TG20-13 Design Guide Draft B

DRAFT B
CONFIDENTIAL
FOR REVIEW BY THE NASC COUNCIL AND TECHNICAL COMMITTEE
TG 20:13 Design Guide

Technical guidance on the use of BS EN12811-1.
NASC Technical Guidance on the design of tube and fitting scaffolding to BS EN12811-1
© National Access and Scaffolding Confederation 2013
First published January 2005

Second Edition November 2008
Third Edition October 2013
The preparation of this NASC Guide to good practice was entrusted to CADS (Computer and Design Services Limited)
by the Council of the National Access and Scaffolding Confederation.
It is based in large part on the previous editions which were prepared by Slender Structures Limited.
The guide takes the form of recommendations and guidance. It should not be quoted as if it were a specification. It
does not purport to include all the necessary provisions for a contract and users are responsible for their application. It
applies to access scaffolds made principally from tubes and fittings.
The guide has been written on the assumption that the execution of its provisions will be entrusted to appropriately
qualified and experienced people and that construction and supervision of scaffolds will be carried out by capable and
experienced organisations.
The authors and publishers of this guide shall be under no liability of whatsoever kind however caused whether or not
due to the negligence or default of NASC, Slender Structures Limited, Computer and Design Services Limited or their
servants or agents arising out of or in connection with this document or any part thereof.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior permission of the publisher
and copyright holder.
TG20:13 DESIGN GUIDE I Foreword
Foreword 3
This TG20:13 Design Guide provides technical data, commentary and source material for the use of scaffold designers
in circumstances which are outside the scope of the standard solutions provided in the TG20:13 Operational Guide
and the TG20:13 eGuide software. It assumes that readers are competent and suitably qualified engineers or
designers, primarily:
1. Experienced scaffold designers who require an update on the latest research and development leading to the
standard solutions in the TG20:13 Operational Guide especially the interpretation of BS EN 12811-1 for practical
application to tube and fitting scaffolds in the United Kingdom and related markets;
2. Engineers with experience of the design and construction of other types of structure who require an introduction
to the particular features and design issues of tube and fitting scaffolding structures.
Both groups of readers will benefit from the design data resource given in tabular and graphical form in section
5. The background research to TG20:13 is summarised in Appendices F and G and full references are given to
help with interpretation and validation. Parts of the TG20:13 Design Guide may also be of interest to scaffolding
contracts managers and other executives in the scaffolding industry who would like some background to the TG20:13
Operational Guide and to the work of their engineering designers.
This publication provides new detailed design guidance for façade access scaffolds, birdcages and allied structures
based on the research carried out in preparation for the TG20:13 Operational Guide and the associated eGuide
software. Commentary on other scaffold structures has been retained from TG20:08 volume 1 and updated as
necessary in section 3. It is assumed that designers will use both manual calculations and computer software for
frame analysis and design checking to develop and justify their structural designs and so new guidance is given in
Appendix F to help with modelling scaffold structures using commercially available frame analysis software.
All parts of TG20:08 were reviewed and (where appropriate) updated or expanded for this TG20:13 Design Guide. The
major changes and additions are as follows:
• New overview and discussion of the structural behaviour of scaffolds;
• New commentary on BS EN 12811-1 imposed loads;
• New commentary and background to the wind loading guidance in BS EN 12811-1;
• Removal of references to the now withdrawn wind loading code BS 6399-2, which did not cover scaffolding, and
replacement with appropriate references to BS EN 1991-1-4 and the research which informed BS EN 12811-1;
• Reworking of the ‘simple’ procedure to calculate peak velocity pressure to the UK National Annex to BS EN 1991-
1-4;
• Explanation (in Appendix A) of the more refined ‘directional’ method to calculate peak velocity pressure and its
application in the TG20:13 Operational Guide and eGuide which allow wind exposure to be assessed without
numerical calculations;
• New commentary on load combinations and the alternative limit state design options using partial safety factors
or working loads and stresses;
• New unified treatment of effective lengths covering more cases;
• New enlarged treatment of birdcage scaffolds including the important differences between free standing and
tied / butted designs;
• Revised and more detailed treatment of scaffold boards, transoms, ledgers;
• Updated safe loads and stiffnesses for couplers including Readylok type system transom couplers;
• New aids for calculating tie forces and equivalent wind loads;
• New Appendix E on foundation design (to assist the party responsible for the foundations, usually the
client / main contractor);
• New Appendix F on modelling scaffolds with structural analysis software;
• New Appendix G: Summary of the results of the analytical research carried out for TG20:13.
Previous editions of TG20 published in 2005 and 2008 were produced in response to the withdrawal of BS 5973:1993
Code of practice for access and working scaffolds and special structures in steel by the British Standards Institution
and the imposition of the European standard BS EN 12811-1:2003 Temporary Works Equipment - Part 1: Scaffolds -
Performance requirements and general design, which gives performance requirements but no guidance on practical
applications and interpretation. TG20:05 and TG20:08 therefore incorporated large portions of guidance taken from
BS 5973 and this has been preserved in the present TG20:13 Design Guide with relevant updating in sections 2 and
3. The other circumstances, developments and publications informing previous editions of TG20 are described in the
foreword to TG20:08 to which reference is recommended.
TG20:13 DESIGN GUIDE I Foreword
In preparation for the 2013 edition of TG20, the NASC working group decided to divide the publication into two parts:
• The TG20:13 Operational Guide, providing practical guidance for construction and management in a new colour
illustrated format together with a software eGuide enabling the selection and printing of TG20 compliance
sheets to justify routine scaffolds without bespoke structural design.
• The TG20:13 Design Guide providing technical guidance for scaffold design engineers in similar format to
TG20:08 but expanded and updated to benefit from the research effort leading up to publication. The Design
Guide now provides more data, explanation and commentary to assist designers but omits the many safe height
tables and similar information in TG20:08 now covered by the eGuide.
It is hoped that this division of functions will assist members of the scaffolding industry and interested parties to
focus on topics relevant to the particular tasks in hand.
Finally the authors of the TG20:13 publications and working group wish to acknowledge the achievements of all
who contributed to previous editions and in particular the scaffolding research carried out over many years at Oxford
Brookes University by Mike Godley and Rob Beale.
Contents 5
CONTENTS I TG20:13 Design Guide
6
Contents TG20:13 Design Guide
Foreword 3
4
Section 1 GENERAL 19
1.1 Scope 20
1.2 TG20 compliant scaffolds 20
1.3 Limit state design 20
1.4 Structural materials and components 20
1.5 References 20
1.6 Units 20
Section 2 DESIGN GUIDANCE FOR STANDARD SCAFFOLDS 21

2.1 Independent scaffolds 22
2.1.1 Description of tied independent scaffolds 22
2.1.2 Duty of tied independent scaffolds 23
2.1.2.1 Loading 23
2.1.2.2 Scaffold designation 23
2.1.2.3 Maximum bay lengths 23
2.1.2.4 Lift heights 23
2.1.3 Foundations 25
2.1.3.1 Scaffolds supported on existing superstructures 25
2.1.3.2 Kentledge and ground anchors 25
2.1.4 Standards 25
2.1.4.1 Joints 25
2.1.4.2 Doubled standards 25
2.1.5 Ledgers 26
2.1.5.1 Attachment 26
2.1.5.2 Joints 26
2.1.5.3 Curved building surfaces 26
2.1.6 Transoms 26
2.1.6.1 Length of transoms 26
2.1.6.2 Couplers 26
2.1.6.3 Spacing 27
2.1.7 Bracing 27
2.1.7.1 General 27
2.1.7.2 Ledger bracing 27
2.1.7.3 Façade bracing 27
2.1.7.4 Plan bracing 29
2.1.7.5 Couplers for fixing braces 29
2.1.8 Working platforms and decking 30
2.1.8.1 Platform widths 30
2.1.8.2 Decking 30
2.1.8.3 Supports 30
2.1.8.4 Toe boards 30
2.1.8.5 Guardrails 31
2.1.8.6 Brick guards 31
2.1.8.7 Length of working platforms 31
2.1.8.8 Sloping platforms 31
2.1.8.9 Steps in working platforms 32
2.1.8.10 Cantilever platforms 32
2.1.9 Tying scaffolding to building façades 33

2.1.9.1 General 33
2.1.9.2 Building structure 33
2.1.9.3 Movable and non-movable ties 34
2.1.9.4 Layout of ties 34
2.1.9.5 Loading 34
2.1.9.6 Box ties 35
2.1.9.7 Lip ties 35
2.1.9.8 Through ties 37
2.1.9.9 Reveal ties 37
2.1.9.10 Anchorages and allied components 39
2.1.9.11 Attachment of the scaffold to the anchorage point 41
2.1.9.12 Capacity of tie systems 41
2.1.9.13 Abnormal façades 41
2.1.9.14 Equivalent tying value of scaffold returns and buttresses 41
2.1.9.15 Equivalent tying value of rakers 42
2.1.9.16 First working lift 42
2.1.10 Access to and in scaffolds 43
2.1.10.1 Landings 43
2.1.10.2 Ladder towers and bays 43
2.1.10.3 Loading 43
2.1.10.4 Staircase towers 43
2.1.11 Pavement lifts 44
2.1.12 Openings and bridges 45
2.1.12.1 Bridge members 45
2.1.12.2 Supporting standards 45
2.1.12.3 Stability 45
2.1.13 Raising and lowering material 46
2.1.13.1 Gin wheels 46
2.1.13.2 Scaffold jib cranes and hoists 46
2.1.13.3 Mechanical hoists 46
2.1.13.4 Multiple rope blocks 46
2.1.13.5 Impact loading 47
2.2 Loading bays founded on the ground 47
2.2.1 Loads and general arrangement 47
2.2.2 Bracing 48
2.2.2.1 Diagonal bracing 48
2.2.2.2 Plan bracing 48
2.2.2.3 Connections 48
2.2.3 Lifts 48
2.2.4 Decking 48
2.2.5 Guardrails and toe boards 49
2.2.7 Notices 49
2.3 Access birdcages 49
2.3.1 Description 49
2.3.2 Loading 49
2.3.3 Dimensions 49
2.3.5 Ledgers 50
2.3.6 Transoms 50
2.3.7 Stability 50
2.3.7.1 General 50
2.3.7.2 Bracing 51
2.3.7.3 Tying and butting 51
2.3.7.4 Mixed support 52
2.3.7.5 Overturning 52
2.3.7.6 Single lift birdcages 52
2.3.8 Top working platform 53
2.4 Putlog scaffolds 54
2.5 Towers 55
2.5.1 Tied towers 56
2.5.1.1 Towers tied to a façade 56
2.5.1.2 Towers tied to other structures 56
2.5.2 Lift shaft towers 56
2.5.3 Internal free-standing towers 56
2.5.4 External free standing towers 57
2.5.4.1 Cladding and other wind obstructions 57
2.5.5 Mobile towers 58
Section 3 SPECIAL SCAFFOLDS 59

