Uppr 6th Inorganic Chemistry

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YOUR NOTES
A Level Chemistry Edexcel 
6. Advanced Inorganic Chemistry (A Level Only)
CONTENTS
6.1 Redox II
6.1.1 Reduction & Oxidation
6.1.2 Standard Electrode Potential
6.1.3 Measuring Standard Electrode Potential
6.1.4 Conventional Cell Representation
6.1.5 Thermodynamics & Electrode Potential
6.1.6 Disproportionation & Electrode Potential
6.1.7 Storage Cells
6.1.8 Fuel Cells
6.1.9 Redox Titration Calculations
6.2 Principles of Transition Metal Chemistry
6.2.1 Transition Metals
6.2.2 Transition Metal Complexes
6.2.3 Coloured Ions
6.2.4 Ligands
6.2.5 Octahedral Complexes
6.2.6 Tetrahedral Complexes
6.2.7 Cis-platin
6.2.8 Haemoglobin
6.2.9 Catalysis
6.2.10 Heterogeneous Catalysis
6.2.11 Homogeneous Catalysis
6.2.12 Autocatalysis
6.3 Reactions of Transition Metal Elements
6.3.1 Vanadium
6.3.2 Chromium
6.3.3 Reactions of Ions in Aqueous Solution
6.3.4 Ligand Exchange
Page 1 of 73
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6.1 Redox II YOUR NOTES


6.1.1 Reduction & Oxidation
Reduction & Oxidation

To recap, there are three definitions of oxidation and reduction used in different branches
of chemistry
Oxidation and reduction can be used to describe any of the following processes
Definitions and Examples of Oxidation & Reduction
Use the acronym "Oil Rig" to help you remember the definitions of oxidation and reduction
s-block elements are usually oxidised by losing electrons to form 1+ and 2+ ions
Na → Na+ + e–
Ca → Ca2+ + 2e–
p-block metals typically undergo oxidation, by losing electrons, to form positive ions
p-block metal ions can have a charge that is consistent with their group of the Periodic
Table
Al → Al3+ + 3e–
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p-block metal ions can also form common ions with a charge that is not consistent YOUR NOTES
with their group 
Sn → Sn2+ + 2e–
p-block non-metals are usually reduced, by gaining electrons, to form negative ions
p-block non-metals form ions with a charge that can be calculated by (the group
number - 8)
F + e- → F– (group 7 - 8 = -1)
O + 2e– → O2- (group 6 - 8 = -2)
d-block elements can form various ions due to their variable oxidation states
d-block elements will usually be oxidised, by losing electrons, to form positive ions,
e.g. Cu2+, Cr3+, V5+
Page 3 of 73
6.1.2 Standard Electrode Potential YOUR NOTES


Standard Electrode Potentials
Standard electrode potential
The position of equilibrium and therefore the electrode potential depends on factors such
as:
Temperature
Pressure of gases
Concentration of reagents
So, to be able to compare the electrode potentials of different species, they all have to be
measured against a common reference or standard
Standard conditions also have to be used when comparing electrode potentials
These standard conditions are:
Ion concentration of 1.00 mol dm-3
A temperature of 298 K
A pressure of 100 kPa
Standard measurements are made using a high resistance voltmeter so that no current
flows and the maximum potential difference is achieved
The electrode potentials are measured relative to a standard hydrogen electrode
The standard hydrogen electrode is given a value of 0.00 V, and all other electrode
potentials are compared to this standard
This means that the electrode potentials are always referred to as a standard electrode
potential (Eꝋ)
The standard electrode potential (Eꝋ) is the potential difference ( sometimes called
voltage) produced when a standard half-cell is connected to a standard hydrogen
cell under standard conditions
For example, the standard electrode potential of bromine suggests that relative to the
hydrogen half-cell it is more likely to get reduced, as it has a more positive Eꝋ value
Br2(l) + 2e– ⇌ 2Br–(aq) Eꝋ = +1.09 V
2H+(aq) + 2e– ⇌ H2(g) Eꝋ = 0.00 V
The standard electrode potential of sodium, on the other hand, suggests that relative to
the hydrogen half-cell it is less likely to get reduced as it has a more negative Eꝋ value
Na+ (aq) + e– ⇌ Na(s) Eꝋ = -2.71 V
2H+ (aq) + 2e– ⇌ H2(g) Eꝋ = 0.00 V
Page 4 of 73
The Standard Hydrogen Electrode, SHE YOUR NOTES

The standard hydrogen electrode is a half-cell used as a reference electrode and 
consists of:
Hydrogen gas in equilibrium with H+ ions of concentration 1.00 mol dm-3 (at 100 kPa)
2H+ (aq) + 2e- ⇌ H2 (g)
An inert platinum electrode that is in contact with the hydrogen gas and H+ ions
When the standard hydrogen electrode is connected to another half-cell, the standard
electrode potential of that half-cell can be read off a high resistance voltmeter
The standard electrode potential of a half-cell can be determined by connecting it to a

standard hydrogen electrode
Page 5 of 73
6.1.3 Measuring Standard Electrode Potential YOUR NOTES


Measuring Standard Electrode Potential
There are three different types of half-cells that can be connected to a standard hydrogen
electrode to measure standard electrode potential
A metal / metal ion half-cell
A non-metal / non-metal ion half-cell
An ion / ion half-cell (the ions are in different oxidation states)
Metal / metal-ion half-cell
Example of a metal / metal ion half-cell connected to a standard hydrogen electrode

An example of a metal/metal ion half-cell is the Ag+/ Ag half-cell
Ag is the metal
Ag+ is the metal ion
This half-cell is connected to a standard hydrogen electrode and the two half-equations
are:
Ag+ (aq) + e- ⇌ Ag (s) Eꝋ = + 0.80 V
2H+ (aq) + 2e- ⇌ H2 (g) Eꝋ = 0.00 V
Since the Ag+/ Ag half-cell has a more positive Eꝋ value, this is the positive pole and the
H+/H2 half-cell is the negative pole
The standard cell potential (Ecellꝋ) is Ecellꝋ = (+ 0.80) - (0.00) = + 0.80 V
Page 6 of 73
The Ag+ ions are more likely to get reduced than the H+ ions as it has a greater Eꝋ value YOUR NOTES
Reduction occurs at the positive electrode 
Oxidation occurs at the negative electrode
Non-metal / non-metal ion half-cell
In a non-metal / non-metal ion half-cell, platinum wire or foil is used as an electrode to
make electrical contact with the solution
Like graphite, platinum is inert and does not take part in the reaction
The redox equilibrium is established on the platinum surface
An example of a non-metal / non-metal ion is the Br2 / Br- half-cell
Br2 is the non-metal
Br- is the non-metal ion
The half-cell is connected to a standard hydrogen electrode and the two half-equations
are:
Br2 (aq) + 2e- ⇌ 2Br- (aq) Eꝋ = +1.09 V
2H+ (aq) + 2e- ⇌ H2 (g) Eꝋ = 0.00 V
The Br2 / Br- half-cell is the positive pole and the H+ / H2 is the negative pole
The Ecellꝋ is: Ecellꝋ = (+ 1.09) - (0.00) = + 1.09 V
The Br2 molecules are more likely to get reduced than H+ as they have a greater Eꝋ value
Example of a non-metal / non-metal ion half-cell connected to a standard hydrogen

electrode
Page 7 of 73
Ion / Ion half-cell YOUR NOTES

A platinum electrode is again used to form a half-cell of ions that are in different oxidation 
states
-
An example of such a half-cell is the MnO4 / Mn2+ half-cell
MnO4- is an ion containing Mn with oxidation state +7
The Mn2+ ion contains Mn with oxidation state +2
This half-cell is connected to a standard hydrogen electrode and the two half-equations
are:
MnO4- (aq) + 8H+ (aq) + 5e- ⇌ Mn2+ (aq) + 4H2O (l) Eꝋ = +1.52 V
2H+ (aq) + 2e- ⇌ H2 (g) Eꝋ = 0.00 V
The H+ ions are also present in the half-cell as they are required to convert MnO4- into Mn2+
ions
The MnO4- / Mn2+ half-cell is the positive pole and the H+ / H2 is the negative pole
The Ecellꝋ is Ecellꝋ = (+ 1.09) - (0.00) = + 1.09 V
Ions in solution half cell

The Salt Bridge
A salt bridge has mobile ions that complete the circuit
Ions must be able to flow between the half-cells or solutions
This should be made on metal wire, even if the metal is inert
Metal wire allows the flow of electrons but not the flow of ions
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Potassium chloride and potassium nitrate are commonly used to make the salt bridge as YOUR NOTES
chlorides and nitrates are usually soluble 
This should ensure that no precipitates form which can affect the equilibrium position of the
half cells
Page 9 of 73
Electromotive Force YOUR NOTES

Standard cell potential 
Once the Eꝋ of a half-cell is known, the potential difference or voltage or emf of an
electrochemical cell made up of any two half-cells can be calculated
These could be any half-cells and neither have to be a standard hydrogen electrode
The standard cell potential (Ecellꝋ) can be calculated by subtracting the less positive Eꝋ
from the more positive Eꝋ value
The half-cell with the more positive Eꝋ value will be the positive pole
By convention this is shown on the right hand side in a conventional cell diagram,
so is termed Erightꝋ
The half-cell with the less positive Eꝋ value will be the negative pole
By convention this is shown on the left hand side in a conventional cell diagram, so
is termed Eleftꝋ
Ecellꝋ = Erightꝋ - Eleftꝋ
Since oxidation is always on the left and reduction on the right, you can also use this
version
Ecellꝋ = Ereductionꝋ - Eoxidation
 Worked Example
Calculating the standard cell potential
Calculate the standard cell potential for the electrochemical cell below and explain
why the Cu2+ / Cu half-cell is the positive pole. The half-equations are as follows:
Cu2+(aq) + 2e- ⇌ Cu(s) Eꝋ = +0.34 V
Zn2+(aq) + 2e- ⇌ Zn(s) Eꝋ = −0.76 V
Page 10 of 73
YOUR NOTES

Answer
Step 1: Calculate the standard cell potential. The copper is more positive so must be the
right hand side.
Ecellꝋ = Erightꝋ - Eleftꝋ
Ecellꝋ = (+0.34) - (-0.76)
= +1.10 V
The voltmeter will therefore give a value of +1.10 V
Step 2: Determine the positive and negative poles
The Cu2+ / Cu half-cell is the positive pole as its Eꝋ is more positive than the Eꝋ value of the
Zn2+ / Zn half-cell
Page 11 of 73
Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 A helpful mnemonic for remembering redox in cells

Lio the lion goes Roor!

