Lower 6th Inorganic Chemistry

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YOUR NOTES
A Level Chemistry Edexcel 
2. Inorganic Chemistry
CONTENTS
2.1 Redox I
2.1.1 Oxidation Number
2.1.2 Types of Reduction & Oxidation
2.1.3 Redox & Disproportionation
2.1.4 Ionic Equations
2.2 Groups 1 & 2
2.2.1 Explaining Group 2 Trends
2.2.2 Reactions of Group 2
2.2.3 Group 2 Hydroxides & Sulfates
2.2.4 Group 1 & 2 Carbonates & Nitrates
2.2.5 Flame Tests
2.3 Group 7
2.3.1 Group 7 Trends
2.3.2 Halogen Displacement Reactions
2.3.3 Halogen Redox Reactions
2.3.4 Halide Ion Reactions
Page 1 of 46
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2.1 Redox I YOUR NOTES


2.1.1 Oxidation Number
Defining Oxidation Number

There are three definitions of oxidation and reduction used in different branches of
chemistry
Oxidation and reduction can be used to describe any of the following processes
Definitions and Examples of Oxidation & Reduction
Use the acronym "Oil Rig" to help you remember the definitions of oxidation and reduction
Oxidation Number
The oxidation number of an atom is the charge that would exist on an individual atom if the
bonding were completely ionic
It is like the electronic ‘status’ of an element
Oxidation numbers are used to
Tell if oxidation or reduction has taken place
Work out what has been oxidised and/or reduced
Construct half equations and balance redox equations
Oxidation Numbers of Simple Ions
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YOUR NOTES

 Worked Example
What are the oxidation numbers of the elements in the following species?
a) C b) Fe3+ c) Fe2+
d) O2- e) He f) Al3+
Answers:
a) 0 b) +3 c) +2
d) -2 e) 0 f) +3
So, in simple ions, the oxidation numbers of the atom is the charge on the ion:
Na+, K+, H+ all have an oxidation number of +1
Mg2+, Ca2+, Pb2+ all have an oxidation number of +2
Cl–, Br–, I– all have an oxidation number of -1
O2-, S2- all have an oxidation number of -2
Roman numerals are also used to indicate the oxidation state of ions
Iron(II) sulfate implies that the iron is in a +2 oxidation state, i.e. Fe2+
Iron(III) sulfate implies that the iron is in a +3 oxidation state, i.e. Fe3+
More complicated examples include other atoms / ions as part of the formula
Potassium manganate(VII) implies that the manganese is in a +7 oxidation
Potassium manganate(VII) contains the potassium ion K+ and the manganate ion
MnO4–
Since the oxygen in the manganate ion is in the -2 oxidation state, there is a total
of -8 from the oxygen
The manganate ion has an overall -1 charge, which means that the manganese ion
must be in the +7 oxidation state
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Calculating Oxidation Numbers YOUR NOTES

Oxidation Number Rules 
A few simple rules help guide you through the process of determining the oxidation number
of any element
Remember, you are determining the oxidation number of a single atom
The oxidation number (ox.no.) refers to a single atom in a compound
Oxidation Number Rules Table
Molecules or Compounds
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In molecules or compounds, the sum of the oxidation numbers on the atoms is zero YOUR NOTES
Oxidation Number in Molecules or Compounds 
Because CO2 is a neutral molecule, the sum of the oxidation numbers must be zero
For this, one element must have a positive oxidation number and the other must be
negative
How do you determine which is the positive one?
The more electronegative species will have the negative value
Electronegativity increases across a period and decreases down a group
O is further to the right than C in the periodic table so it has the negative value
How do you determine the value of an element’s oxidation number?
From its position in the periodic table and / or
The other element(s) present in the formula
The oxidation numbers of all other atoms in their compounds can vary
By following the oxidation number rules, the oxidation number of any atom in a compound
or ion can be deduced
The position of an element in the periodic table can act as a guide to the oxidation number
Oxidation Numbers & the Periodic Table
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2.1.2 Types of Reduction & Oxidation YOUR NOTES


Electron Transfer & Change in Oxidation Number
Oxidation and reduction in a reaction can be demonstrated in terms of electron transfer
For example:
2NH3 + 3Br2 → N2 + 6HBr
The oxidation number of N in NH3 has changed from -3 to 0
As the oxidation number has increased, nitrogen has been oxidised
The oxidation number of Br has changed from 0 to -1
As the oxidation number has decreased, bromine has been reduced
Overall, nitrogen has reduced bromine by donating electrons
Page 6 of 46
Oxidising & Reducing Agents YOUR NOTES

Oxidising agent 
An oxidising agent is a substance that oxidises another atom or ion by causing it to lose
electrons
An oxidising agent itself gets reduced – gains electrons
Therefore, the ox. no. of the oxidising agent decreases
Example of an oxidising agent in a chemical reaction

Reducing agent
A reducing agent is a substance that reduces another atom or ion by causing it to gain
electrons
A reducing agent itself gets oxidised – loses / donates electrons
Therefore, the ox. no. of the reducing agent increases
Example of a reducing agent in a chemical reaction