3.1 Guidance for special scaffolds 60
3.1.1 General 60
3.1.2 Node point restraint 60
3.2 Protection fans and nets 60
3.2.1 Description and duty of protection fans 60
3.2.2 Effect of fans on the loads in standards of access scaffold 62
3.2.2.1 Vertical loads 62
3.2.2.2 Horizontal forces due to vertical loads 62
3.2.2.3 Wind forces 62
3.2.3 Decking 63
3.2.4 Precautions during erection and dismantling 63
3.2.5 Descriptions of fan structures 63
3.2.5.1 Light duty (class A) fans 63
3.2.5.2 Medium duty (class B) fans attached directly to a building 63
3.2.5.3 Medium duty (class B) fans supported by an access scaffold 63
3.2.5.4 Safety net system (class D fans) 64
3.3 Pavement frames or gantries 64
3.4 Stair towers 65
3.4.1 General 65
3.4.2 Loading 65
3.4.3 Stairway dimensions 65
3.4.4 Decking 65
3.5 Cantilever scaffolds 65
3.5.1 General description 65
3.5.2 Loads 65
3.5.3 Fixing the beams to the structure 66
3.5.4 Supported scaffolding 66
3.5.5 Safety during erection and dismantling 67
3.6 Truss-out scaffolds 67
3.6.1 General 67
3.6.2 Loads 70
3.6.3 Design of the truss-out 70
3.6.4 Supported scaffold 70
3.6.5 Single deck truss-outs 70
3.6.6 Safety during erection and dismantling 70
3.7 Power line crossings and other protection scaffolds 71
3.8 Masts, lighting towers and transmission towers 72
3.8.1 General 72
3.8.2 Loading 72
3.8.4 Guys 72
3.8.5 Standards 72
3.8.6 Ledgers and transoms 72
3.8.7 Bracing 72
3.8.8 Cladding 72
3.8.9 Icing 72
3.8.10 Access 72
3.9 Kentledge, guys and struts for free standing scaffolding 73
3.9.1 General 73
3.9.2 Kentledge 73
3.9.3 Anchors 73
3.9.3.1 General 73
3.9.3.2 Cross tubes attached to a foot lift 73
3.9.3.3 Driven tube anchors attached to guys 73
3.9.3.4 Screwed-in flight anchors 73
3.9.3.5 Plate and pin anchors 73
3.9.4 Guys 74
3.9.5 Stabilisers 75
3.10 Slung and suspended scaffolds 75
3.10.1 General 75
3.10.2 Loading 77
3.10.3 Dimensions 77
3.10.4 Design 77
3.10.5 Method of scaffold suspension 77
3.10.6 Suspension points 77
3.10.7 Couplers 77
3.10.8 Decking 77
3.10.9 Bracing 77
3.11 Pedestrian bridges and walkways 78
3.12 Temporary ramps and elevated roadways 78
3.13 Mechanical hoists 78
3.14 Lifting gantries 78
3.14.1 General 78
3.14.2 Loading 78
3.14.3 Cross head 78
3.14.4 Towers 78
3.14.5 Traffic fenders 79
3.14.6 Bracing 79
3.15 Temporary buildings and temporary roofs 79
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3.16 Spectator terraces and seating stands 80

3.16.1 General 80
3.16.2 Loading 80
3.16.3 Guys and anchors 80
3.16.5 Standards 80
3.16.7 Bracing 81
3.16.8 Decking 81
3.16.9 Couplers and fittings 81
3.17 Temporary storage on site 81
3.17.1 General 81
3.17.2 Loading 81
3.17.4 Standards 81
3.17.6 Bracing 82
3.17.7 Plan bracing 82
3.17.8 Fenders 82
3.17.9 Attachment of racking to other structures 82
3.17.10 Slab and post racks 82
3.17.11 Racking roofs 82
3.18 Hoardings and fences 82
3.18.1 General 82
3.18.2 Loading 82
3.18.3 Design issues 83
Section 4 STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF TUBE AND FITTING SCAFFOLDS 85

4.1 Structural characteristics of tube and fitting scaffolds 86
4.1.1 Slenderness 86
4.1.2 Connections 86
4.1.2.1 Connection eccentricity 86
4.1.2.2 Connection strength 86
4.1.2.3 Connection stiffness 86
4.1.3 Dominant dead load 86
4.1.4 Horizontal supports 86
4.2 Design loads 87
4.2.1 Permanent (dead) loads 87
4.2.1.1 Overhangs and projections 87
4.2.2 Variable loads other than wind loads 87
4.2.2.1 Vertical imposed loads applied to working areas and access routes 87
4.2.2.2 Notional horizontal loads 89
4.2.2.3 Snow and icing loads 89
4.2.2.4 Imposed loads applied to side protection components 90
4.2.3 Wind loads 90
4.2.3.1 General 90
4.2.3.2 Peak velocity pressure qp 90
4.2.3.3 Reference area A 95
11
4.2.3.4 Aerodynamic force coefficient cf 97

4.2.3.5 Site or location coefficient cs 98
4.2.3.6 Effect of boarded lifts 99
4.2.3.7 Wind shielding effects 100
4.2.3.8 Wind funnelling effects 100
4.3 Load combinations and ‘limit state design’ 100
4.3.1 General background 100
4.3.1.1 Permissible stress or working load format 101
4.3.1.2 Partial safety factor format 102
4.3.2 Load categories 102
4.3.3 Load combinations 103
4.3.3.1 Load combinations for limit state design with partial safety factors 103
4.3.3.2 Load combinations for permissible stress / working load design 104
4.4 Overall structural behaviour of tied façade access scaffolds 104
4.4.1 Ledger braced tube and fitting scaffolds 105
4.4.1.1 Behaviour under mainly vertical loading 105
4.4.1.2 Behaviour under wind normal to the façade 105
4.4.1.3 Behaviour under wind parallel to the façade 105
4.4.2 Scaffolds with system transom units 107
4.4.2.1 Behaviour under mainly vertical loading 107
4.4.2.2 Behaviour under wind normal to the façade 107
4.4.2.3 Behaviour under wind parallel to the façade 107
4.5 Overall structural behaviour of untied scaffolds 108
4.5.1 Towers 108
4.5.2 Birdcages 108
4.5.2.1 Tied or butted birdcages 108
4.5.2.2 Free standing birdcages 108
Section 5 SCAFFOLD DESIGN DATA 111

5.1 Scaffolding self-weights and dead loads 112
5.2 Vertical imposed loads on working areas and access routes 113
5.2.1 General imposed loads 113
5.2.2 Specific imposed loads 113
5.3 Loads per standard per lift for façade access scaffolds 114
5.3.1 General 114
5.3.1.1 Unboarded lifts 114
5.3.1.2 Boarded lifts 114
5.4 Section properties of scaffold boards and timber beams 116
5.4.1 Scaffold boards 116
5.4.2 Timber strength and stiffness parameters 116
5.4.3 Section capacities for common timber sections 116
5.5 Section properties of scaffold tubes 119
5.6 Axial load capacities of steel scaffold tubes 120
5.7 Effective lengths of scaffold tube members 122
5.7.1 Fully braced and vertically anchored scaffolds. 122
5.7.2 Unbraced untied scaffolds 124
5.7.3 Tied scaffolds 124
5.7.3.1 Tied ledger braced scaffolds with no base uplift 124
5.7.3.2 Tied scaffolds with prefabricated transom units – no uplift. 126
5.7.3.3 Putlog scaffolds – no uplift 127
12
5.7.3.4 Tied scaffolds subject to uplift 128

5.7.3.5 Effective lengths of double standards 128
5.7.3.6 Effective lengths of other components in tied independent scaffolds 128
5.8 Structural design criteria for scaffold tube members 130
5.8.1 Design check for member strength 130
5.8.2 Design check for deflection 131
5.9 Structural properties and design criteria for scaffold couplers 132
5.10 Function & load capacity of scaffold boards and other platform units 134
5.10.1 General 134
5.10.2 Structural design 134
5.10.2.1 General and loading 134
5.10.2.2 Section properties 134
5.10.2.3 Structural analysis 134
5.11 Function & load capacity of scaffold transoms 135
5.11.1 Board transoms 135
5.11.1.1 Simply supported spans 135
5.11.1.2 Cantilever and anchor spans 135
5.11.1.3 Continuous spans 136
5.11.2 Tie tube transoms 136
5.11.3 Butting transoms 136
5.11.4 System transoms 137
5.11.5 Birdcage structural transoms 137
5.12 Function & load capacity of scaffold ledgers 137
5.12.1 Ledgers subject to vertical loading 137
5.12.1.1 Simply supported spans 138
5.12.1.2 Continuous spans 139
5.12.2 Ledgers subject to bending in the horizontal plane 139
5.12.3 Ledgers as members of scaffold frames in the vertical planes 140
5.12.4 Ledgers as members of scaffold frames in the horizontal plane of each lift of a tied 140
independent scaffold
5.13 Function & load capacity of tie tubes and additional sway restraint 140
5.14 Equivalent joint loads & area loads 141
5.14.1 Wind loads normal to the façade 141
5.14.2 Wind loads parallel to the façade 142
5.15 Tie/anchor forces 142
5.15.1 Tie / anchor forces normal to the façade 142
5.15.1.1 Unclad scaffolds 142
5.15.1.2 Scaffolds clad with high permeability debris netting 143
5.15.1.3 Scaffolds clad with sheeting (or low permeability netting of unknown permeability) 143
5.15.2 Tie / anchor forces parallel to the façade 144
5.15.2.1 Unclad scaffolds 144
5.15.2.2 Scaffolds clad with high permeability debris netting 144
5.15.2.3 Scaffolds clad with sheeting (or low permeability netting) 145
Section 6 DEFINITIONS 147
Appendix A ALTERNATIVE METHODS FOR CALCULATING PEAK VELOCITY WIND PRESSURE 153
A.1 Directional method for calculating peak velocity pressure 154
A.2 Wind exposure assessment used in the TG20 Operational Guide and TG20 eGuide 155
A.2.1 TG20 eGuide internet procedure 155
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A.2.2 TG20 eGuide manual procedure 156
Appendix B MANUAL CALCULATION OF LOADS PER STANDARD IN AN INDEPENDENT TIED 157