Lio stands for 'Left Is Oxidation' and he is saying ROOR because that is the order of
species in the cell:
Reduced/Oxidised (salt bridge) Oxidised/Reduced
Page 12 of 73
6.1.4 Conventional Cell Representation YOUR NOTES


Conventional Cell Representation
Conventional Representation of Cells
As it is cumbersome and time-consuming to draw out every electrochemical cell in full, a
system of notation is used which describes the cell in full, but does not require it to be
drawn.
An electrochemical cell can be represented in a shorthand way by a cell diagram
(sometimes called cell representations or cell notations)
The conventional representation of voltaic cells

By convention, the half cell with the greatest negative potential is written on the left of the
salt bridge, so Eθcell = Eθright – Eθleft
In this case, Eθcell = +0.34 – -0.76 = +1.10 V.
The left cell is being oxidized while the right is being reduced
If there is more than one species in solution, and the species are on different sides of the
half-equation, the different species are separated by a comma
This method of representing electrochemical cells is known as the conventional
representation of a cell, and it is widely used
If both species in a half reaction are aqueous then an inert platinum electrode is needed
which is recorded on the outside of the half cell diagram
Some Examples
For the iron(II) and iron(III) half cell reaction a platinum electrode is needed as an electron
carrier
The half equation is
Fe3+(aq) + e- ⇌ Fe2+(aq)
So the cell convention as a left hand electrode would be
Pt 丨Fe2+(aq), Fe3+(aq)
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Notice the order must be Fe(II) then Fe(III) as the left side is an oxidation reaction, so Fe(II) is YOUR NOTES
oxidised to Fe(III) by the loss of an electron 
The platinum electrode is separated by the phase boundary (vertical solid line), but the
iron(II) and iron(III) are separated by a comma since they are in the same phase
Non-metals will also require a platinum electrode
If chlorine is used as an electrode the reduction reaction is
Cl2(g) + 2e- ⇌ 2Cl-(aq)
The conventional representation of the half reaction would be
Cl2 (g), 2Cl- (aq) | Pt
Notice that the half cell reaction is balanced; however, it would be also correct to write it as
Cl2 (g), Cl- (aq) | Pt
This is because conventional cell diagrams are not quantitative- they are just
representations of the materials and redox processes going on
Most chemists tend to show them balanced anyway
Combining these two half cells together gives
Pt | Fe2+(aq), Fe3+(aq) ∥ Cl2 (g), 2Cl- (aq) | Pt
As you can see the overall cell diagram is not quantitative as the left side is a one electron
transfer and the right side is a two electron transfer
Page 14 of 73
6.1.5 Thermodynamics & Electrode Potential YOUR NOTES


Thermodynamic Feasibility
Feasibility
The Eꝋ values of a species indicate how easily they can get oxidised or reduced
The more positive the value, the easier it is to reduce the species on the left of the half-
equation
The reaction will tend to proceed in the forward direction
The less positive the value, the easier it is to oxidise the species on the right of the half-
equation
The reaction will tend to proceed in the backward direction
A reaction is feasible (likely to occur) when the Ecellꝋ is positive
For example, two half-cells in the following electrochemical cell are:
Cl2 (g) + 2e- ⇌ 2Cl- (aq) Eꝋ = +1.36 V
Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- ⇌ Cu (s) Eꝋ = +0.34 V
Cl2 molecules are reduced as they have a more positive Eꝋ value
The chemical reaction that occurs in this half cell is:
Cl2 (g) + 2e- → 2Cl- (aq)
Cu2+ ions are oxidised as they have a less positive Eꝋ value
The chemical reaction that occurs in this half cell is:
Cu (s) → Cu2+ (aq) + 2e-
The overall equation of the electrochemical cell is (after cancelling out the electrons):
Cu (s) + Cl2 (g) → 2Cl- (aq) + Cu2+ (aq)
OR
Cu (s) + Cl2 (g) → CuCl2 (s)
The forward reaction is feasible (spontaneous) as it has a positive Eꝋ value of +1.02 V
((+1.36) - (+0.34))
The backward reaction is not feasible (not spontaneous) as it has a negative Eꝋ value of
-1.02 ((+0.34) - (+1.36))
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YOUR NOTES

A reaction is feasible when the standard cell potential Eꝋ is positive
Page 16 of 73
Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 You may have to apply your understanding (from the above worked example) to

questions with more than 2 equations
The process is still the same in terms of identifying the most positive / least
negative value as the reduction reactions
This reaction will also contain the oxidising agent on the left hand side
Entropy Change & ln K

Cell potential is related to both entropy, S, and the equilibrium constant, K
A larger cell potential means a bigger change in total entropy
Therefore, we can say that cell potential is directly proportional to total entropy change
Eθ ∝ ΔStotal
The use of two equations for Gibbs free energy change can also show that:
Eθ ∝ lnK
ΔG = –nF Eθcell
ΔG = –RT ln K
 Exam Tip
You are expected to be aware of the two directly proportional relationships
described
However, you are not expected to work with the Faraday based Gibbs free energy
equation
ΔG = –nF Eθcell
The Faraday constant, F, is not given in the Data Booklet
Page 17 of 73
Limitations of Standard Electrode Potential Predictions YOUR NOTES

The thermodynamic feasibility of a reaction can be deduced from the electrode potential, 
however, it gives no information about the rate of reaction
As standard electrode potentials are measured using solutions, we have to consider the le
Châtelier's effect on concentration using non-standard conditions
For example, the redox equilibrium equation and standard electrode potential for the
V3+ | V2+ system are:
V3+ (aq) + e- ⇌ V2+ (aq) Eθ = +0.26 V
If the concentration of V3+ (aq) is greater than 1.0 mol dm-3, then the equilibrium will
shift to the right
This will remove electrons from the system, therefore, making the electrode
potential less negative
If the concentration of V2+ (aq) is greater than 1.0 mol dm-3, then the equilibrium will
shift to the left
This will add electrons to the system, therefore, making the electrode potential
more negative
Any change to the concentration will cause a change to the electrode potential and,
therefore, to the overall cell potential
This is true of any change to the conditions that results in non-standard
conditions
Reaction kinetics can also affect the prediction
1. The rate of reaction may simply be so slow that it looks like the reaction isn't
happening, when it is
2. The reaction may have a high activation energy which inhibits the reaction, for
example:
Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- ⇌ Cu (s) Eθ = 0.34 V
2H+ (aq) + 2e- ⇌ H2 (g) Eθ = 0.00 V
The reaction of Cu2+ (aq) + H2 (g) → Cu (s) + 2H+ (aq) is thermodynamically feasible
with an electromotive force of +0.34 V
However, this reaction does not occur as the activation energy is so high which
means that the reactants are kinetically stable
Another, more basic limitation is the fact that many redox reactions are not aqueous
Page 18 of 73
6.1.6 Disproportionation & Electrode Potential YOUR NOTES


Disproportionation & Electrode Potential
A disproportionation reaction is where one element in a chemical is simultaneously
reduced and oxidised, e.g.
2Cu+ (aq) → Cu2+ (aq) + Cu (s)
Standard electrode potentials can be used to explain disproportionation reactions
1. Cu2+ (aq) + e– ⇌ Cu+ (aq) Eθ = +0.15 V
2. Cu+ (aq) + e– ⇌ Cu (s) Eθ = +0.52 V
The electrode potential value for equation 1 is more negative, therefore, this reaction
will be the oxidation reaction and proceed to the left
The electrode potential value for equation 2 is more positive, therefore, this reaction
will be the reduction reaction and proceed to the right
You now have:
Cu+ (aq) ⇌ Cu2+ (aq) + e–
Cu+ (aq) + e– ⇌ Cu (s)
Combining these two equations agrees that the overall equation is possible
2Cu+ (aq) → Cu2+ (aq) + Cu (s)
Page 19 of 73
6.1.7 Storage Cells YOUR NOTES


Storage Cells
Electrochemical cells can be used as a commercial source of electrical energy
Cells can be described as primary, secondary or fuel cells
Primary cells are non-rechargeable (irreversible)
Secondary cells are rechargeable
Type of cells used in commercial applications depend on
the voltage required
the current needed
the size of the cell
the cost
Although it is commonly used incorrectly, the term battery should be used to refer to a
collection of cells
A car battery is correct, because it is a collection of six cells joined together
Primary cells
The Daniell cell
The Daniell cell was one of the earliest electrochemical cells and consisted of a simple
metal-metal ion system
It was invented by British chemist John Daniell in 1836
The cell consists of
a zinc rod immersed in a solution of zinc sulfate
a copper cylinder filled with copper sulfate solution
a porous pot that separates the copper sulfate from the zinc sulfate
A Daniell cell
The zinc acts as the negative electrode and the copper is the positive electrode
Page 20 of 73
The half-cell reactions are YOUR NOTES

