always desirable that new
ideas or knowledge be associated to daily life situations by
citing suitable examples and by drawing comparisons with
the related concepts. This step is important when we are
establishing principles or generalizing definitions.
4. Generalizing: This concept is concerned with the
systematizing of the knowledge learned. Comparison and
contrast lead to generalization. An effort should be made to
ensure that students draw the conclusions themselves. It
should result in students' own thinking, reflection and
experience.
5. Application: It requires a good deal of mental activity to
think and apply the principles learned to new situations.
Knowledge, when it is put to use and verified, becomes clear
and a part of the student's mental make-up.
6. Recapitulation: Last step of the lesson plan, the teacher tries
to ascertain whether the students have understood or
grasped the subject matter or not. This is used for
assessing/evaluating the effectiveness of the lesson by
asking students questions on the contents of the lesson or
by giving short objectives to test the student's level of
 understanding; for example, to label different parts on a
diagram, etc.
Lesson plans and unit plans
A well-developed lesson plan reflects the interests and needs of
students. It incorporates best practices for the educational field. The
lesson plan correlates with the teacher's philosophy of education, which
is what the teacher feels is the purpose of educating the students. [5]
Secondary English program lesson plans, for example, usually center
around four topics. They are literary theme, elements of language
and composition, literary history, and literary genre. A broad, thematic
lesson plan is preferable, because it allows a teacher to create various
research, writing, speaking, and reading assignments. It helps an
instructor teach different literature genres and incorporate videotapes,
films, and television programs. Also, it facilitates teaching literature and
English together.[5] Similarly, history lesson plans focus on content
(historical accuracy and background information), analytic
thinking, scaffolding, and the practicality of lesson structure and meeting
of educational goals.[6] School requirements and a teacher's personal
tastes, in that order, determine the exact requirements for a lesson plan.
Unit plans follow much the same format as a lesson plan, but cover an
entire unit of work, which may span several days or weeks.
Modern constructivist teaching styles may not require individual lesson
plans. The unit plan may include specific objectives and timelines, but
lesson plans can be more fluid as they adapt to student needs
and learning styles.
Unit Planning is the proper selection of learning activities which presents
a complete picture. Unit planning is a systematic arrangement of subject
matter. "A unit plan is one which involves a series of learning
experiences that are linked to achieve the aims composed by
methodology and contents," (Samford). "A unit is an organization of
various activities, experiences and types of learning around a central
problem or purpose developed cooperatively by a group of pupils under
a teacher leadership involving planning, execution of plans and
evaluation of results," (Dictionary of Education).
Criteria of a Unit Plan

1. Needs, capabilities, interest of the learner should be

considered.
 2. Prepared on the sound psychological knowledge of the
learner.
3. Provide a new learning experience; systematic but flexible.
4. Sustain the attention of the learner til the end.
5. Related to social and physical environment of the learner.
6. Development of learner's personality.
It is important to note that lesson planning is a thinking process, not the
filling in of a lesson plan template. A lesson plan is envisaged as a blue
print, guide map for action, a comprehensive chart of classroom
teaching-learning activities, an elastic but systematic approach for the
teaching of concepts, skills and attitudes.
The first thing for setting a lesson plan is to create an objective, that is,
a statement of purpose for the whole lesson. An objective statement
itself should answer what students will be able to do by the end of the
lesson. The objective drives the whole lesson plan; it is the reason the
lesson plan exists. The teacher should ensure that lesson plan goals are
compatible with the developmental level of the students. The teacher
ensures as well that their student achievement expectations are
reasonable.[5]
Delivery of lesson plans[edit]
The following guidelines were set by Canadian Council on Learning to
enhance the effectiveness of the teaching process:

 At the start of teaching, provide the students with an overall

picture of the material to be presented. When presenting
material, use as many visual aids as possible and a variety of
familiar examples. Organize the material so that it is presented
in a logical manner and in meaningful units. Try to use terms
and concepts that are already familiar to the students.
 Maximize the similarity between the learning situation and the
assessment situation and provide adequate training practice.
Give students the chance to use their new skills immediately on
their return home through assignments. Communicate the
message about the importance of the lesson, increase their
motivation level, and control sidelining behaviors by planning
rewards for students who successfully complete and integrate
the new content. To sustain learning performance, the
assessments must be fair and attainable.
  Motivation affects teaching outcomes independently of any
increase in cognitive ability. Learning motivation is affected by
individual characteristics like conscientiousness and by the
learning climate. Therefore, it is important to try to provide as
much realistic assignments as possible. Students learn best at
their own pace and when correct responses are immediately
reinforced, perhaps with a quick “Well done.” For
many Generation Z students, the use of technology can
motivate learning. Simulations, games, virtual worlds, and
online networking are already revolutionizing how students
learn and how learning experiences are designed and delivered.
Learners who are immersed in deep experiential learning in
highly visual and interactive environments become intellectually
engaged in the experience.
 Research shows that it is important to create a perceived need
for learning (Why should I learn, the realistic relatable
objective) in the minds of students. Then only students can
perceive the transferred "how and what to learn" part from the
educator. Also, provide ample information that will help to set
the students' expectations about the events and consequences
of actions that are likely to occur in the learning environment.
For example, students learning to become adept on differential
equations may face stressful situations, high loads of study, and
a difficult environment. Studies suggest that the negative
impact of such conditions can be reduced by letting students
know ahead of time what might occur and equipping them with
skills to manage.
Lesson plans and classroom management[edit]
Creating a reliable lesson plan is an important part of classroom
management. Doing so requires the ability to incorporate effective
strategies into the classroom, the students and overall environment.
There are many different types of lesson plans and ways of creating
them. Teachers can encourage critical thinking in a group setting by
creating plans that include the students participating collectively. Visual
strategies are another component tied into lesson plans that help with
classroom management. These visual strategies help a wide variety of
students to increase their learning structure and possibly their overall
comprehension of the material or what is in the lesson plan itself. These
strategies also give students with disabilities the option to learn in a
possible more efficient way. Teachers need to realize the wide range of
strategies that can be used to maintain classroom management and
students. They should find the best strategies to incorporate in their
lesson planning for their specific grade, student type, teaching style, etc.
and utilize them to their advantage. The classroom tends to flow better
when the teacher has a proper lesson planned, as it provides structure
for the students. Being able to utilize class time efficiently comes with
creating lesson plans at their core.[7]
Assignments
Assignments are either in-class or take-home tasks to be completed for
the next class period.[8] These tasks are important because they help
ensure that the instruction provides the students with a goal, the power
to get there, and the interest to be engaged in rigorous academic
contexts as they acquire content and skills necessary to be able to
participate in academic coursework.[9]
Experts cite that, in order to be effective and achieve objectives, the
development of these assignment tasks must take into consideration the
perceptions of the students because they are different from those of the
teacher's.[10] This challenge can be addressed by providing examples
instead of abstract concepts or instructions. Another strategy involves
the development of tasks that are specifically related to the learners'
needs, interests, and age ranges.[10] There are also experts who cite the
importance of teaching learners about assignment planning. [11] This is
said to facilitate the students' engagement and interest in their
assignment. Some strategies include brainstorming about the
assignment process and the creation of a learning environment wherein
students feel engaged and willing to reflect on their prior learning and to
discuss specific or new topics.[11]
There are several assignment types so the instructor must decide
whether class assignments are whole-class, small groups, workshops,
independent work, peer learning, or contractual:

 Whole-class—the teacher lectures to the class as a whole and

has the class collectively participate in classroom discussions.
 Small groups—students work on assignments in groups of three
or four.
 Workshops—students perform various tasks simultaneously.
Workshop activities must be tailored to the lesson plan.
 Independent work—students complete assignments individually.
  Peer learning—students work together, face to face, so they can
learn from one another.
 Contractual work—teacher and student establish an agreement
that the student must perform a certain amount of work by a
deadline.[5]
These assignment categories (e.g. peer learning, independent, small
groups) can also be used to guide the instructor's choice of assessment
measures that can provide information about student and class
comprehension of the material. As discussed by Biggs (1999), there are
additional questions an instructor can consider when choosing which
type of assignment would provide the most benefit to students. These
include:

What level of learning do the students need to attain before

choosing assignments with varying difficulty levels?
 What is the amount of time the instructor wants the students to
use to complete the assignment?
 How much time and effort does the instructor have to provide
student grading and feedback?
 What is the purpose of the assignment? (e.g. to track student
learning; to provide students with time to practice concepts; to
practice incidental skills such as group process or independent
research)
 How does the assignment fit with the rest of the lesson plan?
Does the assignment test content knowledge or does it require
application in a new context?[12]
 Does the lesson plan fit a particular framework?
HOW NATIONAL POLICY OF EDUCATION AND NATION
SYLLABUS THEY RELATE EACH OTHER, WHERE THEY
ORIGINATE AND APPLIED

For the purposes of this book, it may be useful to ask ourselves the
question: who needs the school curriculum and what purpose
does it serve? I shall go back to my definition of a curriculum from the
previous chapter as follows:

A curriculum shows the vision of a group, unit, organisation

(including schools) and or society about their world view and
what types of knowledge and skills will be essential for the
recipients of it contents to learn in very specific ways to enable
them to thrive in their world.

The key elements of a curriculum, from my definition are:

1. the clarity of vision;

2. the world view of the institution;

3. the contents of knowledge and skills to be learnt and

in what way; and

4. the habits and abilities that the products of the

system will demonstrate (how they thrive after their
education).

Every school, without the demand from the force of law, must have its
own curriculum in place if they are going to cater for the actual learning
needs of their pupils. The absence of a carefully crafted individual school
curriculum means that the school in question does not have a clear plan
for the pupils who attend it. In such a school (where there is the
absence of a curriculum specifically designed for the school) classrooms
are organised as discreet fragmented units that do not coordinate their
learning activities to develop each pupil in a holistic manner over the
duration of their time in the school. In effect, running a school
without its own curriculum is like a ship setting off to sea
without a map of where it is going and relying on an atlas.

In England, the requirement for every school to design their own

curriculum is stated in the national curriculum as follows: The school
curriculum comprises all learning and other experiences
that each school plans for its pupils. The national curriculum
forms one part of the school curriculum (2.2).

Governments have a responsibility to set the overarching vision for

education in a country through their national curriculum. A good vision
must state, in glossy pictures, the type of citizens that the country hopes
to produce out of the education system. In the case of England for
example, the vision of the government is stated in the national
Curriculum as follows: ‘The national curriculum provides pupils
with an introduction to the essential knowledge that they need
to be educated citizens’.
The minimum skills expectations cannot be vague. It must be clear and
demonstrable in a way that everyone will be able to tell if the learner
has been successful in their learning or not. A certificate or some
random snapshot activity cannot equate successful learning. A minimum
ability vision could therefore be for example: that every educated person
must be able to read and understand a simple text. It may also include
the ability to effectively put words together to communicate orally and in
writing. It could also be an expectation that every educated person must
know how to look for information.