SCAFFOLD
B.1 Calculation procedure 157
B.2 Worked examples 158
Appendix C SCAFFOLDS USING ALUMINIUM TUBE 162

C.1 Introduction 162
C.2 Care of aluminium tubes 162
C.2.1 Straightness of tubes 162
C.2.2 Heat treatment of tubes 162
C.3 Material properties of aluminium 162
C.3.1 Stiffness 162
C.3.2 Corrosion and explosion hazards 162
C.4 Stability and stiffness 163
C.4.1 Aluminium access towers 163
C.4.2 Mixed aluminium and steel tubes 163
C.4.3 Limitations of use of aluminium tube 163
C.5 Safe axial loads in compression for aluminium tubes 163
Appendix D SAFE AXIAL LOADS IN STEEL SCAFFOLD TUBES TO BS 1139-1:1982 164
Appendix E FOUNDATION DESIGN 165

E.1 General 165
E.2 Foundation situations 165
E.2.1 Scaffold standards supported on a permanent superstructure 165
E.2.2 Scaffold standards supported on a structural concrete ground bearing slab 165
E.2.3 Scaffold standards supported on non-structural paving 166
E.2.4 Scaffold standards supported by baseplate and soleboard on subgrade 166
E.2.5 Scaffold standards supported on concrete pad foundations 166
E.3 Timber soleboards and grillages 166
E.3.1 Baseplate to timber bearing 166
E.3.2 Soleboard shear and bending 167
E.3.3 Grillage foundations 167
E.4 Subgrade bearing pressure 167
E.4.1 Assessing the site 167
E.4.2 Soil types and safe bearing pressures 168
E.4.2.1 Cohesive soils 168
E.4.2.2 Cohesionless soils 169
Appendix F MODELLING SCAFFOLDS WITH STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS SOFTWARE 172

F.1 General 172
F.2 Modelling scaffold couplers for structural analysis 172
F.2.1 Right angle coupler connection between ledger and standard 172
F.2.2 Putlog coupler connection between board transom and ledger 174
F.2.3 Swivel coupler connection between bracing and standard 175
F.2.4 Unit transom coupler 176
F.3 Determination of effective lengths 178
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Appendix G TG20:13 RESEARCH RESULTS 180

G.1 General 180
G.2 Verification of effective lengths given in TG20:08 180
G.3 Effect of base fixity 181
G.4 Effect of a foot lift 181
G.5 Effect of tie fixity 181
G.6 Effect of varying the cruciform stiffness of couplers 181
G.7 Effect of practical transom spacing 181
G.8 Effect of including guard rails in the structural model 182
G.9 Effect of a pavement lift 182
G.10 Effect of tolerance on lift height 182
G.11 Effect of varying scaffold widths 182
G.12 Effect of substituting single bay for double bay façade bracing 182
G.13 Effect of increasing the spacing of façade bracing 183
G.14 Effect of ledger bracing direction 183
G.15 Effect of an untied top lift 183
G.16 Effect of varying tie patterns 184
G.17 Effect of modelling geometrical imperfections 184
G.18 Effect of tie tubes connected to the inner ledger only 184
G.19 Effective lengths of tie tubes 185
G.20 Effect of supporting two separate standards on one timber sole board 185
G.21 Extent of load sharing between double standards 185
G.22 Effect of sleeve couplers on the load capacity of ledgers 186
G.23 Effective lengths of double standards 186
G.24 Effect of adding façade bracing to inner standards 186
G.25 Effective lengths of standards in birdcage scaffolds 186
G.26 Effective lengths of single bay façade braces in ledger braced scaffolds 186
G.27 Effective lengths of ledgers in ledger braced scaffolds 186
G.28 Review of TG20:08 values for the cruciform stiffness of couplers 186
Appendix H BIBLIOGRAPHY & REFERENCES 188

H.1 British Standards 188
H.2 NASC Safety and Technical Guidance Notes 190
H.3 Bibliography 190
H.4 Numbered references from the text of this guide 192
H.5 Acknowledgements 193
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1 Typical independent tied scaffold 22
Figure 2.2 Typical elevations of façade bracing 28
Figure 2.3 Plan bracing for independent tied scaffolds 29
Figure 2.4 Plan of typical box ties 35
Figure 2.5 Arrangement of lip ties and sway transoms 36
Figure 2.6 Through tie for independent tied scaffold 36
Figure 2.7 Through tie for a putlog scaffold on a bridle tube 37
Figure 2.8 Reveal tie 38
Figure 2.9 Typical end details for tie tubes 39
Figure 2.10 Typical ring bolt tie 40
Figure 2.11 Typical hook tie arrangement 40
15
Figure 2.12 Typical types of raker stabilisers used on domestic scaffolds 42

Figure 2.13 Ladder access tower with internal ladder 43
Figure 2.14 Arrangements of pavement lift 44
Figure 2.15 Gin wheel fixings 46
Figure 2.16 Typical loading bay for 10 kN/m 2
47
Figure 2.17 Standard bracing arrangements for free-standing birdcages 52
Figure 2.18 Single lift access birdcage scaffold 53
Figure 2.19 Typical putlog scaffold 55
Figure 2.20 Mobile tower with internal ladder 58
Figure 3.1 Classes of fans (Class A, Class B & Class C) 61
Figure 3.2 Typical cantilever scaffold 66
Figure 3.3 Single lift truss-out scaffold 67
Figure 3.4 Typical truss-out independent tied scaffold (on existing building) 68
Figure 3.5 Typical truss-out independent tied scaffold (on building under construction) 69
Figure 3.6 Small power line crossing 71
Figure 3.7 Power line crossing over motorway 71
Figure 3.8 Anchors 74
Figure 3.9 Suspended and slung working and protection scaffolds 75
Figure 3.10 Typical lifting gantry 76
Figure 4.1 The fundamental wind velocity (Vb,map) 92
Figure 4.2 Topographical factor (Twind) 93
Figure 4.3 Town and country diagrams 93
Figure 4.4 Variation of the site coefficient cs with the solidity ratio 99
Figure 5.1 Effective lengths in fully braced and vertically anchored tube and fitting scaffolding. 122
Figure 5.2 Elastic buckling modes for an independent tied scaffold 125
Figure 5.3 Elastic buckling modes for a putlog scaffold 127
Figure F.1 Analysis model for a right angle coupler 173
Figure F.2 Analysis model for a putlog coupler 174
Figure F.3 Analysis model for a swivel coupler 176
Figure F.4 Analysis model for a transom unit coupler 177
Figure F.5 Model of a 4 lift × 6 bay scaffold with test loads applied to determine the elastic critical 178
load factor
Figure F.6 Model of a scaffold tied at every lift showing its deflected form at just below the critical 179
buckling load factor (buckling normal to the façade)
Figure F.7 Model of a scaffold tied at alternate lifts showing its deflected form at just below the 179
critical buckling load factor (buckling parallel to the façade)
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 Load classes for access and working scaffolds made from tubes and fittings 24
Table 2.2 Erection tolerances 26
Table 2.3 Widths of access scaffold platforms 30
Table 2.4 Maximum and target span of scaffold boards 31
Table 2.5 Maximum bay dimensions for birdcage scaffolding 50
Table 3.1 Loading for show stands and places of assembly 80
Table 4.1 Service loads on working areas 88
Table 4.2 Exposure factor ce(z) for sites in country terrain and ce(z).ce,T for sites in town 94
Table 4.3 Reference heights for the wind loading of toe boards 97
Table 4.4 Aerodynamic force coefficients for sheeting and debris-netting from BS EN 12811 97
Table 4.5 Aerodynamic force coefficients adopted for TG20 compliant scaffolds 97
Table 4.6 Aerodynamic force coefficients for brick guards for TG20 compliant scaffolds 98
Table 4.7 Proportion of parallel wind force delivered to shear resisting ties to the façade 106
16
Table 5.1 Scaffold component weights 112