Zn (s) → Zn2+ (aq) + 2e- Eθ = -0.76 V 
Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- → Cu (s) Eθ = +0.34 V

The cell generates an EMF of 1.1 V and the overall reaction is
Zn (s) + CuSO4 (aq)→ Cu (s) + ZnSO4 (aq) Eθcell = +1.10 V
However, the cell is impractical to use as a portable device because of the hazardous
liquids in the cell
Zinc-carbon cells
Zinc-carbon cells are the most common type of non-rechargeable cells, consisting of
a zinc casing which acts as the negative electrode
a paste of ammonium chloride which acts as an electrolyte as well as the positive
electrode
a carbon rod which acts as an electron carrier in the cell
The zinc-carbon cell

The half-cell reactions are
Zn (s) → Zn2+ (aq) + 2e- Eθ = -0.76 V
2NH4+ (aq) + 2e- → 2NH3 (g) + H2 (g) Eθ = +0.74 V
The cell generates an emf of 1.50 V and the overall reaction is
2NH4+ (aq) + Zn (s) → 2NH3 (g) + H2 (g) + Zn2+ (aq) Eθcell = +1.50 V
As the cell discharges, the zinc casing eventually wears away and the corrosive contents of
the electrolyte paste can leak out, which is an obvious disadvantage of zinc-carbon cells
Page 21 of 73
The cell provides a small current and is relative cheap compared to other cells YOUR NOTES
Extra long life cells have a similar chemistry, but supply a higher current and use zinc chloride 
in the paste; they are suitable for torches, radios and clocks
Another variation on the cell uses an alkaline paste in the electrolyte and they have a much
longer operating life, but are noticeably more expensive than regular zinc-carbon cells
Secondary Cells
Secondary / rechargeable cells employ chemical reactions which can be reversed by
applying a voltage greater than the cell voltage, causing electrons to push in the opposite
direction
There are many types of rechargeable cells, but common ones include lead-acid batteries,
NiCad cells and lithium cells which are covered in more detail in the next section
Lead-acid batteries
Lead-acid batteries consist of six cells joined together in series
The cells use lead metal as the negative electrode and and lead(IV) oxide as the positive
electrode
The electrolyte is sulfuric acid
A lead-acid battery
Pb (s) + SO42- (aq) → PbSO4 (s) + 2e- Eθ = -0.36 V
PbO2 (s) + 4H+ (aq) + SO42- (aq) + 2e- → PbSO4 (s) + 2H2O (l) Eθ = +1.70 V
The cell generates an EMF of about 2 V and the overall reaction is
PbO2 (s) + 4H+ (aq) + 2SO42- (aq) + Pb (s) → 2PbSO4 (s) + 2H2O (l) Eθcell = +2.06 V
In a commercial car battery, the six cells in series give a combined voltage of about 12 V
When the car is in motion, the generator provides a push of electrons that reverses the
reaction and regenerates lead and lead(IV) oxide
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Lead-acid batteries are designed to produce a high current for a short period of time, YOUR NOTES
hence their use in powering a starter motor in car engines 
The disadvantage of lead-acid batteries is that:
They are very heavy
They contain toxic materials: lead and lead(IV) oxide
The sulfuric acid electrolyte is very corrosive
This presents challenges of disposal when lead-acid batteries come to the end of their
useful life
NiCad cells
NiCad stands for nickel-cadmium and these cells are available in many standard sizes and
voltages so they can replace almost any application of traditional zinc-carbon cells
Although they are more expensive cells, the fact they can be recharged hundreds of times
means they are commercially viable
The positive electrode consists of cadmium and the negative electrode is made of a
nickel(II) hydroxide-oxide system
Cd (s) + 2OH- (aq) → Cd(OH)2 (s) + 2e- Eθ = -0.82 V
NiO(OH) (s) + H2O (l) + e- → Ni(OH)2 (s) + OH- (aq) Eθ = +0.38 V
The overall reaction in the cell is
2NiO(OH) (s) + 2H2O (l) + Cd (s) → 2Ni(OH)2 (s) + Cd(OH)2 (s) Eθ = +1.2 V
Cadmium is a toxic metal so the disposal of old NiCad cells is also an environmental issue
Lithium Cells
Lithium ion cells power the laptop or mobile device you are probably reading this on
The Noble Prize for Chemistry in 2019 was awarded to John B. Goodenough, M. Stanley
Whittingham and Akira Yoshino for their work on lithium ion cells that have revolutionised
portable electronics
Lithium is used because it has a very low density and relatively high electrode potential
The cell consists of:
a positive lithium cobalt oxide electrode
a negative carbon electrode
a porous polymer membrane electrolyte
The polymer electrolyte cannot leak since it is not a liquid or paste, which presents
advantages over other types of cells
Page 23 of 73
YOUR NOTES

Lithium ion cell

The cell consists of a sandwich of different layers of lithium cobalt oxide and carbon
When the cell is charged and discharged the lithium ions flow between the negative and the
positive through the solid electrolyte
The half-cell reactions on discharge are:
Li (s) → Li+ (s) + e– Eθ = -3 V
Li+ (s) + CoO2 (s) + e– → Li + (CoO2) – (s) Eθ = +1 V
The cell generates an EMF of between 3.5 V and 4.0 V and the overall reaction is
Li (s) + CoO2 (s) → Li + (CoO2) – (s) Eθcell ~ +3.5
NiCad cells have a problem called the memory effect in which they gradually begin to lose
their charge after repeated charge cycles when the cell is not fully discharged. The cells
appear to 'remember' their lower state of charge
Lithium-ion cells do not have this problem so can be topped up without any loss of charge
Some of the problems with lithium ion cells:
A global shortage of lithium is likely to make lithium ion cells unsustainable as the
current demand for lithium exceeds the supply
If cells are not recycled but thrown away in landfills, then a huge amount of lithium
becomes lost to future generations
Reports of lithium ion cell fires have raised concern about the safety of these batteries
in electronic devices; it is a reminder to us that lithium is a very reactive element in
Group 1 of the periodic table, which is why it has a high electrode potential
Page 24 of 73
6.1.8 Fuel Cells YOUR NOTES


Fuel Cells
A fuel cell is an electrochemical cell in which a fuel donates electrons at one electrode and
oxygen gains electrons at the other electrode
These cells are becoming more common in the automotive industry to replace petrol or
diesel engines
As the fuel enters the cell it becomes oxidised which sets up a potential difference or
voltage within the cell
Different electrolytes and fuels can be used to set up different types of fuel cells
Methanol and other hydrogen rich fuels can be used in fuel cells but the hydrogen-
oxygen fuel cell is the most common currently
An important cell is the hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell which combines both elements to
release energy and water
Page 25 of 73
YOUR NOTES

Diagram showing the movement of hydrogen, oxygen and electrons in a hydrogen-oxygen

fuel cell
The fuel cell consists of
a reaction chamber with separate inlets for hydrogen and oxygen gas
an outlet for the product - water
an electrolyte
two metal electrodes that are coated in platinum to catalyse the reactions at the
electrodes
a semi-permeable membrane that separates the hydrogen and oxygen gases
The alkaline hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell
The half equations occurring at each electrode are:
Page 26 of 73
Negative electrode: H2 (g) + 2OH– (aq) → 2H2O (l) + 2e– Eθ = -0.83 V YOUR NOTES
Positive electrode: O2 (g) + 2H2O + 4e– → 4OH– (aq) Eθ = +0.40 V 
The overall reaction is found by combining the two half equations and cancelling the
common terms:
2H2 (g) + 4OH– (aq) + O2 (g) + 2H2O + 4e– → 2H2O (l) + 4e– + 4OH– (aq)
2H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2H2O(l) Eθ = +1.23 V
The acidic hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell
The half equations occurring at each electrode are:
Negative electrode: H2 (g) → 2H+ (aq) + 2e– Eθ = 0.00 V
Positive electrode: O2 (g) + 4H+ (aq) + 4e– → 2H2O (l) Eθ = +1.23 V
The overall reaction is found by combining the two half equations and cancelling the
common terms:
2H2 (g) + O2 (g) + 4H+ (aq) + 4e– → 2H2O (l) + 4H+ (aq) + 4e–
2H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2H2O(l) Eθ = +1.23 V
Benefits
Water is the only reaction product, so fuel cells present obvious environmental advantages
over other types of cells
The reaction is the same as hydrogen combusting in oxygen, but since the reaction takes
place at room temperature without combustion, all the bond energy is converted into
electrical energy instead of heat and light
There are no harmful oxides of nitrogen produced, which are usually formed in high
temperature combustion reactions where air is present
Fuel cells have been used on space craft, where the product can be used as drinking water
for astronauts
Risks and problems
Hydrogen is a highly flammable gas and the production and storage of hydrogen carries
safety hazards
Very thick walled cylinders and pipes are needed to store hydrogen which has economic
impacts
The production of hydrogen is a by-product of the crude oil industry, which means it relies
on a non-renewable, finite resource
Until a cheap way is found to make hydrogen, its widespread use in fuel cells will be limited
Hydrogen has high energy density, that is, the amount of energy contained in 1g of the fuel
is high compared to other fuels, but because it is a gas, its energy density per unit volume is
low which means larger containers are needed compared to liquid fuels
Page 27 of 73
Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 One difference between fuel cells and other cells is that the cell operates

continuously as long as there is a supply of hydrogen and oxygen; the energy is not
stored in the cell.
Page 28 of 73
6.1.9 Redox Titration Calculations YOUR NOTES