For a reaction to be recognised as a redox reaction, there must be both an oxidising and
reducing agent
Some substances can act both as oxidising and reducing agents
Their nature is dependent upon what they are reacting with and the reaction conditions
 Worked Example
Four reactions are shown.
In which reaction is the species in bold acting as an oxidising agent?
1. Cr2O72- + 8H+ + 3SO32- → 2Cr3+ + 4H2O + 3SO42-
2. Mg + Fe2+ → Mg2+ + Fe
3. Cl2 + 2Br- → 2Cl- + Br2
4. Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO2
Answer:
The correct option is 2
Page 7 of 46
Oxidising agents are substances that oxidise other species, gain electrons and are YOUR NOTES
themselves reduced. 
Write down the oxidation numbers of each species in the reaction
0 +2 +2 0
Mg + Fe2+ → Mg2+ + Fe
In equation 2, Fe2+ oxidises Mg(0) to Mg2+(+2) and is itself reduced from Fe2+(+2) to
Fe(0)
 Exam Tip
Some exam questions will ask for the strongest or weakest reducing / oxidising
agent
The strongest reducing agent comes from the equation with the most negative
electrode potential
Remember: A reducing agent is itself oxidised
So, it will lose electrons / increase in oxidation number
The strongest oxidising agent comes from the equation with the most positive
electrode potential
Remember: An oxidising agent is itself reduced
So, it will gain electrons / decrease in oxidation number
Page 8 of 46
2.1.3 Redox & Disproportionation YOUR NOTES


Disproportionation
Disproportionation reactions
A disproportionation reaction is a reaction in which the same species is simultaneously
oxidised and reduced
Example of a disproportion reaction in which the same species (chlorine in this case) has
been both oxidised and reduced
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Using Oxidation Numbers YOUR NOTES


 Worked Example
Balancing disproportionation reactions
Balance the disproportionation reaction which takes place when chlorine is added
to hot concentrated aqueous sodium hydroxide. The products are Cl- and ClO3-
ions and water
Answer
Step 1: Write the unbalanced equation and identify the atoms that change in oxidation
number:
Step 2: Deduce the oxidation number changes:
Step 3: Balance the oxidation number changes:
Step 4: Balance the charges
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YOUR NOTES

Step 5: Balance the atoms
 Worked Example
Oxidation and reduction
In each of the following equations, state which reactant has been oxidised and
which has been reduced.
1. Na++ Cl- → NaCl
2. Mg + Fe2+ → Mg2+ + Fe
3. CO + Ag2O → 2Ag + CO2
Answer 1:
Oxidised: Cl- as the oxidation state has increased by 1
Reduced: Na+ as the oxidation state has decreased by 1
Answer 2:
Oxidised: Mg as the oxidation state has increased by 2
Reduced: Fe2+ as the oxidation state has decreased by 2
Answer 3:
Oxidised: C as it has gained oxygen
Reduced: Ag as it has lost oxygen
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2.1.4 Ionic Equations YOUR NOTES


Writing Chemical Formulae
Oxidation numbers are a useful tool for naming compounds as some elements can exist
with more than one oxidation number
For compound with two elements it is straight forward to name the compound
For example
PCl3 is phosphorus(III) chloride or phosphorus trichloride
PCl5 is phosphorus(V) chloride or phosphorus pentachloride
OF2 is oxygen difluoride
O2F2 is dioxygen difluoride
In order to name a more complete compound we use Roman numerals for the element that
has a variable oxidation number
K2CrO4 potassium chromate(VI)
 Worked Example
Can you name these metal compounds?
1. Cu2O
2. MnSO4
3. Na2CrO4
4. KMnO4
5. Na2Cr2O7
Answer:
Answer 1: copper(I) oxide:
The ox. no. of 1 O atom is -2 and Cu2O has overall no charge so the ox. no. of Cu is +1
Answer 2: manganese(II) sulfate:
The charge on the sulfate ion is -2, so the charge on Mn and ox. no. is +2
Answer 3: sodium chromate(VI):
The ox. no. of 2 Na atoms is +2 so CrO4 has an overall -2 charge, so the ox. no. of Cr is +6
Answer 4: potassium manganate(VII):
The ox. no. of a K atom is +1 so MnO4 has overall -1 charge, so the ox. no. of Mn is +7
Answer 5: sodium dichromate(VI):
The ox. no. of 2 Na atoms is +2 so Cr2O7 has an overall -2 charge, so the ox. no. of Cr is +6. To
distinguish it from CrO4 we use the prefix di in front of the anion
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Ionic Half-Equations YOUR NOTES