Table 5.2 Weights of couplers as % addition to total weight of scaffold tube 112
Table 5.3 Mass of men and materials 113
Table 5.4 Self weight load per standard in kN of an unboarded 2 m high lift 114
Table 5.5 Additional load per standard from a 2 m high boarded lift with service imposed load 115
Table 5.6 Grade stresses and moduli of elasticity for service classes 1 and 2 (indoor use at 117
maximum moisture content 20%)
Table 5.7.1 Modification factors K2 for service class 3 (outdoor use at moisture contents greater than 117
20%)
Table 5.7.2 Modification factors K3 for duration of loading 117
Table 5.7.3 Modification factor K4 for concentrated bearings more than 75 mm from the end of a 117
member
Table 5.7.4 Modification factor K7 for member depth applied to stresses only 117
Table 5.7.5 Modification factor K8 for load sharing applied to stresses only 117
Table 5.8 Properties of timber sections and conditions commonly found in scaffolding structures 118
Table 5.9 Section properties of scaffold tube 119
Table 5.10 Safe axial loads for Type 4 steel scaffold tubes manufactured in accordance with BS EN 39 121
Table 5.10 a Safe axial loads for S 355 48.3 × 3.2 mm cold formed tube (“as new”) 121
Table 5.11 Nominal effective length LE for a compression member of length L 123
Table 5.12 Effective lengths, LE, for ledger braced independent tied scaffolds with 2.0 m lifts, buckling 125
parallel to the façade
Table 5.13 Effective lengths, LE, for ledger braced independent tied scaffolds with 2.0 m lifts, buckling 125
normal to the façade
Table 5.14 Effective lengths, LE, for ledger braced independent tied scaffolds with 2.0 m lifts 126
Table 5.14 a Effective lengths, LE, for ledger braced independent tied scaffolds with 3.0 m lifts (buckling 126
normal to the façade)
Table 5.14 b Effective lengths, LE, for unbraced independent tied scaffolds with 2.0 m lifts and 126
structural transom units (buckling normal to the façade)
Table 5.14 c Effective lengths, LE, for unbraced independent tied scaffolds with 3.0 m lifts and 127
structural transom units
Table 5.14 d Effective lengths, LE, for putlog scaffold standards with 2.0 m lifts, buckling normal to the 127
façade
Table 5.14 e Effective lengths, LE, for independent tied scaffolds with 2.0 m lifts, 2.0 m bays and double 128
standards
Table 5.14 f Deteriorated effective lengths, LE, for ledger braced independent tied scaffolds with 2.0 m 129
lifts and 2.0 m bays subject to wind uplift
Table 5.14 g Effective lengths, LE, for unbraced independent tied scaffolds with 2.0 m lifts and transom 129
units subject to wind uplift
Table 5.15 Working load design parameters for scaffold couplers on steel and aluminium tubes 132
Table 5.16 Safe loads for Type 4 tube to BS EN 39 as simply supported ledgers 138
Table A.2 Exposure factor ce(z) for use with the TG20:13 wind factor STG20:13 extracted from 156
BS 5975:2008+A1:2011 table 15
Table C.1 Section properties of aluminium scaffold tubes to BS 1139-1.2:1990 162
Table C.2 Safe axial loads for aluminium scaffold tube complying with BS 1139-1.2:1990 163
Table D.1 Safe axial loads for steel scaffold tubes manufactured in accordance with BS 1139-1:1982 164
Table E.1 Identification and description of soils 168
Table E.2 Presumed safe bearing pressures for cohesive soils 169
Table E.3 Indicative design parameters for non-cohesive soils 170
Table F.1 Stage 1 (secant) stiffness values obtained from tests on transom unit couplers 176
17
18
This page is intentionally left blank.
General 19
1.1 Scope 16
1.2 TG 20 compliant
scaffolds 16
1.3 Limit state design 16
1.4 Structural materials and
components 16
1.5 References 16
1.6 Units 16
SECTION 1 I General
20 General
1.1 Scope
This NASC guide to good practice gives recommendations for the structural design of common access scaffolds in
steel, normally used in construction, maintenance, repair, and demolition work. To avoid the repetition of content it
should be read in conjunction with the TG20 Operational Guide for non-structural aspects of scaffolding practice.
The use of scaffolding for the temporary support of wet concrete, incomplete masonry and steelwork under
construction, commonly referred to as temporary works or falsework, is not included in this guide.
This guide is written generally in accordance with the requirements of BS EN 12811-1, compliance with which is not a
legal requirement. The function of all British Standards, and this NASC guide, is to provide guidance on good practice.
1.2 TG20 compliant scaffolds

BS EN 12811-1 specifies performance requirements and methods of structural and general design for access and
working scaffolds but does not provide compliant designs. In the accompanying TG20 Operational Guide a range of
scaffolds, referred to as “TG20 compliant scaffolds” is defined for which the structural design has been made and
published by the NASC, generally in accordance with BS EN 12811-1 and for which further design is not required. For
all scaffolds that do not conform to the conditions set out for this range, a structural design should be prepared. The
research data and knowledge gained during the development of the TG20 compliant scaffolds has been taken into
account in updating this design guide so that, where applicable, designers of other scaffolds may benefit.
1.3 Limit state design

The structural recommendations in the NASC TG20 guides are based on the requirements of BS EN 12811-1: 2003,
which makes reference to the European code for the design of structural steel in buildings (EN 1993-1-1:2005). Both
these standards assume design calculations will be carried out by the limit-state method using partial safety factors.
The previous code of practice, BS 5973:1993, on which the current guide is also based, made use of the permissible
stress / working loads approach to structural design and this method is still widely used by most temporary works
designers. In Section 4 of this guide a method of design is proposed that adheres to the requirements of limit state
design, but is presented in terms of safe working loads with which the industry is familiar. Designers are therefore
free to choose how to present calculations.
1.4 Structural materials and components

The recommendations of the TG20 guides relate principally to type 4 steel scaffold tube manufactured to BS EN 39
with a yield stress not less than 235 N/mm2, an outside diameter of 48.3 mm and a wall thickness of 4 mm. TG20
compliant scaffolds may also be erected with high-tensile steel tubes with an outside diameter of 48.3 mm, wall
thickness of 3.2 mm and yield strength not less than 355 N/mm², supplied in accordance with BS EN 10210-1.
This guide does not preclude the use in access scaffolding of tubes of other dimensions and strengths and
Appendix C provides a limited amount of data on aluminium tube and Appendix D on steel tube complying with the
requirements of current and withdrawn BS 1139 tube. When other tubes are used, the structural design should be
carried out using the properties of the tubes used and the structures, when assembled, should be designed to have
similar characteristics to scaffolding constructed with the tube recommended in this NASC guide. Sections 4 and 5
provide some technical data and guidance on structural design.
This guide relates mainly to the use of scaffold couplers manufactured to BS EN 74-1:2005 (or BS 1139-2.2:2009 for
those UK couplers not covered by EN 74). Guidance is also given on the use of prefabricated transom units which
have special integrated couplers.
1.5 References
The titles of the publications and standards referred to in this guide are listed in Appendix H.
1.6 Units
The standard units of measurement used in this guide are those of the International System of Units (SI).
The term “weight” has only been used to describe the gravitational or downward force exerted by a body, which
is given in kilonewtons. In the past the term “weight” has also been used to describe the “mass” of a body, which
is given in kilograms. In this guide the approximation is made that 100 kilograms (kg) exerts a vertical force of one
kilonewton (kN).
Design guidance for standard scaffolds 21
2.1 Independent scaffolds 22
2.2Loading bays founded

on the ground 47
2.3 Access birdcages 49
2.4 Putlog scaffolds 54
2.5 Towers 55
S E C T I O N 2 I Design guidance for standard scaffolds
22 Design guidance for standard scaffolds

2.1 Independent scaffolds
‘Independent scaffold’ is a short form for an ‘independent façade access scaffold’ providing access to an adjacent
building. The term ‘independent’ was originally intended to differentiate these scaffolds from putlog access scaffolds,
which are now infrequently used, and must not be confused with ‘free standing’ where there is no support or shelter
from an adjacent building.
2.1.1 Description of tied independent scaffolds
A tied independent scaffold consists of two rows of standards, with each row parallel to the building. The inner row
is set as close to the building as is practicable. The distance between the lines of standards should be the minimum
necessary to accommodate the required number of boards and toe boards.
A variation may be adopted in which the row of standards nearest to the building is offset from the building face so
that one or two boards of the platform can be laid between the inside row of standards and the building face.
The standards should be connected with ledgers running parallel to the building and fixed with right angle couplers
and with transoms fixed to the ledgers with putlog couplers to as to support the platform widths as given in Table 2.3.
In TG20 compliant façade scaffolds, a set of longitudinal bracing (also called façade bracing) is required to be fitted for
every six bays of scaffolding. Where the inside standards are tied to the building in accordance with this guide, façade
bracing need only be fitted to the outside row of standards. Ledger bracing should normally be fixed to alternate pairs
of standards at all lifts. Other arrangements of bracing are possible but should be specifically justified by structural
design.
Independent scaffolds may be sheeted, fitted with debris netting or unclad. To minimise wind forces parallel to the
façade, it is recommended that sheeting and netting should always be fitted to the outside of the scaffold members.
Bay length
Toeboard
Guardrails and
toeboards fixed
to the standards
Transoms
Boards,
toeboards
& guardrails
omitted
for clarity Joint
pin
Through-
tie (see
Joint pin figure 12)
Joint Ledgers
or sleeve pin
coupler
Reveal tie tube

wedged into
opening with
reveal pin
(see figure 14)
Ledger bracing at
right angles to the
building
Ledger bracing Facade bracing
(alternative Longitudinal or 38 x 225mm timber sole
arrangement) facade bracing plates when standing on soil
Figure 2.1 – Typical independent tied scaffold