Redox Titration Calculations
Redox Titrations
In a titration, the concentration of a solution is determined by titrating with a solution of
known concentration.
In redox titrations, an oxidising agent is titrated against a reducing agent
Electrons are transferred from one species to the other
Indicators are sometimes used to show the endpoint of the titration
However, most transition metal ions naturally change colour when changing oxidation
state
There are two common redox titrations you should know about manganate(VII) titrations
and iodine-thiosulfate titrations
Potassium manganate(VII) titrations
In these redox titrations the manganate(VII) is the oxidising agent and is reduced to Mn2+
(aq)
The iron is the reducing agent and is oxidised to Fe3+(aq) and the reaction mixture must be
acidified, to excess acid is added to the iron(II) ions before the reaction begins
The choice of acid is important, as it must not react with the manganate(VII) ions, so the
acid normally used is dilute sulfuric acid
As it does not oxidise under these conditions and does not react with the
manganate(VII) ions
You could be asked why other acids are not suitable for this redox titration in the exam so
make sure you understand the suitability of dilute sulfuric acid
Table explaining why other acids are not suitable for the redox titration
Indicator and end point

Potassium permanganate acts as its own indicator, as the purple potassium
permanganate solution is added to the titration flask from the burette and reacts rapidly
with the Fe2+(aq)
The burette used in this practical should be one with white numbering not black, as you
would struggle to read the values for your titres against the purple colour of the
Page 29 of 73
potassium permanganate if black numbering was used YOUR NOTES

The manganese(II) ions, Mn2+(aq), have a very pale pink colour but they are present in such 
a low concentration that the solution looks colourless
As soon as all of the iron(II), Fe2+(aq), ions have reacted with the added manganate(VII)
ions, Mn7+(aq), a pale pink tinge appears in the flask due to an excess of manganate(VII) ions, Mn7+(aq)
Redox titration colour change for potassium permanganate and iron(II) ions
 Worked Example
Equations
Find the stoichiometry for the reaction and complete the two half equations:
MnO4- (aq) + 5e- + 8H+ (aq) → Mn2+ (aq) + 4H2O (l)
Fe2+ (aq) → Fe3+ (aq) + e-
Answers:
Balance the electrons:
MnO4- (aq) + 5e- + 8H+ (aq) → Mn2+ (aq) + 4H2O (l)
5Fe2+ (aq) → 5Fe3+ (aq) + 5e-
Add the two half equations:
Page 30 of 73
MnO4- (aq) + 8H+ (aq) 5Fe2+ (aq) → Mn2+ (aq) + 4H2O (l) + 5Fe3+ (aq) YOUR NOTES
Manganate(VII) titrations can be used to determine: 
The percentage purity of iron supplements
mass of sample
Percentage purity = × 100
mass of impure sample
The formula of a sample of hydrated ethanedioic acid
 Worked Example
Analysis of iron tablets
An iron tablet, weighing 0.960 g was dissolved in dilute sulfuric acid. An average
titre of 28.50 cm3 of 0.0180 mol dm-3 potassium manganate(VII) solution was
needed to reach the endpoint.
What is the percentage by mass of iron in the tablet?
Answer:
MnO4- (aq) + 8H+ (aq) + 5Fe2+ → Mn2+ (aq) + 5Fe3+ (aq) + 4H2O (l)
1 : 5 ratio of MnO4- : Fe2+
0 . 0180 × 25. 0
Number of moles of MnO4- (aq) = = 5.13 x 10-4 moles
1000
Moles of iron(II) = 5 x 5.13 x 10-4 = 2.565 x 10-3 moles
Mass of iron(II) = 56.0 x 2.565 x 10-3 = 0.14364 g
0 . 14364
Percentage by mass = = × 100 = 15.0%
0 . 960
Iodine-Thiosulfate Titrations
A redox reaction occurs between iodine and thiosulfate ions:
2S2O32– (aq) + I2 (aq) → 2I–(aq) + S4O62– (aq)
The light brown/yellow colour of the iodine turns paler as it is converted to colourless iodide
ions
When the solution is a straw colour, starch is added to clarify the end point
The solution turns blue/black until all the iodine reacts, at which point the colour
disappears.
This titration can be used to determine the concentration of an oxidizing agent, which
oxidizes iodide ions to iodine molecules
The amount of iodine is determined from titration against a known quantity of sodium
thiosulfate solution
Page 31 of 73
YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

Analysis of household bleach
Chlorate(I) ions, ClO-, are the active ingredient in many household bleaches.
10.0 cm3 of bleach was made up to 250.0 cm3. 25.0 cm3 of this solution had 10.0
cm3 of 1.0 mol dm-3 potassium iodide and then acidified with 1.0 mol dm-3
hydrochloric acid.
ClO- (aq) + 2I- (aq) + 2H+ (aq) → Cl- (aq) + I2 (aq) + H2O (l)
This was titrated with 0.05 mol dm-3 sodium thiosulfate solution giving an average
titre of 25.20 cm3.
2S2O32- (aq) + I2 (aq) → 2I- (aq) + S4O62- (aq)
What is the concentration of chlorate(I) ions in the bleach?
Answer:
One mole of ClO- (aq) produces one mole of I2 (aq) which reacts with two moles of
2S2O32- (aq)
Therefore, 1 : 2 ratio of ClO- (aq) : S2O32- (aq)
0 . 05 × 25. 20
Number of moles of S2O32- (aq) = = 1.26 x 10-3 moles
1000
1 . 26 × 10−3
Number of moles of I2 (aq) and ClO- (aq) in 25.0 cm3 = = 6.30 x 10-
2
4 moles
Number of moles of ClO- (aq) in 250.0 cm3 = 6.30 x 10-4 x 10 = 6.30 x 10-3 moles
The 250.0 cm3 was prepared from 10.0 cm3 bleach
10 cm3 bleach = 6.30 x 10-3 moles of ClO- ions
1.0 dm3 bleach = 0.630 moles of ClO- ions
Therefore, the concentration of ClO- ions in the bleach is 0.630 mol dm-3
 Exam Tip
General sequence for redox titration calculations
1. Write down the half equations for the oxidant and reductant
2. Deduce the overall equation
3. Calculate the number of moles of manganate(VII) or dichromate(VI) used
4. Calculate the ratio of moles of oxidant to moles of reductant from the overall
redox equation
5. Calculate the number of moles in the sample solution of the reductant
6. Calculate the number of moles in the original solution of reductant
7. Determine either the concentration of the original solution or the percentage of
reductant in a known quantity of sample
Page 32 of 73
6.2 Principles of Transition Metal Chemistry YOUR NOTES


6.2.1 Transition Metals
General Properties of Transition Metals

Transition metals are elements with an incomplete d-subshell that can form at least one
stable ion with an incomplete d-subshell
This definition distinguishes them from d-block elements, because scandium and zinc do
not fit the definition
Scandium only forms the ion Sc3+, configuration [Ar] 3d0
Zinc only forms the ion Zn2+, configuration [Ar] 3d10
The elements of the first transition series are therefore titanium to copper
The transition elements and the d-block elements

Electron Configuration
The full electronic configuration of the first d-series transition metals is shown in the table
below
Following the Aufbau Principle electrons occupy the lowest energy subshells first
The 4s overlaps with the 3d subshell so the 4s is filled first
Remember that you can abbreviate the first five subshells, 1s-3p, as [Ar] representing the
configuration of argon( known as the argon core)
Table showing the Electronic Configuration of the First d-series Transition Elements
Page 33 of 73
YOUR NOTES

From AS Chemistry you should recall two exceptions to the Aufbau Principle, chromium and
copper
In both cases an electron is promoted from the 4s to the 3d to achieve a half full and full d-
subshell, respectively
Chromium and copper have the following electron configurations, which are different to
what you may expect:
Cr is [Ar] 3d5 4s1 not [Ar] 3d4 4s2
Cu is [Ar] 3d10 4s1 not [Ar] 3d9 4s2
This is because the [Ar] 3d5 4s1 and [Ar] 3d10 4s1 configurations are energetically more
stable
 Worked Example
Writing electronic configuration of transition element ions
State the full electronic configuration of the manganese(III) ion
Answer
Step 1: Write out the electron configuration of the atom first:
Mn atomic number = 25
Page 34 of 73
1s22s22p63s23p64s23d5 YOUR NOTES

2 + 2 + 6 + 2 + 6 + 2 + 5 = 25 electrons 
Step 2: Subtract the appropriate number of electrons starting from the 4s subshell
Mn(III) = 22 electrons
1s22s22p63s23p63d4
General properties
Although the transition elements are metals, they have some properties unlike those of
other metals on the periodic table, such as:
Variable oxidation states
Form complex ions
Form coloured compounds
Behave as catalysts
Page 35 of 73
Variable Oxidation Number YOUR NOTES