Balancing full ionic equations 
Balancing equations using redox principles is a useful skill and is best illustrated by
following an example
It is important to follow a methodical step-by-step approach so that you don't get lost:
 Worked Example
Writing overall redox reactions
Manganate(VII) ions (MnO4- ) react with Fe2+ ions in the presence of acid (H+) to
form Mn2+ ions, Fe3+ ions and water
Write the overall redox equation for this reaction
Answer
Step 1: Write the unbalanced equation and identify the atoms which change in oxidation
number
Step 2: Deduce the oxidation number changes
Step 3: Balance the oxidation number changes
Step 4: Balance the charges
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YOUR NOTES

Step 5: Finally, balance the atoms
Metals & Non-metals

Metals
Metals, in general, will form positive ions by losing electrons
Therefore, they are oxidised and the oxidation number increases
Example 1:
When sodium reacts with water, sodium hydroxide and hydrogen gas is formed
2Na (s) + H2O (l) → 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)
The oxidation number of sodium changes from 0 to +1
Example 2:
When magnesium reacts with hydrochloric acid, magnesium chloride and hydrogen
gas is formed
Mg (s) + 2HCl (l) → MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
The oxidation number of magnesium changed from 0 to +2
Non-metals
Non-metals, in general, will form negative ions by gaining electrons
Therefore, they are reduced and the oxidation number decreases
Example:
When sodium reacts with oxygen, sodium oxide is formed
4Na (s) + O2 (g) → Na2O (s)
The oxidation number of oxygen changes from 0 to -2
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2.2 Groups 1 & 2 YOUR NOTES


2.2.1 Explaining Group 2 Trends
Ionisation Energy
Chemical trends
All elements in Group 2 (also called alkali earth metals) have two electrons in their
outermost principal quantum shell
All Group 2 metals can form ionic compounds in which they donate these two outermost
electrons (so they act as reducing agents) to become an ion with +2 charge (so they
themselves become oxidised)
Going down the group, the metals become more reactive
This can be explained by looking at the Group 2 ionisation energies:
Page 15 of 46
The graph shows that both the first and second ionization energies decrease going down the YOUR NOTES
group 
The first ionisation energy is the energy needed to remove the first outer electron of an
atom
The second ionisation energy is the energy needed to remove the second outer electron
of an atom
The graph above shows that going down the group, it becomes easier to remove the outer
two electrons of the metals
Though the nuclear charge increases going down the group (because there are more
protons), factors such as an increased shielding effect and a larger distance between the
outermost electrons and nucleus outweigh the attraction of the higher nuclear charge
Group 2 Reactivity
As a result of the deceases in ionisation energy, the elements become more reactive going
down the group as it gets easier for the atoms to lose two electrons and become 2+ ions
This trend is shown by looking at reactions of the Group 2 metals:
With dilute hydrochloric acid: bubbles of hydrogen gas are given off much faster
indicating that the reactions become more vigorous
For example:
Mg (s) + 2HCl (aq) → MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
With oxygen: the metals get more reactive with oxygen down the group (Ba is so
reactive, that it must be stored in oil to prevent it from reacting with oxygen in air)
2Mg (s) + O2 (g) → 2MgO (s)
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2.2.2 Reactions of Group 2 YOUR NOTES


Group 2 Elements
Reactions with water and oxygen
The reaction of group 2 metals with oxygen follows the following general equation:
2M (s) + O2 (g) → 2MO (s)
Where M is any metal in group 2
Remember than Sr and Ba also form a peroxide, MO2
The reaction of all metals with water follows the following general equation:
M (s) + 2H2O (l) → M(OH)2 (s) + H2 (g)
Except for, Be which does not react with water
Group 2 Metals reacting with Water and with Oxygen - Equations
Magnesium reacts extremely slowly with cold water:

Mg (s) + 2H2O (l) → Mg(OH)2 (aq) + H2 (g)
The solution formed is weakly alkaline (pH 9-10) as magnesium hydroxide is only slightly
soluble
However, when magnesium is heated in steam, it reacts vigorously with steam to make
magnesium oxide and hydrogen gas:
Mg (s) + H2O (g) → MgO (s) + H2 (g)
Reactions with chlorine
Group 2 metals react with chlorine gas to give the metal chloride
For example
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Mg (s) + Cl2 (g) → MgCl2 (s) YOUR NOTES


Page 18 of 46
Group 2 Oxides YOUR NOTES

Reactions of Group 2 oxides with water 
All Group 2 oxides are basic, except for BeO which is amphoteric (it can act both as an acid
and base)
Group 2 oxides react water to form alkaline solutions which get more alkaline going down
the group
Group 2 Oxides reacting with Water
Remember that:
oxide + water → hydroxide
You should know that calcium hydroxide, when in solution, is also called limewater
Reactions of Group 2 oxides with acid
Group 2 sulfates also form when a Group 2 oxide is reacted with sulfuric acid
The insoluble sulfates form at the surface of the oxide, which means that the solid oxide
beneath it can’t react with the acid
This can be prevented to an extent by using the oxide in powder form and stirring, in which
case neutralisation can take place
Remember that:
oxide + dilute hydrochloric acid → chloride + water
oxide + dilute sulfuric acid → sulfate + water
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Reactions of Group 2 hydroxides YOUR NOTES