Notes -NOTES:
1. This drawing should be read in conjunction with the text.
1. 2.
ThisSome
drawing should
transoms bebeen
have readomitted
in conjunction
for clarity. with the text.
2. Some transoms have been omitted for clarity. See 14.
Figure 1. Typical independent tied scaffold
23
2.1.2 Duty of tied independent scaffolds
2.1.2.1 Loading
Access and working scaffolds may be specifically designed and constructed for any particular distributed or point
load and for a variety of purposes. Table 2.1 lists four of the distributed Load Classes specified in BS EN12811-1.
The requirements for concentrated and partial area loads are not included here but details of these can be found in
Table 3 of BS EN12811-1. Their effect for Load Class 4 is to reduce the permissible span of the scaffold board and
consequently Table 2.1 reduces the spacing of board transoms from 1200 to 900 mm for Load Class 4.
In the absence of wind, in addition to vertical imposed loads, BS EN12811-1 requires a notional horizontal design load
to be applied to each bay of the scaffold of not less than 2½% of the total uniformly distributed service load on that
bay or 0.3 kN whichever is the greater. It should be separately applied parallel and perpendicular to the bay at the level
of the working platform.
Reference should be also made to Clause 6.2.9 of BS EN12811-1 for the load combinations to be considered in the
structural design. If the specifier quotes no load rating, it is recommended that the selection be made from Table
2.1 in this NASC Guide or from Table 3 of BS EN12811-1. For platform loadings on access towers and other types of
scaffold, reference should be made to the relevant Clause in Sections 2 and 3.
Independent scaffolds are normally assumed to have imposed load on two platforms only. One platform carries
the imposed load shown for its class in Table 2.1 and the other carries 50% of the imposed load for its class. This
is a traditional allowance for work to be carried out actively at one level at a time with allowance for transfer of
materials from the adjacent level. Thus a Load Class 4 scaffold is designed with one working lift carrying 3.00 kN / m2
and the adjacent lift carrying 1.5 kN/m2. If it is required to allow for work to be carried out on more than one level
simultaneously, the TG20 compliant designs cannot be used and the scaffold must be specially designed.
The inside boards of TG20 compliant independent scaffolds are loaded to 0.75 kN/m2 (Class 1 loading) only in all
cases. This is a departure from BS EN 12811-1 clause 6.2.2.5 which requires cantilevered portions of the working area
to be capable of supporting the service load specified for the main area and is justified by long established practice
in the UK that inside boards are not used for storage of any kind. Scaffolds with the inside boards loaded to the full
value of the distributed load should be specially designed.
2.1.2.2 Scaffold designation
Earlier editions of TG20 introduced a convenient ‘scaffold designation’ that describes the load class and arrangement
of boards. In order, the digits define the BS EN 12811 load class, the number of boards between the standards and
the number of inside boards. For example, in Table 2.1 the scaffold designation 3-5-1 is a Class 3 scaffold with 5
boards between the standards and a cantilevered inside board, making a total of 6 boards. The inside boards are
loaded to Class 1 only. With no inside boards, the designation becomes 3-5-0. A suffix S to a designation denotes a
scaffold with short bay lengths not greater than 1.8 m. A suffix F is used to define fully loaded inside boards, which
require a special design.
Note that the designs for TG20 compliant scaffolds provided by the TG20 Operational Guide and eGuide relate to
scaffolding with a variety of lift heights, bay lengths, materials, add-on features and other criteria, so the scaffold
designation is not a complete definition of a scaffold design. Nevertheless it is a useful notation which is used within
the text of this guide.
2.1.2.3 Maximum bay lengths
The bay lengths depend on the height and loading of the scaffold. Table 2.1 gives maximum recommended bay
lengths for scaffolds based on the bending strength of the ledgers and the safe load capacity of the right angle
couplers connecting them to the standards. However the limiting load in the standard(s) may require a reduction in
the maximum bay length for taller scaffolds.
2.1.2.4 Lift heights
The vertical intervals at which standards are linked to one another with ledgers are called ‘lift heights’ and are an
important dimension in scaffolding. This dimension should be measured on site and maintained in accordance with
the requirements of the design.
BS EN12811-1 clause 5.3 and table 2 define the minimum clear access required at working lifts in an access scaffold
and these requirements should be adhered to.
Scaffolds with the common lift height of 2.0 m conform to the EN headroom class H1 with clear headroom of at least
1.75 m between the top surface of the working platform and the underside of the tie tubes or plan bracing of the lift
above .
24
table 2.1
Load classes for access and working scaffolds
made from tubes and fittings
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Load Desig- Duty Likely use Uniformly Max Max Max Max Width
Class nation of platform distributed number of bay spacing number class
load on platforms length board of
platform in use transoms boards
kN/m2 (udl kN/m2) m mm
1 1-3-0 Inspection Inspection, 0.75 One full 2.7 1200 3 W06

1-4-0 and very light cleaning (0.75) 4 W09
light duty and access and
One 50%
(0.375)
2 2-4-0 Light duty Plastering, 1.50 One full 2.4 1200 4 W09
2-4-1 painting, stone (1.50) 4+1 W09
2-4-2 cleaning, and 4+2 W12
glazing and One 50%
pointing (0.75)
3 3-5-0 General General 2.00 One full 2.1 1200 5 W09

3-4-1 purpose building work, (inside (2.00) 4+1 W09
3-4-2 including boards and 4+2 W12
3-5-1 brickwork, 0.75) One 50% 5+1 W12
3-5-2 window and (1.00) 5+2 W12
mullion fixing
rendering and
plastering
4 4-5-0 Heavy Masonry work, 3.00 One full 1.8 900 5 W09
4-4-1 duty concrete block (inside (3.00) 4+1 W09
4-4-2 work, and very boards and 4+2 W12
4-5-1 heavy cladding 0.75) One 50% 5+1 W12
4-5-2 (1.50) 5+2 W12

Notes
1 The scaffold designation given in column 2 is defined as follows: Designation 3-5-1 is a class 3 scaffold with 5 boards between the
standards and 1 board inside the inside standard, making a total of 6 boards.
2 In all cases the platform between the standards is loaded in accordance with columns 5 and 6 of Table 2.1 but for all classes the inside
boards are rated for class 1 loading only.
3 Platform units for scaffolds of Load Class 1 shall be capable of supporting Class 2 load.
4 Note that the maximum spacing of board transoms is reduced to 900 mm for Class 4 scaffolds.
5 For column 9, also refer to Table 2.3.
25
2.1.3 Foundations
Reference should be made to the accompanying TG20 Operational Guide Chapter 5 which states that normal industry
practice is that the client is responsible for the adequacy of scaffolding foundations. Guidance is given therein for
standard foundation arrangements for TG20 compliant scaffolds together with scaffold maximum leg loads so that
the client’s (or main contractor’s) engineer can assess and advise whether the standard solutions are applicable or
whether special foundations are required.
Where special foundations are required, the engineer responsible will need to take into account those particular
requirements and issues associated with scaffolding which are different from those encountered in the design of
foundations for permanent structures. Guidance for this purpose is given in Appendix E.
2.1.3.1 Scaffolds supported on existing superstructures
In cases where it is necessary for a scaffold to take support from an existing superstructure, for example a roof,
balcony, suspended floor or platform, the party responsible for the bearing surface, usually the client, should seek
advice from a structural engineer to ascertain whether the existing structure is capable of safely supporting the
scaffolding or if further temporary works are required. The scaffold designer should, on request, supply to the client’s
engineer the working / unfactored leg loads and their positions in relation to the permanent structure which will enable
an analysis, calculations or assessment to be made. As well as the overall load carrying capacity, the local effects of
bearing and punching shear may need to be checked as described in Appendix E for ground bearing concrete slabs.
2.1.3.2 Kentledge and ground anchors
Chapter 5 of the TG20 Operational Guide describes circumstances in which scaffold foundations are required to
resist upward forces as well as the obvious downward gravity loads. Generally these are external towers, birdcages
and other special scaffold structures which cannot be tied to a permanent structure but have to resist wind loads.
Guidance for kentledge and ground anchors is provided in Clause 3.9.
2.1.4 Standards
Standards should be founded as detailed in 2.1.3 and erection tolerances on verticality and alignment should not
exceed the values detailed in Table 2.2.
2.1.4.1 Joints
The joints in standards should be staggered. Joints in standards of access scaffolds tied to a building should normally
be made with sleeve couplers. Internal joint pins have negligible resistance to tension and should only be used in
structures where there is no possibility of tension arising in the standards in any feasible load combination whether
ultimate or serviceability limit state.
As sleeve couplers have only limited load capacity in tension, in scaffolds that are free standing or projecting above
the level of a building or otherwise subject to forces which would produce tension in the standards, the standards
should be joined in a manner capable of resisting the applied tension. This may require splices made with parallel
couplers or other special measures.
2.1.4.2 Doubled standards
Doubled standards may be necessary when the force effects in the standard (including any bending effects) exceed
the capacity of a single tube. Common situations are:
a. Very tall scaffolds especially if all lifts are boarded;

b. Under bridge beams.
Doubled standards are usually connected with right angle couplers side by side along the supported ledger at 150 mm
centre spacing so that each can have its own baseplate. It is not necessary for guardrails to be connected to both
standards.
Doubled standards may be continued to the full height of the scaffold for simplicity and avoidance of doubt. More
usually one of the standards (the supplementary standard) may be discontinued above a certain level at which a single
standard is sufficient. When calculating the level at which to curtail the supplementary standard it should be noted
that frame analysis modelling indicates that full load sharing between doubled standards is only achieved after about
six doubled lifts.
Where bridge beams are supported, the supplementary standard should be placed adjacent to the beam span.
Usually the supplementary standard can be curtailed above the bridge beams or the highest beams if there is more
than one pair.
26
Refer to clause 5.7.3.5 for the effective lengths of doubled standards in various conditions.
2.1.5 Ledgers
2.1.5.1 Attachment
Ledgers should be fixed to standards with right angle couplers, except in the case referred to in Clause 2.1.5.3, and
should be horizontal except that a foot lift may follow the slope of the ground at the base of a scaffold. In this case,
the transoms should be attached to the standards and the ledgers to the transoms, using right angle couplers in both
cases.
2.1.5.2 Joints
Joints in ledgers should be made with sleeve couplers. Expanding joint pins reduce the bending strength of the
ledgers and have negligible tension resistance so should only be used when these issues have been allowed for in
the design. Joints in ledgers on the same lift and in adjacent lifts should not normally occur in the same bay. However,
when guardrails are to remain permanently in place, the absence of a joint in the guardrail in any bay may be accepted
as giving sufficient continuity to the scaffold to permit joints in the ledgers above and below it in the same bay. Where
joints are necessary they should not be positioned in the middle third of the span between adjacent standards .
2.1.5.3 Curved building surfaces
In the case of curved scaffolds, fittings other than right angle couplers may be used to join the ledgers to the
standards, provided that they are of adequate strength or otherwise supplemented by a right angle check coupler. If
underslung transoms are used to modify the height of one platform, these transoms should be joined to the ledgers
with right angle couplers. For large radius curves, separate scaffolds with platforms of the same height may be used.
2.1.6 Transoms
2.1.6.1 Length of transoms
The length of transoms will vary according to the intended use of the scaffold and should be such that the widths
of scaffolds given in Table 2.3 are obtained. The length should be sufficient to allow the couplers to be fitted with a
tolerance of 25 mm.
Transoms may be extended inwards and outwards, as necessary, for the purpose of butting the face of the building
and fixing the longitudinal bracing if these are intended. When transoms are required to support one or two inside
boards each transom should provide full support to the board(s).
2.1.6.2 Couplers
Board bearing transoms are normally attached to the supporting ledgers with putlog couplers.
Where the use of structural transoms is specified by a TG20 compliance sheet or scaffold design, one structural
transom shall be fitted with right angle couplers within 300 mm of a node point at the specified locations, unless a
tie tube is already to be fitted within 300 mm of the node point connected with right angle couplers to both inner and
outer ledgers or standards. If the board transoms are fitted with putlog couplers it will usually be necessary for any
structural transoms or tie tubes to be fitted below the ledgers (‘underslung’).
Band-and-plate couplers or right angle couplers or may be used to attach the board bearing transoms if required.
However, boards cannot be laid level over right angle couplers so they must be placed between couplers and this may
require gap fillers.
Table 2.2 – Erection tolerances