Like other metals on the periodic table, the transition elements will lose electrons to form 
positively charged ions
However, unlike other metals, transition elements can form more than one positive ion
They are said to have variable oxidation states
Because of this, Roman numerals are used to indicate the oxidation state on the metal ion
For example, the metal sodium (Na) will only form Na+ ions (no Roman numerals are
needed, as the ion formed by Na will always have an oxidation state of +1)
The transition metal iron (Fe) can form Fe2+ (Fe(II)) and Fe3+ (Fe(III)) ions
When transition elements forms ions they lose electrons from the 4s subshell first
This is because when the orbitals are occupied, the repulsion between electrons pushes
the 4s into a higher energy state so that it now becomes slightly higher in energy than
the 3d subshell
The 4s is now the outer shell and loses electrons first
The loss of the 4s electrons means that +2 is a common oxidation state in transition metals
The reason why the transition metals have variable oxidation states all comes down to
energy
Table showing the Common Oxidation States of Transition Elements
Page 36 of 73
6.2.2 Transition Metal Complexes YOUR NOTES


Transition Metal Complexes
Transition element ions can form complexes which consist of a central metal
ion and ligands
A ligand is a molecule or ion that forms a co-ordinate bond with a transition metal by
donating a pair of electrons to the bond
This is the definition of a Lewis base - electron pair donor
This means ligands have a negative charge or a lone pair of electrons capable of being
donated
This definition may seem familiar: a ligand is the same as a nucleophile
Different ligands can form different numbers of dative bonds to the central metal ion in a
complex
Some ligands can form one dative bond to the central metal ion
Other ligands can form two dative bonds, and some can form multiple dative bonds
Co-ordination number is number of co-ordinate bonds to the central metal atom or ion
Common Ligands
Water molecules frequently act as ligands. Each water molecule makes a single bond with
the metal ion using one of the lone pairs on the oxygen atom
The lone pair is donated to the partially filled d-subshell of the transition metal ion
Table showing Examples of Common Monodentate Ligands
Representing complex ions

Square brackets are used to group together the ligands and metal ion in a representation of
the geometrical arrangement
The overall charge on the complex ion is the sum of the oxidation states of all the species
present
If the ligands are neutral then the overall charge will be the same as the oxidation state of
the metal ion
Page 37 of 73
YOUR NOTES

Examples of complexes with monodentate ligands

Naming complexes
Complexes are named in the following way
If the overall ion is a cation then the nomenclature is:
Prefix for number of ligands/ligand name/element/oxidation number
The prefixes are the same ones used in organic chemistry: di, tetra, hexa for 2, 4 & 6
respectively (3 & 5 are rarely encountered except in mixed ligand complexes)
If the overall ion is an anion, the name of element is modified to have the name ending 'ate'
and sometimes Latin word stems are used
tetrachlorcuprate(II)
hexaaquairon(II)
hexaamminecobalt(II)
tetracyanonickelate(II)Using the examples in the illustration above, the names are:
Notice in these examples that
cuprate( Latin - cuprum) and nickelate are used in place of copper and nickel as they
are anions
Ammonia takes the prefix ammine as a ligand, which is spelt with a double 'm' unlike
the functional group amine
Page 38 of 73
6.2.3 Coloured Ions YOUR NOTES


Coloured Ions
Perception of colour
Most transition metal compounds appear coloured. This is because they absorb energy
corresponding to certain parts of the visible electromagnetic spectrum
The colour that is seen is made up of the parts of the visible spectrum that aren’t absorbed
For example, a green compound will absorb all frequencies of the spectrum apart from
green light, which is transmitted
The colours absorbed are complementary to the colour observed
The colour wheel showing complementary colours in the visible light region of the
electromagnetic spectrum
Complementary colours are any two colours which are directly opposite each other in the
colour wheel
For example, the complementary colour of red is green and the complementary
colours of red-violet are yellow-green
Splitting of 3d energy levels
In a transition metal atom, the five orbitals that make up the d-subshell all have the same
energy.
Ions that have completely filled 3d energy levels (such as Zn2+) and ions that have no
electrons in their 3d subshells (such as Sc3+) are not coloured
Transition metals have a partially filled 3d energy level
When ligands attach to the central metal ion the energy level splits into two levels with
slightly different energies
If one of the electrons in the lower energy level absorbs energy from the visible
spectrum it can move to the higher energy level
This process is known as promotion / excitation
The amount of energy absorbed depends on the difference between the energy levels
A larger energy difference means the electron absorbs more energy
The amount of energy gained by the electron is directly proportional to the frequency of the
absorbed light and inversely proportional to the wavelength
Page 39 of 73
YOUR NOTES

Upon bonding to ligands, the d orbitals of the transition element ion split into sets of orbitals
with different energies
Page 40 of 73
Changes in Colour YOUR NOTES

The size of the splitting energy ΔE in the d-orbitals is influenced by the following four factors: 
The size and type of ligands
The nuclear charge and identity of the metal ion
The oxidation state of the metal
The shape of the complex
The large variety of coloured compounds is a defining characteristic of transition metals

Size and type of ligand
The nature of the ligand influences the strength of the interaction between ligand and
central metal ion
Ligands vary in their charge density
The greater the charge density; the more strongly the ligand interacts with the metal ion
causing greater splitting of the d-orbitals
The further it is then shifted towards the region of the spectrum where it absorbs higher
energy
As a result, a different colour of light is absorbed by the complex solution and a
different complementary colour is observed
This means that complexes with the same transition
elements ions, but different ligands, can have different colours
For example, the [Cu(H2O)6]2+ complex has a light blue colour
Whereas the [Cu(NH3)4(H2O)2]2+ has a dark blue colour despite the copper(II) ion
having an oxidation state of +2 in both complexes
Ligand exchange of the water ligands by ammonia ligands causes a change in colour of the
copper(II) complex solution
Oxidation number
Page 41 of 73
When the same metal has a higher oxidation number that will also create a stronger YOUR NOTES
interaction with the ligands 
If you compare iron(II) and iron (III):
[Fe(H2O)6]2+ absorbs in the red region and appears green
But, [Fe(H2O)6]3+ absorbs in blue region and appears orange
Coordination number
The change of colour in a complex is also partly due to the change in coordination number
and geometry of the complex ion
The splitting energy, ΔE, of the d-orbitals is affected by the relative orientation of the ligand
as well as the d-orbitals
Changing the coordination number generally involves changing the ligand as well, so it is a
combination of these factors that alters the strength of the interactions
Page 42 of 73
6.2.4 Ligands YOUR NOTES


Monodentate ligands
Monodentate ligands can form only one dative bond to the central metal ion
This is because they have a single lone pair of electrons to form a dative bond with the metal
ion
Examples of monodentate ligands are:
Water (H2O) molecules
Ammonia (NH3) molecules
Chloride (Cl–) ions
Cyanide (CN–) ions
Examples of complexes with monodentate ligands
Page 43 of 73
Bidentate & Multidentate Ligands YOUR NOTES

Bidentate Ligands 
Bidentate ligands can each form two dative bonds to the central metal ion
This is because each ligand contains two atoms with lone pairs of electrons
Examples of bidentate ligands are:
1,2-diaminoethane (H2NCH2CH2NH2) which is also written as ‘en’
Ethanedioate ion (C2O42- ) which is sometimes written as ‘ox’
Examples of complexes with bidentate ligands

Multidentate Ligands
Some ligands contain more than two atoms with lone pairs of electrons
These ligands can form more than two dative bonds to the and are said to
be multidentate ligands
An example of a multidentate ligand is EDTA4-, which is a hexadentate ligand as it forms 6
dative covalent bonds to the central metal ion
Page 44 of 73
Example of a polydentate ligand complex YOUR NOTES


Page 45 of 73
6.2.5 Octahedral Complexes YOUR NOTES


Octahedral Complexes
Octahedral complexes are formed when a central metal atom or ion forms six coordinate
bonds
This could be six coordinate bonds with six small, monodentate ligands
Examples of such ligands are water and ammonia molecules
and hydroxide and thiocyanate ions
As there are six ligands, these complexes are sometimes described as having six-fold
coordination
Table showing Examples of Common Monodentate Ligands
Example of an octahedral complex with monodentate ligands

It could be six-coordinate bonds with three bidentate ligands
Each bidentate ligand will form two coordinate bonds, meaning six-coordinate bonds
in total
Examples of these ligands are 1,2-diaminoethane and the ethanedioate ion
Page 46 of 73
YOUR NOTES

Example of an octahedral complex with bidentate ligands

It could be six-coordinate bonds with one multidentate ligand
The multidentate ligand, for example, EDTA4-, forms all six-coordinate bonds
Example of an octahedral complex with a polydentate ligand

The bond angles in an octahedral complex are 90o
The coordination number of a complex is the number of dative bonds formed between the
central metal ion and the ligands
Since there are 6 dative bonds, the coordination number for the complex is 6
 Exam Tip
Electron pair repulsion theory can be extended to predict and explain the shape of
transition metal complexes. The only difference is you should ignore the 3d elctrons
in the transition metal ion and overall charge on the complex - just count the number
of electron pairs donated by the ligands.
Page 47 of 73
6.2.6 Tetrahedral Complexes YOUR NOTES


Tetrahedral Complexes
When there are four coordinate bonds the complexes often have a tetrahedral shape
Complexes with four chloride ions most commonly adopt this geometry
Chloride ligands are large, so only four will fit around the central metal ion
The bond angles in tetrahedral complexes are 109.5o
Example of a tetrahedral complex
Page 48 of 73
6.2.7 Cis-platin YOUR NOTES