HOW NATIONAL POLICY OF EDUCATION AND SCHEME OF WORK THEY

RELATE EACH OTHER, WHERE THEY ORIGINATED AND APPLIED
The colonial education which was inherited by Nigeria was criticised for
being too theoretical to be able to make meaningful impact on the life of
Nigerians (Akinlua, 2007). Subjects taught in schools reflected the taste
of the colonial education officials; hence school curricula were built
around the existing colonial values. Students were supposed to mimic
their teachers in subject like English Language which involved
demonstration of competency. The same problem which informed
dependency on past colonial education relics seems to have continued
till date. Woolman (2001: 41) was forced to comment on issue of this
sort in his remark about African education. According to him, “African
school systems today still follow the rigid structure of time periods and
grade-level progression found in Western education.” Where there is
little change in the curriculum, it is either one subject is substituted for
the other or dropped outright. This is the case with the study of History
which has almost lost its place to Social studies in school curriculum.
The National Policy on Education provides in the curriculum of Junior
Secondary school in Nigeria the teaching of Social Studies. The policy
makes provision for six years of primary school, three years of junior
secondary school, three years of senior secondary school, and four years
of university education (6.3.3.4). In the first tier of this programme,
students learn Social studies while in the senior secondary school, the
second tier, students may choose either History or Government as one of
their Arts subjects. Government now promotes the learning of Social
studies, a junior class subject, above the study of History with the notion
that the study of social studies is needed for the understanding of
Nigerian cultures. Perhaps the reason for this action is that the cultural
diversities in Nigeria will best be understood by young Nigerians when
they learn these diversities in social studies. Ironically, Nigeria is
currently facing the problems of ethno-religious crisis, political instability,
insecurity, economic strangulation, environmental degradation and many
others. Many of these problems, which may be connected to past
actions of average Nigerians, arise because Nigerian leaders and policy
makers do not see how the past can help to make the present, and
shape the future. This paper examines the need for the teaching of
History in Schools especially now that Nigeria is desirous of solving its
ethno-regional crisis, religious violence, political instability and insecurity
and others. It reviews the post colonial education delivery and the
emergence of National Policy on Education, stressing a more proactive
approach to the teaching of the subject, and to reinvigorate its teaching
in schools in order to achieve nation-building. 2. Post-Colonial Education
Curriculum and the Emergence of National Policy on Education in Nigeria
The National Policy on Education otherwise referred to as the 6-3-3-4
approach was operationally introduced into Nigeria’s education system
for the first time in 1982 (Nwagwu, 1982). The basic rationale for the
policy was the observed irrelevant nature of Nigeria’s existing system of
education. Traditionally, in Nigeria the argument has been that the
education inherited from Britain was exotic, bookish and consequently
insensitive to Nigeria’s immediate social and community life. The
curriculum at all levels of the education system was more in tune with
European environment than to the African setting. The content of
subjects like Geography emphasised the studying of capes, bays, fjords
and several other foreign features not experienced in the Nigerian or
African landscape. History programme of study was stuffed with stories
and analysis of European wars, reigns of monarchs and national treaties
that had very little meaning and bearing to African mind.
School Certificate holders were said to constitute 59 percent of the
unemployment people in Nigeria. Lugard (1965) had however pointed
out that the main purpose of Western education was to produce clerks
and interpreters to aid the administrative machinery of the imperial
overlords. To Akinlua (2007: 95) this type of education was not “founded
on realistic philosophical principles”, while Marinho (2009) had the
feeling that though the frame of reference for curricular content was
localized, other relevant issues such as models of learning and teaching
 were based on the British system. On the other hand, Ayandele (1966)
had documented the extensive impact of Western education on Nigeria’s
social and economic life. The main manifestation of colonial education
system in Nigeria was unprecedented rural-urban migrations and
unemployment problems. The rural-urban movements eventually led to
a gradual collapse of the cultural and economic life in rural areas,
reminiscent of the imagery in Oliver Goldsmith’s poem, the Disserted
Village. The upwelling of people in the few urban centres also resulted in
urban induced problems including crime, unemployment, poor health,
slums and ghettoes. However, against the background of this
educational heritage, it had been pointed out by Nigerians for instance,
Majasan (1967) that pre-colonial traditional education in Nigeria was
relevant in scope, content and methods to the development and cultural
life of Nigerians. On the other hand, Akinlua (2007: 95) submitted that
“the pre-colonial education is the best”. Ociti (1973:105) quoted in
Marah (2006) contended that “before the advent of the Europeans
African indigenous education was quite adequate in so far it met the
requirements of the society at the time.” Scanlon (1964: 3) also quoted
in Marah ( 2006: 17) argued that “the education of the Africans before
the coming of the European was an education that prepared him for his
responsibilities as an adult in his home, his village and his tribe.”
Nevertheless, it was precisely to redress the problem of the
inappropriateness of the education system in Nigeria that efforts were
made to effect changes in Nigeria’s education system in post-
independence period.
1. The inculcation of national consciousness and national unity.
2. the inculcation of the right type of values and attitudes for the survival
of the individuals and the Nigeria society
3. the acquisition of appropriate skills, abilities and competences both
mental and physical as equipment for the individual to live in and
contribute to the development of the society
In order to meet the requirements of education for relevance, useful
living and prepare products of the secondary school system for higher
education the secondary school curriculum in the various subjects was
reviewed. Unfortunately, however, the university system in Nigeria
probably arising from its semiautonomous status remained largely
unaffected by the wind of change in the other (lower) levels of the
 education system. What happens at the last three decades in the
secondary school has relevance for University education for a number of
reasons:
1. In the last three decades when the National Policy on Education was
introduced many products of the Senior Secondary school system who
were admitted into the university had graduated in their various academic
programmes. The secondary school system is therefore an important
preparatory ground for the students who would act as input into the
University system. In this regard, there should be relevance, for example,
between History that is taught/learnt at the secondary school system and
the curriculum in History at the University level.
2. Teacher education programme has not been effectively done to take into
cognisance the changing nature of the education system in the last few
decades. Teacher preparation and university instructional programmes for
secondary school teachers-to-be must be relevant to the
teaching/learning situation in the secondary schools given the prevailing
challenges in the world today.
3. University Lecturers must be aware of the curriculum requirements at the
secondary school system so that they can adjust their instructional
strategies to take cognisance of the demands of the secondary schools.
What is the Difference Between Curriculum and Scheme of Work
Scheme of work refers to the structure and content of an academic course.
A scheme of work is taken from the curriculum, and it focuses on how the
curriculum will be converted into learning activities. Thus, a scheme of work
includes sequencing of content, amount of time spent in each topic and
lesson, and how the specific learning objectives are achieved. Most of the
time, teachers convert the curriculum to a series of lesson plans and
learning activities. Nevertheless, in some cases, curriculum and educational
authorities provide a template for translating the curriculum into lesson plans
and activities. For example, although all state schools in a particular country
follow the same curriculum, they may have different schemes of work.
Therefore, learning activities can also be different from one school to
another, although they work under the same national curriculum.
Scheme of work helps teachers to plan out their work and to schedule the
learning activities for the students. It should also contain all aims and
objectives of the curriculum. At the same time, an effective scheme of work
should maintain a certain level of difficulty in order to make students face
challenging learning activities
What is the Difference Between Curriculum and Scheme of
Work?