Feature Erection tolerances
Standards Vertical to within ± 20 mm in 2 m (subject to max. deviation of 50 mm).
Bay length and width + 200 mm on designated lengths (smaller lengths are permitted).
Level to within ± 20 mm in 2 m (subject to a max. total deviation of 50 mm). (1)
Lift height + 100 mm on the designated height (smaller lengths are permitted).
Nodes < Generally 150 mm between coupler centres.
Bracing < 300 mm from the node.
Note (1) A foot lift may follow the general slope of the ground on which the scaffold is founded.
27
2.1.6.3 Spacing
The spacing of transoms should be in accordance with Table 2.1 and Table 2.4. Board end transoms should be fixed
so that the end overhang of a board does not exceed that given in Table 2.4. In no case should the overhang be less
than 50 mm.
The target spacing of transoms to support 38 mm thick timber scaffold boards to BS 2482 under class 3 loading is
1200 mm. The target spacing for class 4 loading is 900 mm. These spacings may be increased locally by 100 mm
allowed tolerance to 1300 mm and 1000 mm respectively to cater for site variations but these maximum values
must not be exceeded. Thicker boards and proprietary boarding products may have different rules which should be
observed.
It should be noted that the TG20 compliance sheets are valid for 38 mm boards to BS 2482. However, boards of
alternative materials such as LVL (laminated veneer lumber) or composite plastics are permitted if the target span
quoted by the manufacturer is at least 1.2 m and the unit weight does not exceed that of a 38 mm timber scaffold
board.
2.1.7 Bracing
2.1.7.1 General
Bracing should be provided to stiffen the scaffold. The plane or bay to be braced should, wherever practicable, be
divided into a complete series of triangles by braces. These should be fixed as close as possible to intersections. A
check should be made on the reduction in strength of the scaffold where a brace has to be omitted or where it cannot
be fixed within 300 mm of an intersection. The following guidance is based on traditional practice and does not
preclude the adoption of alternative arrangements if they can be justified by competent structural analysis and design.
2.1.7.2 Ledger bracing
Ledger bracing should normally be fixed at alternate pairs of standards, including the end standards, in all lifts. Any
pair of standards that are ledger braced should form a complete series of triangles on all lifts.
The ledger bracing should preferably be fixed from ledger to ledger with right angle couplers when the lift is not to be
boarded, but may be fixed to the standards using swivel couplers. The bracing on boarded lifts should be from under
the outside ledger of a boarded lift down to the inside ledger of the lift below so as to avoid the outer toe board.
In some circumstances, connection to the ledgers may require an extra width of the scaffold to accommodate the
brace.
Ledger bracing from the inside ledger to the principal guardrail level of the lift below may be used on unclad fully
boarded scaffolds provided that every pair of standards is so braced instead of every alternate pair.
The direction of ledger bracing is immaterial for the structural stability of the scaffold but it should be pre-planned to
take account of the intended use of the scaffold.
Ledger bracing may be omitted from a pavement lift or from scaffolding formed with prefabricated structural transom
units under the guidance of a TG20 compliance sheet or by special design using plan bracing or other methods, as
described in Clause 2.1.11.
2.1.7.3 Façade bracing
Longitudinal bracing in the plane parallel to the building façade, also known as façade bracing, should be provided
to all scaffolds in which movement along the façade of the building is not prevented by other means. For TG20
compliant scaffolds, one set of bracing should be provided every 6 bays based on 2.0 m bay lengths .
Façade bracing may be omitted where the scaffold is securely butted between opposing outside or inside faces of
returns or recesses, provided that no length greater than 6 bays is so fixed against movement in both directions along
the façade .
For TG20 compliant scaffolds and scaffolds of similar arrangements with tie tubes and anchorages capable of
longitudinally restraining the inside row of standards, longitudinal bracing will normally only be required on the outside
row of standards.
Longitudinal bracing tubes should be set at between 35° and 55° to the horizontal, reaching from the foundation level
to the top working platform of the façade scaffold.
28
(i) Bracing across single bays
Working
Alternative direction of
platforms
bracing at alternate lifts
to give zigzag bracing
shown dotted
(ii) Bracing as continuous line
Working
platforms
(iii) Bracing across two bays and lifts
Working
Alternative direction of
platforms
bracing to give zigzag bracing
shown dotted
(iv) Bracing across two bays

for facade lengths less than
an exact multiple Working
platforms
Note that the right hand set

of facade bracing is fitted to
START at the top working
platform at end of scaffold
Figure 2.2 - Typical elevations of façade bracing
Notes
1 All façade braces should be connected to every standard.
2 Braces should be fitted within 300 mm of ledger-to-standard intersections.
3 Façade bracing should be a continuous tube. Where tube lengths require a joint it shall have suitable structural connections.
4 A guardrail may be placed across the braced bay at the bottom lift.
29
The three principal forms of façade bracing are:
1. Single bay bracing: individual tubes set in zigzag pattern across one bay and fitted to each lift of the scaffold;
2. Double bay bracing: individual tubes set in zigzag pattern extending across two bays and repeating every two
lifts;
3. Continuous bracing, extended as necessary to cover the whole façade.
In single and double bay bracing the tubes in each set of bracing may all slope the same way or be alternately
reversed to form a zigzag pattern.
Continuous bracing may consist of long tubes spliced to suit the available lengths or shorter tubes spliced by
connecting to the standard immediately above and below each standard to ledger intersection or to a common
structural transom.
The use of single-bay bracing is common practice and is sufficient for TG20 compliant scaffolds. However continuous
bracing provides better resistance to out-of-service wind forces parallel to the façade, by distributing the wind
forces to more standards and reducing the occurrence of uplift, and so may be considered where a special design is
required.
A combination of the forms of bracing may be appropriate for some projects. Where the façade is long enough
to require more than one set of bracing, consecutive sets of bracing should have their lowest diagonals sloping in
opposite directions to provide a reversible bracing system and minimise the effects of wind uplift.
In all cases, the bracing tubes should be connected either to extended transoms with right angle couplers or to the
standards with swivel couplers at positions no more than 300 mm from the standard to ledger intersection.
Where a brace is connected to an extended transom, the transom should be connected to the outside ledger or
standard with right angle couplers or band-and-plate couplers.
The longitudinal bracing should start as close as practicable and not more than 300 mm from the base of one of the
outside standards. The lowest lift of bracing may be fitted with a guardrail to reduce the risk of personnel tripping
over the brace.
Joints in continuous diagonal bracing which are mid-bay or lift should be made by overlapping the two lengths of
the tube by a distance of at least 300 mm and joining them together with two parallel couplers. Alternatively, the
two tubes should be joined in-line by a sleeve coupler or equivalent capable of sustaining the applied load or by an
expanding joint pin lapped with a splice tube with one parallel coupler each side of the joint.
2.1.7.4 Plan bracing
Plan bracing may be necessary when the basic platform structure of transoms, ledgers and tie tubes with their
couplers has insufficient rigidity in the horizontal plane to resist wind forces parallel or perpendicular to the façade. It
may also be used by special design to justify the omission of ledger bracing.
Tie
Tie
Plan bracing is preferably connected to the standards with right angle couplers but where necessary may be
connected with swivel couplers to the ledgers as near as practicable to the standard to ledger intersections. See
Figure 2.3 .
2.1.7.5 Couplers for fixing braces
Right angle couplers should be used to fix ledger braces to ledgers and façade braces to transoms
Façade and swivel
couplers should be used for the attachment of ledger or façade braces to standards. Otherbracing
couplers may be used
(a) of
provided that they are capable Plan bracing fixed
sustaining a safetoworking
ties load of 6.1 kN or whatever greater force is required by a
special design.
Ledger
Ledger
bracing
bracing
Façade
bracing
Figure 2.3 - Plan bracing for independent tied scaffolds

30
2.1.8 Working platforms and decking
2.1.8.1 Platform widths
Scaffold platforms should be of the widths given in Table 2.3 for the purposes given.
2.1.8.2 Decking
The British Standard for scaffold boards, BS 2482, specifies differing resistances for scaffold boards depending on
how they are loaded; whether loaded from a notionally uniformly distributed load representing undefined objects
and persons, or from a defined rigid load enforcing load sharing by a minimum of four boards, such as a stiff pallet of
bricks. Section 5.4.2 gives information for the design of timber in general including structural properties of scaffold
boards in table 5.8 and factors for duration of load and load sharing in tables 5.7.2 and 5.7.5 respectively.
Where platforms are constructed of plywood, for example on complex or circular structures where the use of straight
scaffold boards would be impracticable, the plywood must be suitable quality and thickness for the intended use and
be suitably supported so as to prevent tipping or twisting.
2.1.8.3 Supports
The maximum spacing of transoms to support the platform boards may vary according to the load on the board, the
board thickness and length. See Tables 2.1 and 2.4. To allow for a tolerance in setting out of the board transoms, BS
2482 states a target span of 1200 mm for its lower grade of 38 mm thick boards but allows +100 mm tolerance to
allow for site variations.
The overhang of the boards of any thickness should not exceed four times their thickness but should not be less than
50 mm.
Boards which are nominally 38 mm thick are the most commonly used and are customarily supplied in lengths of
3.90 m. When these are used, there should be four transoms to each board. [3 × 1.200 m + 2 × 0.150 m overhangs
= 3.900 m but imperial sized 13 foot = 3.965 m length boards require the spacing tolerance]. Boards which are
nominally 38 mm thick and less than 2.7 m long may be supported on three transoms. Boards which are nominally
38 mm thick and less than 2.15 m long should not be used unless they are fixed down to prevent tipping. Boards
which are less than 1.60 m long may be supported on two transoms but should be fixed down at both ends. Such
boards occur adjacent to ladder openings and provision should be made to prevent them from moving under impact
and vibration.
2.1.8.4 Toe boards
Longitudinal toe boards and end toe boards should be securely fixed to all working platforms where there is a risk
of risk of a person or materials falling. According to BS EN 12811-1 clauses 5.5.1 and 5.5.4, they should be of such a
height that the gap between the top of the toe board and the guardrail does not exceed 470 mm and have a minimum
Table 2.3 – Widths of access scaffold platforms