Cis-platin
Sometimes, complexes with four coordinate bonds may adopt a square planar geometry
instead of a tetrahedral one
Cyanide ions (CN-) are the most common ligands to adopt this geometry
An example of a square planar complex is cisplatin
The bond angles in a square planar complex are 90o
Cisplatin is an example of a square planar complex

In the 1960s the drug cis-platin was discovered, which has been extremely effective in
treating a number of different types cancer such as testicular, ovarian, cervical, breast, lung
and brain cancer
Cancer cells grow and replicate much faster than normal cells
Cis-platin is a square planar molecule that has a geometric isomer with the side groups in
different positions
The structures of cis-platin and trans-platin

The cis-platin works by binding to the nitrogen atoms on the bases in DNA
The cis-platin passes through the cell membrane and undergoes ligand exchange where
the chlorines are replaced by water molecules
The nitrogen is a better ligand than water and forms dative covalent bonds with the cis-
platin
The cis-platin distorts the shape of the DNA and prevents the DNA from replicating
Page 49 of 73
YOUR NOTES

The process by which cis-platin binds to DNA and prevents replication

Adverse Effects
Cis-platin binds to healthy cells as well as cancerous cells, but affects cancer cells more as
they are replicating faster
Unfortunately, this means that other healthy cells which replicate quickly, such as hair
follicles, are also affected by cis-platin
This is why hair loss is a side-effect of people undergoing cancer treatment
Despite this drawback, cisplatin is a highly effective drug and society needs to find a
balance between the adverse effects of drugs and their therapeutic value
New therapeutic pathways are constantly under development that aim to deliver drugs
that target cancer cells while leaving healthy cells untouched
Page 50 of 73
6.2.8 Haemoglobin YOUR NOTES


Haemoglobin
Haemoglobin is one of nature's complexes using a transition metal ion
The haem molecule is a complex with iron(II) at its centre
The haemoglobin complex contains a multidentate ligand made up of four haem groups
These consist of mostly carbon and hydrogen atoms
Each haem group has a nitrogen atom forming a dative covalent bond to the Fe2+ ion in
a square planar complex
There is a fifth dative bond from the protein (globin) to the Fe2+ ion
Oxygen atoms form a dative covalent bond with the iron(II) which enables oxygen
molecules to be transported around the body in the blood
The haem molecule with iron(II) at its centre

Oxygen molecules are not very good ligands and bond weakly to the iron(II)
The weak bonds allows them to break off easily and be transported into cells
 Exam Tip
You do not need to be familiar with the structure of the haem group
Page 51 of 73
Ligand Exchange in Haemoglobin YOUR NOTES

Carbon monoxide is toxic because it is a better ligand than oxygen and binds strongly and 
irreversibly to the iron(II) preventing oxygen from being carried to the cells
If oxygen attached to the haemoglobin (oxyhaemoglobin) is replaced by carbon monoxide
(carboxyhaemoglobin), a darker red colour is produced in the haem complex
A sign of carbon monoxide poisoning
The condition anaemia occurs when a person does not have enough haemoglobin in their
blood due to a loss of blood or deficiency in iron
Deficiency in iron can be restored by taking iron sulfate tables in the diet
Page 52 of 73
6.2.9 Catalysis YOUR NOTES


Properties of Catalysts
Transition metals are often used as catalysts in the elemental form or as compounds
The ability of transition metals to form more than one stable oxidation state means that
they can accept and lose electrons easily
This enables them to catalyse certain redox reactions. They can be readily oxidised and
reduced again, or reduced and then oxidised again, as a consequence of having a number
of different oxidation states of similar stability
There are two types of catalyst:
A heterogeneous catalyst is in a different physical state (phase) from the reactants
The reaction occurs at active sites on the surface of the catalyst
An example is the use of iron, Fe, in the Haber process for making ammonia
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ⇌ 2NH3 (g)
A homogeneous catalyst is in the same physical state (phase) as the reactants
Page 53 of 73
6.3 Reactions of Transition Metal Elements YOUR NOTES


6.3.1 Vanadium
Colours & Oxidation States

Vanadium is a transition metal which has variable oxidation states
The table below shows the important ones you need to be aware of
Addition of zinc to the vanadium(V) in acidic solution will reduce the vanadium down
through each successive oxidation state
The colour would successively change from yellow to blue to green to violet
The ion with the V at oxidation state +5 exists as a solid compound in the form of a VO3- ion
Usually as NH4VO3 known as ammonium vanadate(V)
It is a reasonably strong oxidising agent
Addition of acid to the solid will turn into the yellow solution containing the VO2+ ion.
Page 54 of 73
Interconversions of Vanadium Ions YOUR NOTES

For vanadium we need to consider the following standard electrode potential values 
We will use zinc as our chosen oxidising agent
The half equations are arranged from high negative EΘ at the top to high positive EΘ at the
bottom
The best reducing agent is the top right species (V2+)
The best oxidising agent is the bottom left species (VO2+)
Reduction from +5 to +4
The two half equations we need to consider are 2 and 5
Vanadium is reduced from an oxidation number of +5 to +4 in half equation 5
The EΘ value for half equation 2 is more negative than the EΘ for half equation 5
Zn is the best reducing agent
VO2+ is the best oxidising agent
We can obtain the overall equation by reversing half equation 2 and combining with
equation 5
When adding half equations remember to multiply them so each have the same
number of electrons
2VO2+ (aq) + 4H+ (aq) + Zn (s) → 2VO2+ (aq) + Zn2+ (aq) + 2H2O (l)
VO2+ is the best oxidising agent
We can obtain the overall equation by reversing half equation 2 and combining with
equation 4
number of electrons
2VO2+ (aq)+ 4H+ (aq) + Zn (s) → 2V3+ (aq) + Zn2+ (aq) + 2H2O (l)
Page 55 of 73
V3+ is the best oxidising agent YOUR NOTES

We can obtain the overall equation by reversing half equation 2 and combining with 
equation 3
number of electrons
2V3+ (aq) + Zn (s) → 2V2+ (aq) + Zn2+ (aq)
Reduction from +2 to 0
Vanadium is reduced from an oxidation number of +2 to 0 in half equation 1
Zn is not electron releasing with respect to V2+
This means this reaction is not thermodynamically feasible
Predicting oxidation reactions
The same method can be used to predict whether a given oxidising agent will oxidise a
vanadium species to one with a higher oxidation number
 Exam Tip
It is important to not get confused between the two oxo ions of vanadium VO2+ and
VO2+
Page 56 of 73
6.3.2 Chromium YOUR NOTES


Reduction & Oxidation of Chromium Species
For chromium we need to consider the following standard electrode potential values
We will use zinc and hydrogen peroxide as oxidising agents
The half equations are arranged from high negative EΘ at the top to high positive EΘ at the
bottom
The best reducing agent is the top right species (Zn (s))
The best oxidising agent is the bottom left species (Cr2O72-(aq))
Oxidation from +3 to +6
Chromiums oxidation number changes from +6 to +3 in half equation 3
Cr(OH)3 (aq) is the best reducing agent
H2O2 (aq) is the best oxidising agent
We can obtain the overall equation by reversing half equation 3 and combining it with
equation 4
When adding half equations remember to multiply them so each has the same number
of electrons
2Cr(OH)3 (aq) + 4OH- (aq) + 3H2O2 (aq) → 2CrO42- (aq) + 8H2O (l)
This reaction is carried out in alkaline conditions due to the presence of OH- ions in the
equation
Cr2O72- is the best oxidising agent
Page 57 of 73
We can obtain the overall equation by reversing half equation 1 and combining it with YOUR NOTES
equation 5 
of electrons
Cr2O72- (aq) + 14H+ (aq) + 3Zn (s) → 2Cr3+ (aq) + 7H2O (l) + 3Zn2+ (aq)
This reaction is carried out under acidic conditions due to presence of H+ in the equation
The Cr3+ ion can be further reduced by zinc
Zn (s) is the best reducing agent
Cr3+ (aq) is the best oxidising agent
We can obtain the overall equation by reversing half equation 1 and combining it with
equation 2
of electrons
2Cr3+ (aq) + Zn (s) → 2Cr2+ (aq) + Zn2+ (aq)
As this reaction is a further step from the previous reduction this reaction is also carried out
under acidic conditions
The Dichromate(VI) - Chromate(VI) Equilibrium

The chromate CrO42- and dichromate Cr2O72- ions can be converted from one to the other
by the following equilibrium reaction
2CrO42- (aq) + 2H+ (aq) ⇌ Cr2O72- (aq) + H2O (l)
Chromate(VI) ions are stable in alkaline solution, but in acidic conditions the dichromate(VI)
ion is more stable
Addition of acid will push the equilibrium to the dichromate
This results in a colour change from yellow to orange
Addition of alkali will remove the H+ ions and push the equilibrium to the chromate
This is not a redox reaction as both the chromate and dichromate ions have an oxidation
number of +6
This is an acid base reaction
Page 58 of 73
6.3.3 Reactions of Ions in Aqueous Solution YOUR NOTES


Reactions with Hydroxide & Ammonia
When transition metal ions in aqueous solution react with aqueous sodium hydroxide and
aqueous ammonia they form precipitates
However some of these precipitates will dissolve in an excess of sodium hydroxide or
ammonia to form complex ions in solution
The Reactions of Aqueous Transition Metal Ions with Aqueous Sodium Hydroxide
Examples of ionic equations for the reactions in the table above