The Group 2 metal hydroxides form colourless solutions of metal salts when they react 
with a dilute acid
The sulfates decrease in solubility going down the group (barium sulfate is an insoluble
white precipitate)
Group 2 Hydroxide Reactions with Dilute Acids
Remember that:
hydroxide + dilute hydrochloric acid → chloride + water
hydroxide + dilute sulfuric acid → sulfate + water
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2.2.3 Group 2 Hydroxides & Sulfates YOUR NOTES


Group 2 Hydroxides & Sulfates
Group 2 hydroxides
Going down the group, the solutions formed from the reaction of Group 2 oxides with water
become more alkaline
When the oxides are dissolved in water, the following ionic reaction takes place:
O2- (aq) + H2O(l) → 2OH- (aq)
The higher the concentration of OH- ions formed, the more alkaline the solution
The alkalinity of the formed solution can therefore be explained by the solubility of the
Group 2 hydroxides
Solubility of the Group 2 hydroxides table
The hydroxides dissolve in water as follows:

X(OH)2 (aq) → X(aq) + 2OH- (aq)
Where X is the Group 2 element
When the metal oxides react with water, a Group 2 hydroxide is formed
Going down the group, the solubility of these hydroxides increases
This means that the concentration of OH- ions increases, increasing the pH of the solution
As a result, going down the group, the alkalinity of the solution formed increases when
Group 2 oxides react with water
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YOUR NOTES

Going down the group, the solubility of the hydroxides increases which means that the
solutions formed from the reactions of the Group 2 metal oxides and water become more
alkaline going down the group
Group 2 sulfates
The solubility of the Group 2 sulfates decreasing going down the group
Going down the group, the solubility of the sulfates decreases
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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

Predicting properties of radium
Radium (Ra) is a radioactive element found below barium at the bottom of group
2Applying your knowledge of the group 2 elements, predict:
Property 1: The formula of the ion formed by Ra.
Property 2: The formulae of its oxide and hydroxide
Property 3: Its first ionisation energy
Property 4: Its reactivity compared with barium
Property 5: The relative pH of its saturated hydroxide solution compared with a
saturated solution of calcium hydroxide
Property 6: The solubility of its sulfate compared to strontium sulfate
Property 7: The equation for the reaction of its solid oxide with dilute hydrochloric
acid
Property 8: What would you expect to see if you mixed radium hydroxide solution
with dilute sulfuric acid?
Answer
Property 1:
Since, Ra is in group 2, it will form an ion with +2 charge to give Ra2+
Property 2:
The group 2 oxides and hydroxides have general formula XO and X(OH)2 respectively where
X is the group 2 element.
Therefore, radium oxide is RaO and radium hydroxide is Ra(OH)2
Property 3:
Radium is below barium so its atomic radius is larger than the atomic radius of barium.
This means that radium’s outermost electrons are even further away and are therefore even
more easily removed than barium’s outermost electron pair.
The first ionization energy is between 450-480 kJ mol-1
Property 4:
Radium’s outermost electrons are even further away than in barium and are therefore more
easily removed making radium more reactive than barium.
Property 5:
The group 2 hydroxides become more soluble going down the group.
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Radium hydroxide will therefore be more soluble than calcium hydroxide. Since more YOUR NOTES
hydroxide ions will be present in solution the pH should be higher than the pH of calcium 
hydroxide
Property 6:
The Group 2 sulfates become less soluble going down the group.
Radium sulfate will therefore be less soluble than strontium sulfate.
Property 7:
The general equation for the reaction of group 2 oxides with dilute hydrochloric acid is:
XO (s) + 2HCl (aq) → XCl2 (aq) + H2O (l)
The reaction of radium oxide with dilute hydrochloric acid is therefore:
RaO (s) + 2HCl (aq) → RaCl2 (aq) + H2O (l)
Property 8:
Radium sulfate will be formed in this reaction, however the solubility of group 2 sulfates
decreases going down the group, therefore a white precipitate of radium sulfate will be
formed in this reaction
 Exam Tip
You may be wondering why there are no trends here for the solubility of Group 1
hydroxides and sulfates. You should recall from GCSE that Group 1 compounds are
all soluble in water. They will therefore not produce any precipitates when testing for
cations, so to identify them you need to use flame tests.
Group 1 hydroxides will be more soluble than Group 2 hydroxides. Even though we
say the solubility of the Group 2 hydroxides increases down the group barium
hydroxide is less soluble than a Group 1 hydroxide such as potassium hydroxide.
At 25 °C the solubility of Ba(OH)2 is 4.68 g / 100 cm3
At 25 °C the solubility of KOH is 121 g / 100 cm3
Page 24 of 46
2.2.4 Group 1 & 2 Carbonates & Nitrates YOUR NOTES