The key difference between the curriculum and the scheme of work is
that a curriculum brings out the course study, course content,
guidelines, and lessons of a specific academic course or an academic
program, whereas a scheme of work shows how the curriculum is taught
in the classroom. That is; although the curriculum includes academic
content and theoretical approaches of the academic program, a scheme
of work illustrates the practical side of the components of the
curriculum. So, in brief, a scheme of work comes under the umbrella
term of the curriculum.

However, even though the same national curriculum is followed in state

schools, the scheme of work used in different schools can be different
from each other. This is because the national curriculum is provided by
the national education authority, while the schemes of work are
prepared by the educators in particular schools

Conclusion
From the literature reviewed, we can conclude that the implementation of
educational policies in Nigeria are constrained by the following factors. Most
educational policies are well focused but the planning is often defective,
making implementation difficult. Resources available for the implementation
of a given educational policy are often overestimated and thereby elicit
unrealistic expectations that fail to materialize. Since educational policies are
usually translated into plans before implementation, studies have shown that
the cost of implementing such plans have often been underestimated. Most
educational policies have become stalled at the planning stage. Reliable data
have not been a popular feature in planning education in Nigeria. This
situation has not facilitated the effective implementation of educational
plans. The implantation of educational policies Is also often hindered by the
interplay of policies, which may sometimes relegate reality to obscurity.
Qualified teachers are not in sufficient numbers in the entire educational
system in Nigeria. Studies have already confirmed this to be true of the
U.B.E. Scheme. as well as the secondary education program. The tertiary
level of education, where hundreds of students receive lectures hanging out
of windows and doors and taught by one lecturer, is also confirmation.
Facilities such as classrooms. offices, laboratories, workshops libraries,,
power, water etcetera are basic requirements in every school system. These
have been found to be grossly inadequate in most Nigerian educational
institutions. The Academic Staff Union of Universities (ASUU) has confirmed
this in its numerous publications. Insufficiency of funds for implementing
educational policies in Nigeria is a problem that has recurred in almost every
implementation study that has been carried out. The importance of funds for
carrying out any activities need not be over-emphasized. Government lacks
the political will for effective implementation. Corruption at all levels hinders
the implementation of educational policies and programs.
HOW NATIONAL POLICY OF EDUCATION AND LESSON PLAN THEY RELATE
EACH OTHER
Problems associated with policy implementation