[Fe(H2O)6]2+ (aq) + 2OH- (aq) → [Fe(H2O)4(OH)2] (s) + 2H2O (l)
[Cu(H2O)6]2+ (aq) + 2OH- (aq) → [Cu(H2O)4(OH)2] (s) + 2H2O (l)
[Fe(H2O)6]3+ (aq) + 3OH- (aq) → [Fe(H2O)3(OH)3] (s) + 3H2O (l)
The Reactions of Aqueous Transition Metal Ions with Ammonia
Examples of ionic equations for the reactions in the table above

[Fe(H2O)6]2+ (aq) + 2NH3 (aq) → [Fe(H2O)4(OH)2] (s) + 2NH4+ (aq)
[Cu(H2O)6]2+ (aq) + 2NH3 (aq) → [Cu(H2O)4(OH)2] (s) +2NH4+ (aq)
[Fe(H2O)6]3+ (aq) + 3NH3 (aq) → [Fe(H2O)3(OH)3] (s) +3NH4+ (aq)
[Cu(H2O)4(OH)2]2+ (aq) + 4NH3 (aq) → [Cu(H2O)2(OH)4] (aq) + 2H2O (l) + 2OH- (aq)
Page 59 of 73
Solutions of metal aqua ions react asacids with aqueous ammonia, whilst some react YOUR NOTES
further with excess ammonia 
Initially, ammonia acts as abaseto remove one H+ ion per ammonia molecule used
With excess ammonia, some metal ions undergo ligand substitution with NH3
 Exam Tip
It is easiest to remember the formulas of the precipitates by remembering that the
number of OH- ions substituted is the same as the value of the charge on the initial
ion
Page 60 of 73
Ionic Equations YOUR NOTES

Reaction with limited OH- and limited NH3 
The bases OH- and ammonia when in limited amounts form the same hydroxide
precipitates.
They form in deprotonation acid-base reactions
For example, consider the reaction that occurs when aqueous sodium hydroxide is added
to copper(II) sulfate solution
[Cu(H2O)6]2+ (aq) + 2OH- (aq) → [Cu(H2O)4(OH)2] (s) + 2H2O (l)
This seems like a ligand substitution reaction - two hydroxide ions replacing two water
molecules
However this is actually a deprotonation reaction - two hydroxide ions removing hydrogen
ions from two of the water ligands converting them into water molecules
The two ligands that have lost hydrogen ions are now hydroxide ligands
Reaction with excess OH-
From above, we have seen how hydrated transition metal ions can be deprotonated by
adding a base such as aqueous sodium hydroxide to form a metal hydroxide precipitate
For example
[Cr(H2O)6]3+ (aq) + 3OH- (aq) → [Cr(H2O)3(OH)3] (s) +3H2O (l)
When an excess of sodium hydroxide is added further deprotonation takes place
[Cr(H2O)3(OH)3] (s) + 3OH- (aq) → [Cr(OH)6]3- (aq) + 3H2O (l)
In this reaction, chromium(III) hydroxide acts as an acid, as it is reacting with a base
Chromium(III) hydroxide can also act as a base because it can react with acids as follows
[Cr(H2O)3(OH)3] (s) + 3H+ (aq) → [Cr(H2O)6]3+ (aq)
A metal hydroxide that can act as both an acid and a base is called an amphoteric
hydroxide
This is an example of amphoteric behaviour
Reaction with excess NH3
With excess NH3 ligand substitution reactions occur with Cu, Co and Cr and their
precipitates dissolve
The ligands NH3 and H2O are similar in size and are uncharged
Ligand exchange occurs without a change of co-ordination number for Co and Cr
For example, when excess aqueous ammonia is added to a copper(II) hydroxide precipitate
it dissolves forming a deep blue solution
[Cu(H2O)4(OH)2] (s) + 4NH3 (aq) → [Cu(NH3)4(H2O)2]2+ (aq) + 2H2O (l) + 2OH- (aq)
This is a ligand substitution - four ammonia molecules replace two water molecules and
two hydroxide ions
In these reactions, NH3 is acting as a Lewis base donating an electron pair
Reaction with Cl-
Page 61 of 73
The chloride ligand undergoes substitution reactions with Cu, Co and Fe(III) YOUR NOTES
The Cl– ligand is much larger in size than H2O and is charged 
This means that there is a change in:
Coordination number from 6 to 4
Shape from octahedral to tetrahedral
The overall charge on the complex
For example, when excess / concentrated hydrochloric acid is added to a copper(II)
hydroxide precipitate it forms a yellow solution
[Cu(H2O)6]2+ (aq) + 4Cl– (aq) → [CuCl4]2– (aq) + 6H2O (l)
This is a ligand substitution - four chloride ions replace six water molecules
In these reactions, Cl– is acting as a Lewis base donating an electron pair
Similar reactions occur with:
Pink [Co(H2O)6]2+ (aq) forming blue [CuCl4]2– (aq)
Yellow [Fe(H2O)6]3+ (aq) forming orange [FeCl4]– (aq)
Page 62 of 73
6.3.4 Ligand Exchange YOUR NOTES


Ligand Exchange
Ligand exchange (or ligand substitution) is when one ligand in a complex is replaced by
another
Ligand exchange forms a new complex that is more stable than the original one
The ligands in the original complex can be partially or entirely substituted by others
The complex ion can change its charge or remain the same depending on the ligand
involved
There are no changes in coordination number, or the geometry of the complex, if the
ligands are of a similar size
But, if the ligands are of a different size, for example water ligands and chloride ligands,
then a change in coordination number and the geometry of the complex will occur
Addition of a high concentration of chloride ions (from conc HCl or saturated NaCl) to an
aqueous ion leads to a ligand substitution reaction.
The Cl- ligand is larger than the uncharged H2O and NH3 ligands so therefore ligand
exchange can involve a change of co-ordination number
For example when concentrated hydrochloric acid is added slowly and continuously to a
copper(II) sulfate solution the colour changes from blue to green then finally yellow
The equation for this reaction is
[Cu(H2O)6]2+ (aq) + 4Cl- (aq) ⇌ [CuCl4]2- (aq) + 6H2O (l)
We can see that all six water ligands have been replaced by four chloride ions
This reaction involves a change in coordination number from 6 to 4
Note that despite the charge on the complex changing from +2 to -2, there has been no
change in oxidation number of the copper
We can also see that this reaction is reversible, which helps to explain the observed colour
change
The hexaaquacopper(II) ion is blue
The tetrachlorocuprate(II) ion is yellow
The green colour is due to a mixture of the blue and yellow complex ions
A similar reaction also takes place with cobalt resulting in a blue solution and a change in
coordination number from 6 to 4
[Co(H2O)6]2+ (aq) + 4Cl- (aq) ⇌ [CoCl4]2- (aq) + 6H2O (l)
 Exam Tip
Be careful: If solid copper chloride (or any other metal) is dissolved in water it forms
the aqueous [Cu(H2O)6]2+ complex and not the chloride [CuCl4 ]2- complex
Page 63 of 73
The Chelate Effect & Stability YOUR NOTES

The replacement of monodentate ligands with bidentate and multidentate ligands in 
complex ions is called the chelate effect
It is an energetically favourable reaction, meaning that ΔGꝋ is negative
The driving force behind the reaction is entropy
The Gibbs equation reminds us of the link between enthalpy and entropy:
ΔGꝋ = ΔHreactionꝋ – TΔSsystemꝋ
Reactions in solution between aqueous ions usually come with relatively small enthalpy
changes
However, the entropy changes are always positive in chelation because the reactions
produce a net increase in the number of particles
A small enthalpy change and relative large positive entropy change generally ensures that
the overall free energy change is negative
For example, when EDTA chelates with aqueous cobalt(II) two reactants becomes seven
product species
[Co(H2O)6 ]2+ (aq) + EDTA4- (aq) → [CoEDTA]2- (aq) + 6H2O(l)
The ligand EDTA readily chelates with aqueous transition metal ions in an energetically
favourable reaction
Page 64 of 73
6.2 Principles of Transition Metal Chemistry YOUR NOTES


6.2.10 Heterogeneous Catalysis
Heterogeneous Catalysts
A heterogeneous catalyst is in a different physical state (phase) from the reactants
Heterogeneous catalysts are usually solids whereas the reactants are gaseous or in
solution
The reaction occurs at active sites on the surface of the catalyst
Surface adsorption theory
This theory can be used to explain how a heterogeneous catalyst works
1. Adsorption, in which one or more reactants becomes attached to the surface of the
catalyst
2. Reaction, following the weakening of the bonds in the adsorbed reactants
3. Desorption, in which the reaction product becomes detached from the surface of the
catalyst
Adsorption of reactants at active sites on the surface may lead to catalytic action
The active site is the place where the reactants adsorb onto the surface of the catalyst
This can result in the bonds within the reactant molecules becoming weaker, or the
molecules being held in a more reactive configuration
There will also be a higher concentration of reactants at the solid surface so leading to a
higher collision frequency
Strength of adsorption
The strength of adsorption helps to determine the effectiveness of the catalytic activity
Some metals e.g. W have too strong adsorption and so the products cannot be released
Some metals e.g. Ag have too weak adsorption, and the reactants do not adsorb in high
enough concentration
Ni and Pt have about the right strength and are most useful as catalysts
Surface area
Increasing the surface area of a solid catalyst will improve its effectiveness.
A support medium is often used to maximise the surface area and minimise the cost (e.g. Rh
on a ceramic support in catalytic converters)
Advantages of heterogeneous catalysts
Heterogeneous catalysts can be filtered off and are easy to separate from any liquid or
gaseous products
They are also suited to continuous processes rather than batch processes
Page 65 of 73
The Contact Process YOUR NOTES