Group 2 Carbonates & Nitrates
Thermal decomposition is the breakdown of a compound into two or more different
substances using heat
Thermal decomposition of carbonates
In Group 1, lithium carbonate when heated will decompose producing lithium oxide and
carbon dioxide
HEAT
Li2CO3 (s) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ Li2O (s) + CO2 (g)
The rest of the Group 1 carbonates don't decompose at Bunsen temperatures
The decomposition temperatures increase as you go down the Group
The Group 2 carbonates break down (decompose) when they are heated to form the metal
oxide and give off carbon dioxide gas
The general equation for the decomposition of Group 2 carbonates is:
HEAT
XCO3 (s) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ XO (s) + CO2 (g)
X = Group 2 element
Going down the group, more heat is needed to break down the carbonates
HEAT
MgCO3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ MgO + CO2
Thermal decomposition of nitrates

The only Group 1 nitrate that will decompose to produce nitrogen dioxide (which is a brown
toxic gas) and oxygen is lithium nitrate LiNO3
HEAT
4LiNO3 (s) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 2Li2O (s) + 4NO2 (g) + O2 (g)
The rest of the Group don't decompose so completely producing the metal nitrite (NO2-)
and oxygen, but no nitrogen dioxide
HEAT
2XNO3 (s) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 2XNO2 (s) + O2 (g)
All the nitrates from sodium to caesium decompose in this same way, the only difference
being how hot they have to be to undergo the reaction.
Down Group 1, the decomposition gets more difficult, and you have to use higher
temperatures.
The Group 2 nitrates break decomposed when they are heated to form the metal oxide,
oxygen gas and nitrogen dioxide gas
Since the formed nitrogen dioxide gas is toxic, the decomposition of nitrates is often
carried out in a fume cupboard
The general equation for the decomposition of Group 2 nitrates is:
Page 25 of 46
HEAT 1
X(NO3)2 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ XO + O2 + 2NO2 YOUR NOTES
2

X = Group 2 element
Going down Groups 1 and 2, more heat is needed to break down the carbonate and nitrate
ions
The thermal stability of the Group 1 and 2 carbonates and nitrates therefore increases down
the group
The smaller positive ions at the top of the groups will polarise the anions more than the
larger ions at the bottom of the group
The small positive ion attracts the delocalised electrons in the carbonate ion
towards itself
The higher the charge and the smaller the ion the higher the polarising power
The more polarised they are, the more likely they are to thermally decompose as the
bonds in the carbonate and nitrate ions become weaker
Page 26 of 46
2.2.5 Flame Tests YOUR NOTES


Flame Tests
Metal ions produce a colour if heated strongly in a flame
Ions from different metals produce different colours
The flame test is thus used to identify metal ions by the colour of the flame they produce
Dip the loop of an unreactive metal wire such as nichrome or platinum in concentrated
acid, and then hold it in the blue flame of a Bunsen burner until there is no colour change
This cleans the wire loop and avoids contamination
This is an important step as the test will only work if there is just one type of ion present
Two or more ions means the colours will mix, making identification erroneous
Dip the loop into the solid sample and place it in the edge of the blue Bunsen flame
Avoid letting the wire get so hot that it glows red otherwise this can be confused with a
flame colour
Diagram showing the technique for carrying out a flame test

Explanation for the occurrence of the flame
In a flame test the heat causes the electron to move to a higher energy level
The electron is unstable at this energy level so falls back down
As it drops back down from the higher to a lower energy level, energy is emitted in the form
of visible light energy with the wavelength of the observed light
Colours observed in flame tests
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YOUR NOTES

Why does Mg2+ not have an observed colour?

The energy emitted during a flame test involving magnesium is outside the visible
spectrum
Page 28 of 46
2.3 Group 7 YOUR NOTES


2.3.1 Group 7 Trends
Physical Properties
The Group 7 elements are called halogens
The halogens have uses in water purification and as bleaching agents (chlorine), as flame-
retardants and fire extinguishers (bromine) and as antiseptic and disinfectant agents
(iodine)
Colours
All halogens have distinct colours which get darker going down the group
The colours of the Group 7 elements get darker going down the group
Volatility
Volatility refers to how easily a substance can evaporate
A volatile substance will have a low boiling point
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YOUR NOTES

The melting and boiling points of the Group 7 elements increase going down the group which
indicates that the elements become less volatile
Going down the group, the boiling point of the elements increases which means that the
volatility of the halogens decreases
This means that fluorine is the most volatile and iodine the least volatile
Trend in melting and boiling points
Halogens are non-metals and are diatomic molecules at room temperature
This means that they exist as molecules which are made up of two similar atoms, such
as F2
The halogens are simple molecular structures with weak London dispersion forces
between the diatomic molecules caused by instantaneous dipole-induced dipole forces
Page 30 of 46
YOUR NOTES

The diagram shows that a sudden imbalance of electrons in a nonpolar molecule can cause
an instantaneous dipole. When this molecule gets close to another non-polar molecule it
can induce a dipole as the cloud of electrons repel the electrons in the neighbouring
molecule to the other side
The more electrons there are in a molecule, the greater the instantaneous dipole-induced
dipole forces
Therefore, the larger the molecule the stronger the London dispersion forces between
molecules
This is why as you go down the group, it gets more difficult to separate the molecules and
the melting and boiling points increase
As it gets more difficult to separate the molecules, the volatility of the halogens decreases
going down the group
Trend in electronegativity
Page 31 of 46
The electronegativity of the halogens decreases down the group YOUR NOTES