Purpose(1)
Minimum Minimum number Effective width of
clear width (4) of 225mm nominal boarded platform for
width boards loading calculations ( 2)
mm mm
Working platforms for men without 500 3 boards 705
materials or only for the passage
of materials
For men and materials provided there 800 4 boards 930

is 430mm left clear for the passage 4+1 boards 1205
of men or 600mm if barrows are used 4+2 boards 1430
For carrying trestles or other similar 1050 5 boards 1155

higher platforms 5+1 boards 1435
5+2 boards 1655
For use in dressing or roughly 1300 6 boards 1380

shaping stone (3) 7 boards 1605
Notes (1) Where internal ladders are incorporated the minimum clear width may be 430 mm i.e. two boards.
(2) Effective width as defined in BS EN 12811-1 includes a 30 mm allowance for toe board.
(3) These scaffolds should be specially designed.
(4) For hop-up platforms, a minimum width of 450 mm is required.
31
Table 2.4 – Maximum and target span of scaffold boards

Board Thickness Transom Spacing (span of board) Board overhang
Specification Target Span Maximum Span
Nominal Tolerance Span Tolerance Minimum Maximum

mm mm mm mm mm mm mm
BS 2482
38 - 1.2m 38 ±2 1200 +100 ns 50 150
38 - 1.5m(1) 38 ±2 1500 +100 ns 50 150
Notes - (1) Board properties verified by machine stress grading

ns means “not stated” as calculation indicates the stress exceeds the allowable limit on the scaffold
height of 150 mm. They should be placed inside the standards. Toe boards may be dispensed with on stairways.
According to BS EN 12811-1 clause 6.2.5.2, toe boards shall be designed to resist a horizontal point load of 0.15 kN.
Normal 38 mm thick × 225 mm timber scaffold boards satisfy the above requirements if securely fixed inside
standards spaced by up to 2.7 m.
2.1.8.5 Guardrails
Working platforms require guardrails wherever there is a risk of falling. Such platforms should have a principal
longitudinal guardrail and end guardrails fixed inside the standards at a height of at least 950 mm measured from the
top level of the decking to the top surface of the guardrail. Guardrails shall be connected to the standards with right
angle couplers and should be secured at a minimum of two points to prevent downward and outward displacement.
The practice of cantilevering end guardrails that are reliant on a single coupler connection to the outside standard or
guardrail is unsafe.
Intermediate edge protection should be fixed so that there is no unprotected vertical gap exceeding 470 mm. This
will normally be achieved by fitting an intermediate guardrail connected to the inside of the standards with right angle
couplers.
BS EN 12811-1 clauses 6.2.5.1 - 3 give requirements for guardrails to be designed for vertical loads, side loads and
upward loads. The use of Type 4 scaffold tube on bay lengths up to 2.7 m long satisfies these requirements without
further calculation.
It is noted that BS EN 13374:2004 deals specifically with temporary edge protection systems but excludes edge
protection systems on scaffolds. Further guidance on temporary edge protection is available in NASC Guidance notes
SG 27, SG 29 and TG 1.
2.1.8.6 Brick guards
Brick guards or other suitable vertical protection screens are desirable in cases where materials may fall from the
scaffold. These screens can be hung from the guardrails and should be prevented from outward movement. Toe
boards may be incorporated within the screen and the screens should be capable of preventing the materials being
used from passing through. The area of holes or slots in such fencing/guards should not exceed 100 cm² and the
horizontal width of each hole or slot should not exceed 50 mm.
According to BS EN 12811-1 clause 6.2.5.2, brick guards should be designed to resist a horizontal point load of 0.3 kN
in the most unfavourable position. This load may be distributed over a maximum 300 mm by 300 mm area.
2.1.8.7 Length of working platforms
The ends of a working platform should, where possible, extend beyond the end of the façade wall or working face by
a distance of 600 mm when work is to be carried out up to the end of the wall.
However it should be noted that greater extensions to the scaffold beyond the end of a façade return or beyond a
scaffold return attract high wind forces due to the reduction or absence of shelter by the building. They are therefore
outside the scope of TG20 compliance sheets and should be specially designed.
2.1.8.8 Sloping platforms
Gangways and working platforms should preferably be horizontal but may slope at an inclination of up to 1 vertical to
5 horizontal without stepping laths. At slopes steeper than this they should be provided with stepping laths to provide
a firm foothold. The stepping laths may incorporate gaps not exceeding 100 mm in width for the wheels of barrows.
32
2.1.8.9 Steps in working platforms
Small bevel pieces at steps due to lapped boards etc. will not significantly reduce the risk of tripping. Where the risk
of tripping is deemed to be reasonably significant in comparison with the experience and capability of persons that
are likely to go on the platform, lapped boards should be avoided by specific design. Where the general public or
persons with a similar range of competence are likely to use the platform then it should be considered whether the
risks require the platform to be sheeted over with non-slip strips fixed onto it at regular intervals.
2.1.8.10 Cantilever platforms
There are basically three types of cantilever platforms which can be listed in order of decreasing usage and increasing
complexity:
1. Inside boards on transoms;

2. Inside boards on hop-up brackets;
3. Propped cantilever platforms.
Inside boards on extended transoms

The most common platform extension is achieved by laying boards between the inner standards and the façade and
supporting them on the board transoms, which are extended to cantilever beyond the inner ledger.
The transoms are usually normal scaffold tubes but proprietary extensible transoms are also used. These have the
advantage that they can be adjusted to follow the addition of layers of cladding to the façade.
One or two inside boards are common and are featured in the TG20 compliant designs. Three inside boards are
sometimes used but require special design of the scaffold.
The obvious structural effect of providing for inside boards is to increase the vertical load on the inner ledgers and
standards and decrease the load on the outer ledgers and standards. These loads may be calculated by taking
moments about the inner and outer ledgers. Provision of inside boards increases the overall width of the scaffold
measured from the façade and therefore the induced wind forces parallel to the façade especially if sheeting or
netting are attached. The increased distance of the inner ledger from the façade increases the bending moment in the
tie tubes due to wind forces parallel to the façade. In cases of high wind exposure this can be critical leading to the
need for triangulation of the tie tubes or other means of increasing longitudinal restraint of the scaffold.
Inside boards on hop-up brackets

As the name suggests, proprietary hop-up brackets are intended to elevate the inside boards above the main platform
to ease access to the façade in the upper part of a normal or storey height lift and so avoid the use of traditional
low lift heights for bricklaying etc. They can also be used in the step-down position or level with the main platform
allowing relatively easy adjustments during the life of the scaffold. For illustrations and practical guidance on the use
of hop-up brackets refer to section 6.18 of the TG20 Operational Guide.
There are various forms of bracket but the most common for use with tube and fitting construction is attached to the
main inner ledger and to additional ledgers which are thereby subject to small bending moments due to the vertical
and horizontal forces exerted by the brackets. Hop-up brackets cater for two inside boards with a telescopic extension
to accommodate a third board if required. They are usually installed at the same spacings as the main transoms
unless special long span boards are provided. The loads delivered by the ledgers cause additional vertical load and
bending moments in the inner standards. The effect on tie tubes is similar to normal extended transoms.
Propped cantilever platforms