The gap that often exists between policy formulation and implementation provokes inquiry to
identify factors that constrain the effective implementation of educational policies. The problem of
policy implementation is traceable to the planning stage which comes immediately after policy
formulation. Okeke et al. (1985) and Ukeje (1986) have stated clearly that good planning will
ensure effective implementation. Good planning that can facilitate effective implementation ought
to consider such factors as the planning environment, social environment, political environment,
and fi nancial and statistical problems. It is in recognition of this observation that Aghenta (1984:
239) noted:

For education to achieve all ends, it has to be carefully planned. The plan must take into
consideration ... the needs

National Policy on Education

Prior to 1977 Nigeria operated an educational policy inherited from Britain at independence. The
inability of this policy to satisfy the national aspirations of the country rendered it unpopular. In
1969 a National Curriculum Conference was organised which reviewed the inherited curriculum
and identifi ed new national goals for Nigeria’s education. A National Seminar was organised by
the National Educational Research and Development Council (NERDC) in 1973 under the
Chairmanship of Chief S. O. Adebo. This gave rise to the National Policy on Education in 1977
(Akangbou 1985; Bello 1986; Okoroma 2000).

The National Policy on Education is anchored on Nigeria’s philosophy on education as enunciated

through the nation’s objectives. Nigeria has fi ve main national objectives as provided by the
Second National Development Plan and accepted as the necessary foundation for the National
Policy on Education. They are the building of

 a free and democratic society

 a just and egalitarian society
 a united strong and self-reliant nation
 a great and dynamic economy
 a land of bright and full opportunities for all citizens (FRN, 1998)

HOW NATIONAL SYALLABUS AND SCHEME OF WORK THEY RELATE EACH OTHER

A SCHEME OF WORK is designed around the syllabus, but it is more detailed. So if the
syllabus states that the course is made up of 10 modules. There should be a scheme of work
for each module

For non-teachers, the difference between a syllabus and a scheme of work might be a little
trickier to grasp, so here's a short explanation:

 A syllabus is a document outlining which topics and skills are to be covered for a
subject.
 A scheme of work, on the other hand, outlines how the curriculum will be taught

HOW NATIONAL SYLABUS AND LESSON PLAN THEY RELATE EACH OTHER

Teachers and/or curriculum planners will use the syllabus to create a more detailed
framework for the course/curriculum. A scheme of work is a plan which sits between the
whole curriculum and a lesson plan. The scheme will identify each lesson to be taught within
a unit/module of study.

HOW SCHEME OF WORK AND LESSON PLAN THEY RELATE EACH OTHER AND THEY
APPLIED

It is about that list of topics to be taught and learned for a specific period or programme,
while scheme of work is drawn from the syllabus and broken into pieces to be taken on a
termly basis. The lesson plan is a further breaking down of work to be done.
Reference
1. Adesina, O. (2004). The Guardian Newspaper, Monday, 1 November, p.16.
2. Adesina, S. ^977).Planning and Educational Development in Nigeria.
Ibadan: Education Industries (Nigeria) Ltd.
3. Adighije, C. (2005). Saturday Sun Newspaper, 9 April, p.5
4. Aghenta, J.A. (1984). Towards a systems approach to the planning of
secondary education in Nigeria'.In Adesina, Segun and Ogunsaju (Eds.i
Secondary education in Nigeria, lie Ife: University of Ife Press
5. Akagbou, S.D. (1985). The Economics educational Planning in Nigeria.
Bombay: Vikas Publishing House, PVT Ltd