The electronegativity of the halogens decreases going down the group

The electronegativity of an atom refers to how strongly it attracts electrons towards itself
in a covalent bond
The decrease in electronegativity is linked to the size of the halogens
Going down the group, the atomic radii of the elements increase which means that the
outer shells get further away from the nucleus
An ‘incoming’ electron will therefore experience more shielding from the attraction of the
positive nuclear charge
The halogens’ ability to accept an electron (their oxidising power) therefore decreases
going down the group
Page 32 of 46
YOUR NOTES

With increasing atomic size of the halogens (going down the group) their electronegativity,
and therefore oxidising power, decreases
Page 33 of 46
Group 7 Reactivity YOUR NOTES

Reactivity 
When a halogen atom reacts it will usually gain an electron, to form a 1- ion (X + e- → X-)
The oxidation number has decreased from 0 to -1, therefore reduction has occurred
Therefore halogens will act as oxidising agents
Down Group 7 we have seen that the atoms become larger so the outer electrons are
further away and are therefore more shielded from the positive nucleus
Larger halogen actoms such as iodine will find it more difficult to attract incoming electrons
needed to form the 1- ion
Therefore the reactivity decreases down Group 7
Reaction with hydrogen
To demonstrate the decrease in the reactivity we can look a the reaction with hydrogen gas
The table outlines the trend in the reactivity of the halogens with hydrogen gas
As we can see the reaction becomes less vigorous down the group
Reaction between Halogen & Hydrogen Gas
Page 34 of 46
Making Predictions YOUR NOTES

Making Predictions 
Boiling and melting point
Increases down the group
Colour
Appear darker in colour down the group
The Appearance, Characteristics and Colour in Solution of the Halogens
Page 35 of 46
2.3.2 Halogen Displacement Reactions YOUR NOTES


Halogen Displacement Reactions
The reactivity of halogens is also shown by their displacement reactions with other halide
ions in solutions
A more reactive halogen can displace a less reactive halogen from a halide solution of the
less reactive halogen
Eg. The addition of chlorine water to a solution of bromine water:
Cl2 (aq) + 2NaBr (aq) → 2NaCl (aq) + Br2 (aq)
The chlorine has displaced the bromine from solution as it is more reactive which can be
summarised in the following ionic equation by removing the sodium spectator ions:
Cl2 (aq) + 2Br- (aq) → 2Cl- (aq) + Br2 (aq)
Chlorine can also displace iodine from a solution of iodide ions:
Cl2 (aq) + 2I- (aq) → 2Cl- (aq) + I2 (aq)
We can see these are both redox reactions by taking a look at changes in the oxidation
number of each element in the reaction
Br and I both change from = -1 → 0 so the bromine and iodine have been oxidised in
their respective reactions
Cl = 0 → -1 so the chlorine has been reduced in both reactions
No change in oxidation number for the sodium
Chlorine with Bromides & Iodides
If you add chlorine solution to colourless potassium bromide or potassium iodide solution a
displacement reaction occurs:
The solution becomes yellow-orange as bromine is formed
The solution becomes brown as iodine is formed
If an organic solvent is added, such as cyclohexane, the following observations are seen:
The organic layer will appear yellow-orange as bromine is formed
The organic layer will appear purple as iodine is formed
The organic solvent is useful as the the halogens are more soluble in this layer which
helps observe the colour changes more easily
Chlorine is above bromine and iodine in Group 7 so it is more reactive
Chlorine will displace bromine or iodine from an aqueous solution of the metal halide:
Cl2 (aq) + 2KBr (aq) → 2KCl (aq) + Br2 (aq)
chlorine + potassium bromide → potassium chloride + bromine
Cl2 (aq) + 2KI (aq) → 2KCl (aq) + I2 (aq)
chlorine + potassium iodide → potassium chloride + iodine
Bromine with Iodides
Bromine is above iodine in Group 7 so it is more reactive
Page 36 of 46
Bromine will displace iodine from an aqueous solution of the metal iodide YOUR NOTES
bromine + potassium iodide → potassium bromide + iodine 
Br2 (aq) + 2KI (aq) → 2KBr (aq) + I2 (aq)

The reaction will turn brown as iodine is formed
If an organic solvent is added the organic layer will appear purple as iodine is formed
We can show that this is a redox reaction by looking at the changes in oxidation numbers:
I = -1 → 0 so the iodine has been oxidised
Br = 0 → -1 so the bromine has been reduced
No change in oxidation number for the potassium
Rather than writing the full equation, we can also write the ionic equation by removing the
potassium spectator ion
Br2 (aq) + 2I- (aq) → 2Br- (aq) + I2 (aq)
Page 37 of 46
2.3.3 Halogen Redox Reactions YOUR NOTES