The manufacture of sulfuric acid is a very important piece of industrial chemistry that makes 
use of heterogeneous catalysis
The first step of the process is roasting sulfur in air to produce sulfur dioxide
S (s) + O2 (g) → SO2 (g)
The second step is an equilibrium reaction which is catalysed by vanadium(V) oxide, V2O5,
2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) ⇌ 2SO3(g)
The vanadium(V) oxide catalyst converts sulfur dioxide into sulfur trioxide and is reduced to
vanadium(IV) oxide
The oxidation number of the vanadium decreases from +5 to +4
SO2 (g) + V2O5 (s) → V2O4 (s) + SO3 (g)
The vanadium(V) oxide is then re-generated by reaction with oxygen, fulfilling its role as a
catalyst
The original catalyst is regenerated as the oxidation number of vanadium increases
from +4 to its original value of +5
O2 (g) + 2V2O4 (s) → 2V2O5 (s)
This reaction shows that a variable oxidation state can also be utilised in heterogenous
catalysis
Page 66 of 73
How Catalytic Converters Work YOUR NOTES

Catalytic converters are used in car exhaust boxes to reduce air pollution. They usually 
consist of a mixture of finely divided platinum and rhodium supported on a ceramic base
Diagram of a catalyst on an inert support medium in a vehicle catalytic converter

Carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide and unburnt hydrocarbons are sources of pollution in
car exhaust
Carbon monoxide is toxic and interferes with oxygen transport in the body
Nitrogen monoxide is easily oxidised in the atmosphere to form nitrogen dioxide which
is a respiratory irritant and contributes to the formation of acid rain
The transition metal catalysts facilitate the conversion of these pollutants into less harmful
products
2NO (g) + 2CO (g) → N2 (g) + 2CO2 (g)
CH3CH2CH3 (g) + 5O2 (g) → 3CO2 (g) + 4H2O (g)
The method of action can be described using surface adsorption theory
1. Molecules of carbon monoxide and nitrogen monoxide are absorbed onto the surface
2. The bonds in both molecules are weakened causing them to react together to form carbon
dioxide and nitrogen
3. The products are then desorbed from the surface of the catalyst
Some of the transition metals are precious metals so they can be very expensive
In order to minimise the cost and maximise the efficiency of the catalyst the following
measures can be taken:
Increasing the surface area of the catalyst
Coating an inert surface medium with the catalyst to avoid using large amounts of the
catalyst
This is achieved by spreading the catalyst over a hollow matrix such as a honeycomb-like
structure
Page 67 of 73
Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 Make sure not to confuse absorb/absorption with adsorb/adsorption.

Absorption involves one substance becoming distributed throughout another (like

water in a sponge)
Adsorption only happens at the surface of a substance
Page 68 of 73
6.2.11 Homogeneous Catalysis YOUR NOTES


Homogeneous Catalysts
Homogeneous catalyst is in the same physical state (phase) as the reactants
This means they are either all gases, or more often, all in aqueous solution
Homogenous catalysts tend to be much less common in industry
The key feature of homogeneous catalysis is the formation of an intermediate species for
which a specific formula can be written
Page 69 of 73
Iron(II) Ions YOUR NOTES

Transition element ions can adopt more than one stable oxidation state 
This means that they can accept and lose electrons easily to go from one oxidation state to
another
They can therefore catalyse redox reactions, by acting as both oxidising
agents and reducing agents
For example, iron (Fe) is often used as a catalyst due to its ability to form Fe(II) and Fe(III)
ions, acting as an oxidising agent and a reducing agent
When Fe(II) acts as a reducing agent, it will reduce another species and become
oxidised itself
Fe2+ → Fe3+ + e-
The Fe3+ formed in the catalytic cycle, can then also act as an oxidising agent by oxidising
another species and getting reduced itself to reform the Fe2+ ion
Fe3+ + e- → Fe2+
Iron(II) ions catalyse the reaction between iodide ions, I-, and peroxodisulfate ions, S2O82-
The overall reaction is quite slow because the repulsion of two negative ions coming
together hinders the reaction
S2O82- + 2I- → I2 + 2SO42-
The reaction is quite slow even though it is energetically favourable. Both ions are
negatively charged, so they are unlikely to make successful collisions with one another.
However, if iron(II) ions are added to the reaction, the rate is much quicker. Starch is often
added to this reaction, which will form a blue-black colour showing the formation of iodine
The addition of iron(II) ions reduces the peroxodisulfate to sulfate ions and produces
iron(III) in the process
S2O82- + 2Fe2+ → 2SO42- + 2Fe3+
The iron(III) ions will oxidise iodide ions to iodine and then are reduced once again to iron(II)
2I- + 2Fe3+ → I2 + 2Fe2+
The iron(II) produced can then go on to reduce more peroxodisulfate so fulfils its role as a
catalyst
As all of the reactants and products and the catalyst are in the aqueous phase this reaction
is an example of homogeneous catalysis
A catalyst provides a reaction pathway of lower energy which can be illustrated graphically:
Page 70 of 73
YOUR NOTES

An energy profile showing the alternative reaction pathway provided by iron(II) catalyst in
the reaction between iodide ions and peroxodisulfate ions
Page 71 of 73
6.2.12 Autocatalysis YOUR NOTES


Manganese(II) ions as an Autocatalyst
Autocatalysis the term used to describe a reaction which is speeded up by a product which
acts as a catalyst for the reaction
If you plot a rate graph of concentration versus time it has an usual shape
Concentration versus time for an autocatalytic reaction

The gradient becomes steeper during the course of the reaction which tells you the rate is
speeding up, not slowing down over time as the reactants become used up
An example of an autocatalysed reaction takes place between manganate(VII) ions
and oxalate (ethandioate) ions
The overall equation can be deduced from the half equations
Page 72 of 73
YOUR NOTES

You can see that one of the products is manganese(II) ions - this is the catalyst
As more manganese(II) is formed the reaction speeds up
Like to the role of iron(II) in the previous section, manganese(II) ions take part in a redox
cycle between two different oxidation states (+2 → +3 → +2)
4Mn2+ (aq) + MnO4– (aq) + 8H+ (aq) → 5Mn3+ (aq) + 4H2O (aq)
2Mn3+ (aq) + C2O42- (aq) → 2CO2 (g) + 2Mn2+ (aq)
The manganese(II) is not present in the beginning of the reaction, but as it is formed is
speeds up the reaction and is re-generated during the redox cycle
This reaction is easily followed on a colorimeter as the rate at which the purple
manganate(VII) ion is consumed accelerates with time
Page 73 of 73

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6. Advanced Inorganic Chemistry (A Level Only)

6.1 Redox II YOUR NOTES

Reduction & Oxidation

6.1.2 Standard Electrode Potential YOUR NOTES

The Standard Hydrogen Electrode, SHE YOUR NOTES

The standard electrode potential of a half-cell can be determined by connecting it to a

6.1.3 Measuring Standard Electrode Potential YOUR NOTES

Example of a metal / metal ion half-cell connected to a standard hydrogen electrode

Example of a non-metal / non-metal ion half-cell connected to a standard hydrogen

Ion / Ion half-cell YOUR NOTES

Ions in solution half cell

Electromotive Force YOUR NOTES

Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

Lio the lion goes Roor!

6.1.4 Conventional Cell Representation YOUR NOTES

The conventional representation of voltaic cells

6.1.5 Thermodynamics & Electrode Potential YOUR NOTES

A reaction is feasible when the standard cell potential Eꝋ is positive

Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

Entropy Change & ln K

Limitations of Standard Electrode Potential Predictions YOUR NOTES

6.1.6 Disproportionation & Electrode Potential YOUR NOTES

6.1.7 Storage Cells YOUR NOTES

The half-cell reactions are YOUR NOTES

Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- → Cu (s) Eθ = +0.34 V

The zinc-carbon cell

Lithium ion cell

6.1.8 Fuel Cells YOUR NOTES

Diagram showing the movement of hydrogen, oxygen and electrons in a hydrogen-oxygen

Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

6.1.9 Redox Titration Calculations YOUR NOTES

Indicator and end point

potassium permanganate if black numbering was used YOUR NOTES

6.2 Principles of Transition Metal Chemistry YOUR NOTES

General Properties of Transition Metals

The transition elements and the d-block elements

1s22s22p63s23p64s23d5 YOUR NOTES

Variable Oxidation Number YOUR NOTES

6.2.2 Transition Metal Complexes YOUR NOTES

Representing complex ions

Examples of complexes with monodentate ligands

6.2.3 Coloured Ions YOUR NOTES

Changes in Colour YOUR NOTES

The large variety of coloured compounds is a defining characteristic of transition metals

6.2.4 Ligands YOUR NOTES

Examples of complexes with monodentate ligands

Bidentate & Multidentate Ligands YOUR NOTES

Examples of complexes with bidentate ligands

Example of a polydentate ligand complex YOUR NOTES

6.2.5 Octahedral Complexes YOUR NOTES

Example of an octahedral complex with monodentate ligands

Example of an octahedral complex with bidentate ligands

Example of an octahedral complex with a polydentate ligand

6.2.6 Tetrahedral Complexes YOUR NOTES

Example of a tetrahedral complex

6.2.7 Cis-platin YOUR NOTES

Cisplatin is an example of a square planar complex

The structures of cis-platin and trans-platin

The process by which cis-platin binds to DNA and prevents replication

6.2.8 Haemoglobin YOUR NOTES

The haem molecule with iron(II) at its centre