Halogen Redox Reactions
Reactions with Group 1 & 2 metals
The halogens react with some metals to form ionic compounds which are metal halide
salts
In all reactions where halogens are reacting with metals, the metals are being oxidised
Reaction of sodium and chlorine
2Na (s) + Cl2 (g) → 2NaCl (s)
Na is being oxidised, the oxidation number is changing from 0 to +1
Calcium is a group 2 metal:
Ca (s) + Br2 (l) → CaBr2 (s)
Ca is being oxidised, the oxidation number is changing from 0 to +2
Therefore the halogens are acting as oxidising agents
Reactions with Iron(II)
Chlorine and bromine can oxidise iron(II) to iron(III)
Cl2 (g) + 2Fe2+ (aq) → 2Cl- (aq) + 2Fe3+ (aq)
Br2 (g) + 2Fe2+ (aq) → 2Br- (aq) + 2Fe3+ (aq)
However, iodine is not a strong enough reducing argent to oxidise iron(II) to iron(III)
Iodine is actually oxidised from iodide ions to iodine by iron(III)
2I- (aq) + 2Fe3+ (aq) → I2 (aq) + 2Fe2+ (aq)
Disproportionation reaction
A disproportionation reaction is a reaction in which the same species is both oxidised and
reduced
The reaction of chlorine with dilute alkali is an example of a disproportionation reaction
In these reactions, the chlorine gets oxidised and reduced at the same time
Different reactions take place at different temperatures of the dilute alkali
Chlorine in cold alkali (15 oC)
The reaction that takes place is:
The ionic equation is:
Page 38 of 46
YOUR NOTES

The ionic equation shows that the chlorine gets both oxidised and reduced
Chlorine gets oxidised as there is an increase in ox. no. from 0 to +1 in ClO-(aq)
The half-equation for the oxidation reaction is:
Chlorine gets reduced as there is a decrease in ox. no. from 0 to -1 in Cl-(aq)

The half-equation for the reduction reaction is:
Chlorine in hot alkali (70 oC)

The ionic equation is:
The ionic equation shows that the chlorine gets both oxidised and reduced
Chlorine gets oxidised as there is an increase in ox. no. from 0 to +5 in ClO3-(aq)
The half-equation for the oxidation reaction is:
Chlorine gets reduced as there is a decrease in ox. no. from 0 to -1 in Cl-(aq)

The half-equation for the reduction reaction is:
Page 39 of 46
YOUR NOTES

Drinking water
Chlorine can be used to clean water and make it drinkable
The reaction of chlorine in water is a disproportionation reaction in which the chlorine gets
both oxidised and reduced
The disproportionation reaction of chlorine with water in which chlorine gets reduced to HCl
and oxidised to HClO
Chloric(I) acid (HClO) sterilises water by killing bacteria
Chloric acid can further dissociate in water to form ClO-(aq):
HClO (aq) → H+ (aq) + ClO- (aq)
ClO-(aq) also acts as a sterilising agent cleaning the water
Page 40 of 46
2.3.4 Halide Ion Reactions YOUR NOTES


Halide Ion Reactions
Concentrated sulfuric acid
Chloride, bromide and iodide ions react with concentrated sulfuric acid to produce toxic
gases
These reactions should therefore be carried out in a fume cupboard
The general reaction of the halide ions with concentrated sulfuric acid is:
H2SO4(l) + X-(aq) → HX(g) + HSO4-(aq)
(general equation)
Where X- is the halide ion
Reaction of chloride ions with concentrated sulfuric Acid
Concentrated sulfuric acid is dropwise added to sodium chloride crystals to produce
hydrogen chloride gas
Apparatus set up for the reaction of sodium chloride with concentrated sulfuric acid

H2SO4 (l) + NaCl (s) → HCl (g) + NaHSO4 (s)
Page 41 of 46
The HCl gas produces is seen as white fumes YOUR NOTES

Reaction of bromide ions with concentrated sulfuric acid 
The thermal stability of the hydrogen halides decreases down the group
The reaction of sodium bromide and concentrated sulfuric acid is:
H2SO4 (l) + NaBr (s) → HBr (g) + NaHSO4 (s)
The concentrated sulfuric acid oxidises HBr which decomposes into bromine and
hydrogen gas and sulfuric acid itself is reduced to sulfur dioxide gas:
2HBr (g) + H2SO4 (l) → Br2 (g) + SO2 (g) + 2H2O (l)
The bromine is seen as a reddish-brown gas
Reaction of iodide ions with concentrated sulfuric acid
The reaction of sodium iodide and concentrated sulfuric acid is:
H2SO4 (l) + NaI (s) → HI (g) + NaHSO4 (s)
Hydrogen iodide decomposes the easiest
Sulfuric acid oxidises the hydrogen iodide to several extents:
The concentrated sulfuric acid oxidises HI and is itself reduced to sulfur dioxide gas:
2HI (g) + H2SO4 (l) → I2 (g) + SO2 (g) + 2H2O (l)
Iodine is seen as a violet/purple vapour
The concentrated sulfuric acid oxidises HI and is itself reduced to sulfur:
6HI (g) + H2SO4 (l) → 3I2 (g) + S (s) + 4H2O (l)
Sulfur is seen as a yellow solid
The concentrated sulfuric acid oxidises HI and is itself reduced to hydrogen sulfide:
8HI (g) + H2SO4 (l) → 4I2 (g) + H2S (s) + 4H2O (l)
Hydrogen sulfide has a strong smell of bad eggs
Halide ion reactions with concentrated sulfuric acid table
Page 42 of 46
YOUR NOTES

Silver ions & ammonia

Halide ions can be identified in an unknown solution by dissolving the solution in nitric acid
and then adding a silver nitrate solution followed by ammonia solution
The halide ions will react with the silver nitrate solution as follows:
AgNO3 (aq) + X- (aq) → AgX (s) + NO3- (aq)
Ag+ (aq) + X- (aq) → AgX (s)
X- is the halide ion in both equations
If the unknown solution contains halide ions, then a precipitate of the silver halide will be
formed (AgX)
Page 43 of 46
YOUR NOTES

A silver halide precipitate is formed upon addition of silver nitrate solution to halide ion
solution
Dilute followed by concentrated ammonia is added to the silver halide solution to identify
the halide ion
If the precipitate dissolves in dilute ammonia the unknown halide is chloride
If the precipitate does not dissolve in dilute but in concentrated ammonia the unknown
halide is bromide
If the precipitate does not dissolve in dilute nor concentrated ammonia the unknown
halide is iodide
Page 44 of 46
YOUR NOTES

Silver chloride and silver bromide precipitates dissolve on addition of ammonia solution
whereas silver iodide doesn’t
Reaction of halide ions with silver nitrate & ammonia solutions table
Page 45 of 46
YOUR NOTES

Reactions with hydrogen halides

When a halogen reacts with hydrogen a hydrogen halide is produced, for example:
Cl2 (g) + H2 (g) → 2HCl (g)
These hydrogen halides react with ammonia gas to form ammonium halides
NH3 (g) + HCl (g) → NH4Cl (s)
Hydrogen halides will also react with water
For example, hydrogen chloride also dissolves in water to form hydrochloric acid
HCl (g) → H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
Page 46 of 46

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2.1 Redox I YOUR NOTES

Defining Oxidation Number

Calculating Oxidation Numbers YOUR NOTES

2.1.2 Types of Reduction & Oxidation YOUR NOTES

Oxidising & Reducing Agents YOUR NOTES

Example of an oxidising agent in a chemical reaction

Example of a reducing agent in a chemical reaction

2.1.3 Redox & Disproportionation YOUR NOTES

Using Oxidation Numbers YOUR NOTES

Step 2: Deduce the oxidation number changes:

Step 3: Balance the oxidation number changes:

Step 4: Balance the charges

Step 5: Balance the atoms

2.1.4 Ionic Equations YOUR NOTES

Ionic Half-Equations YOUR NOTES

Step 2: Deduce the oxidation number changes

Step 3: Balance the oxidation number changes

Step 4: Balance the charges

Step 5: Finally, balance the atoms

Metals & Non-metals

2.2 Groups 1 & 2 YOUR NOTES

2.2.2 Reactions of Group 2 YOUR NOTES

Magnesium reacts extremely slowly with cold water:

Mg (s) + Cl2 (g) → MgCl2 (s) YOUR NOTES

Group 2 Oxides YOUR NOTES

Reactions of Group 2 hydroxides YOUR NOTES

2.2.3 Group 2 Hydroxides & Sulfates YOUR NOTES

The hydroxides dissolve in water as follows:

Going down the group, the solubility of the sulfates decreases

2.2.4 Group 1 & 2 Carbonates & Nitrates YOUR NOTES

Thermal decomposition of nitrates

2.2.5 Flame Tests YOUR NOTES

Diagram showing the technique for carrying out a flame test

Why does Mg2+ not have an observed colour?

2.3 Group 7 YOUR NOTES

The electronegativity of the halogens decreases going down the group

Group 7 Reactivity YOUR NOTES

Making Predictions YOUR NOTES

2.3.2 Halogen Displacement Reactions YOUR NOTES

Br2 (aq) + 2KI (aq) → 2KBr (aq) + I2 (aq)

2.3.3 Halogen Redox Reactions YOUR NOTES

The ionic equation is:

Chlorine gets reduced as there is a decrease in ox. no. from 0 to -1 in Cl-(aq)

Chlorine in hot alkali (70 oC)

The ionic equation is:

Chlorine gets reduced as there is a decrease in ox. no. from 0 to -1 in Cl-(aq)

2.3.4 Halide Ion Reactions YOUR NOTES

The reaction that takes place is:

The HCl gas produces is seen as white fumes YOUR NOTES

Silver ions & ammonia

Reactions with hydrogen halides

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