This type of construction is used to cater for larger platform extensions typically to accommodate recesses in the
main building façade. For illustrations and practical guidance refer to section 6.19 of the TG20 Operational Guide.
Propped cantilever platforms are normally constructed level with the main platform. The cantilevered platform is
supported by an extended transom and a raking tube prop immediately adjacent to each standard position. The raking
prop is connected to the inner ledger of the lift below with a right angle coupler. An underslung ledger supports the
inner edge of the platform connected to the raking props and extended transoms with right angle couplers. The
underslung ledger supports the intermediate board-bearing transoms which may be connected with putlog couplers.
A TG20 compliant design is available in the TG20 eGuide for a single 5 board wide inner platforms at the top lift
with the remaining lifts having two inside boards on normal extended transoms. Other situations require individual
structural design. Particular attention should be given to the distance between the inside standards and the façade
at the various lifts. Triangulation of tie tubes and plan bracing of the cantilever platform may be required to provide
sufficient rigidity in the direction parallel to the façade.
33
2.1.9 Tying scaffolding to building façades
2.1.9.1 General
Ties to the façade of a building have two primary functions of equal importance:
1. To provide restraint to the standards and thereby limit their effective buckling lengths. If ties are placed too far
apart, the compressive strength of the standards will be severely reduced.
2. To prevent excessive movement of the scaffold relative to the façade. This is important whether the scaffold
is sheeted, covered in debris netting or unclad.
In this guide ties are rated according to their tensile capacity, and the load requirements for ties are primarily
determined by the effects of wind suction. Scaffolds are also subjected to wind pressure. For unclad scaffolds and
those clad with permeable debris netting, the forces due to wind pressure are similar to those due to suction so
provided that the ties are capable of push-pull action they will be suitable for pressure as well as suction. However
some ties are not capable of sustaining compression and must be supplemented by other means such as butting
transoms.
For sheeted scaffolds and scaffolds clad with low permeability netting, the compression forces due to windward face
pressure can be up to four times greater than tension due to suction. These scaffolds require special consideration of
the compression resistance of the ties and additional butting transoms are usually required. If these butting transoms
are placed midway between the ties, the bending resistance of the ledgers to windward face loading is improved
thereby avoiding the need for plan bracing for this purpose.
The primary loading on ties is a force acting normal to the façade in axial tension or in compression. Ties are also
subjected to horizontal shear forces acting parallel to the façade due to wind or other horizontal effects unless some
independent longitudinal restraint is provided. Therefore due consideration should be given to the strength of the ties
under the combined action of shear and axial forces which will arise when the wind blows at angles in the range ± 45
degrees to parallel.
In independent tied façade scaffolds the ties should not normally be loaded in a vertical direction.
The tie tubes should normally be connected to both the inner and outer standards or ledgers with right angle
couplers. However ties may be connected to the inside face alone if arrangements are made to ensure that there is
adequate resistance to horizontal shear forces acting parallel to the façade both between the inner and outer frames
and between the inner frame and the façade. Tie tubes connected only to the inside ledger or standard at right angles
to the façade are heavily dependent on the very limited bending resistance of the coupler for resistance to horizontal
forces acting parallel to the façade unless alternative restraint is provided. Similarly if tie tubes are not connected to
both inner and outer frames, the remaining horizontal shear resistance of the board transoms and putlog couplers is
limited unless some plan bracing is provided.
The responsibilities for the varying parts of the anchorage and tie assembly should be clearly established before
work commences. Depending on circumstances, this may involve the client, the coordinator, the proprietary tie/
anchorage manufacturer, the procurer and/or the scaffold contractor. Clearly defined procedures are required. The
client is responsible for establishing that the building is capable of providing the scaffold with the necessary support.
Where the structure and its components are deemed strong enough, the scaffolding contractor should seek formal
permission to install ties. A regime of testing for safe anchorage capacity may need to be established, as described in
the TG20 Operational Guide. Where the structure is not adequate or made available for ties, other means of restraint
will be needed, such as braced buttresses, external rakers, etc.
A tie assembly to the façade consists of a tie member, normally a tube, and an anchorage. Various types are
described in chapter 07 of the TG20 Operational Guide. The capacity of the tie assembly is never more than that of
its weakest link. The capacity of the tie assembly will depend on many factors such as the strength of the permanent
structure or component to which it is attached, the strength of the substrate material into which the tie is fixed, the
strength of the anchor itself, the method of connection to the scaffold, and the type of couplers used to transmit the
loads into the scaffold. The capacity inwards, outwards and parallel to the façade may all be different.
2.1.9.2 Building structure
It should be established, by test or calculations if necessary, that the strength of the building fabric at the location of
a tie position is adequate to sustain the loads that will be transferred to it. This applies particularly to any proposed
use of parapets or architectural features such as balustrades as it is frequently found that the anchorage value of such
features is insufficient. The conventional portable tension test on proprietary anchors may validate the resistance of
the anchor in the façade material but will not test the overall strength of the wall panel, column or other structural
component to which a tie is to be anchored. If in doubt, an appraisal or calculations by a structural engineer should be
sought.
34
Where anchorages rely on scaffold tubes bearing against the permanent structure, packing should be provided to
protect the surface or to apply the load away from edges or corners which may be damaged. Examples of packing
are timber packs, wedges or plastic caps. Packing should be secured to prevent it from falling out when not under
pressure.
Buildings constructed after 1994 may have been fitted with anchor points for future maintenance under the CDM
Regulations (1994). The responsibility for the adequacy and the likely safe capacity of such pre-existing fixings should
be agreed at an early stage of the procurement of the scaffold. To allow for any deterioration of the anchorage and/or
the substructure of the building, it may be necessary to re-establish the capacity of the anchorage(s) by testing.
2.1.9.3 Movable and non-movable ties
A scaffold should be erected, adequately tied, and wherever practical the tie assemblies left undisturbed until the
scaffold is dismantled. The proper choice of ties and their positioning should make this possible. Such tie assemblies
are referred to as non-movable and they should be provided at an agreed regular spacing.
Where it is necessary to remove a tie, however temporarily, the scaffold will be less secure, and provision of
alternative ties will be necessary. Ties that it may be necessary to remove temporarily are referred to as movable.
A specific method statement should be established whenever movable ties are necessary and the site operatives
should be made aware of the method.
The choice of tie pattern to allow for movable ties should be made with due consideration of the most adverse
condition that may feasibly arise during the operations.
2.1.9.4 Layout of ties
Tie positions should be evenly distributed over the scaffold, both horizontally and vertically. Normally the spacing of
lines of ties shall be not greater than 4.0 m vertically. At least 50% but preferably all of the ties should be fixed next
to the ledger braced standards. Typical arrangements of ties that comply with the requirements for TG20 compliant
scaffolds are shown in chapter 07 of the TG20 Operational Guide. The spacing of ties is determined according to the
strength of the tie and the loads to which it is to be subjected. Tie density is normally determined by the wind loading
conditions, but ties also provide positional stability for standards and a lack of suitably placed ties will affect the
strength of the scaffold under vertical loads also.
The friction of the foundation of a scaffold is normally regarded as providing adequate tying of the base of the
scaffold. Under service wind conditions base slip should not normally occur in common tied independent scaffolds
but under maximum wind conditions uplift and consequent base slip may occur in some scaffolds and bases should
be inspected as part of the normal inspection regime after a period of high winds .
TG20 compliant tied independent scaffolds assume that tie tubes will be connected within 300 mm of the relevant
ledger to standard intersection or node point as do most other standard designs. Situations frequently occur in
practice where one or more ties cannot be so positioned due to windows, etc. To avoid resultant excess bending
in the ledgers and standards required to transmit tie forces to non-compliant anchor positions, it may be necessary
to provide local bracing and/or ladder beams. Generic solutions to the common variations of this problem can be
developed by scaffold designers but it is advisable to beware unforeseen effects of their multiple use and an appraisal
and possibly full frame analysis should be considered.
2.1.9.5 Loading
Tie assemblies can be loaded in four ways, individually or collectively:
1. Horizontal forces acting away from the façade (e.g. due to wind suction) placing the tie in tension;
2. Horizontal forces acting inwards toward the façade (e.g. due to wind pressure) placing the tie system in
compression;
3. Horizontal forces parallel to the façade, placing the tie assembly in shear in either direction along the building;
4. Vertical load from the scaffold when the scaffold is supported off the façade, placing the tie assembly in shear
(this is not normal in a tied independent scaffold).
The compression component due to the effects of wind (item 2 above) may be resisted by structural transoms or butt
tubes moving into contact with the building if this is permitted by the contract or design brief.
The horizontal shear component (item 3 above) will cause bending in tie tubes which are positioned normal to the
façade unless triangulation or other means of resistance is provided and this can be significant for scaffolds with two
inside boards in high wind.
The effects of the notional horizontal lateral load specified in clause 6.2.3 of BS EN 12811-1 and from the wind,
particularly on sheeted scaffolds, mean that tie assemblies will normally need to be designed for a combination
35
of tension and horizontal shear forces [items (1) and (3) above]. Section 5.16 provides guidance and tables for the
calculation of tie forces by hand. Alternatively they may be obtained by computer-aided structural frame analysis.
To provide the minimum resistance necessary to stabilise the standards, when no other means is available, each
tie should provide a minimum safe load of at least 0.1 kN in horizontal shear measured parallel to the façade and in
the plane of the rear standards. For tie patterns (c) and (f) the minimum safe load is 0.2 kN per tie. This load is not in
addition to the wind loads but an alternative and the wind loads will normally govern unless the scaffold is located
indoors with no possibility of significant wind loading.
Four classes of tie are defined in this Guide:
• Light duty ties with a safe load in tension of 3.5 kN;

• Standard ties (Class A) with a safe load in tension of 6.1 kN;
• Standard ties (Class B) with a safe load in tension of 9.1 kN;
• Heavy-duty ties with a safe load in tension of 12.2 kN.
Where any of the tie duties above is insufficient, additional ties shall be provided.
Standard duty (Class B) ties should be fixed to the scaffold with class B right angle couplers with a safe slip load
capacity of at least 9.1 kN or two class A right angle couplers with slip capacities of 6.1 kN.
It should be noted that for the tie assembly to transmit a tie force of 12.2 kN, sufficient fittings will be required
connecting the assembly to the scaffold. Right angle couplers should be used in tie assemblies to ensure maximum
rigidity except in cases where the tie tubes etc. are specifically intended to be aligned at skew angles and connected
to the ledgers when swivel couplers may be used.
Scaffold structures and their connections to the façade should normally be designed so that vertical loads (item 4) are
not transmitted to the façade.
It should be noted that the box ties, lip ties and through ties described in the following sections may require access
through windows or similar openings in the façade. Careful consideration should be given to whether these openings
would allow wind to blow through the building and remove the shelter given by the building to the scaffolding and any
cladding as is frequently assumed in structural design.
Box ties, lip ties and through ties described below should normally be positioned at the platform / lift levels required to
be tied. If this is not possible special measures may be required as discussed in section 2.9.4.
The tension / compression capacity of any tie assembly may be limited by the number and type of fittings that prevent
either inward or outward movement of the assembly.
2.1.9.6 Box ties
Box ties consist of an assembly of tubes and couplers arranged in the form of a rectangular frame fixed around
substantial columns, piers or other elements of the building, being wedged, as necessary, to prevent ‘looseness’ in
any direction. Proprietary clamping devices are available for making positive connections to structural steel columns
and beams avoiding the need for wedging and packing. Suitably designed box ties can provide some degree of
additional lateral restraint or fixity in plan if required. Details (ii) and (iii) at Figure 2.4 are indicative examples.
2.1.9.7 Lip ties
(i) (ii) (iii) 300 maximum (iv)
Box tie and Typical box ties Corner box tie and
butting transom butting transom
Figure 2.4 – Plan of typical box ties

36
Timber pack or wedge

secured to the tube,
where necessary
As small
as possible
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v)

Lip ties and Lip tie on sills Lip tie and Double lip tie
butting transom and lintels sway transom and sway transom
(a) (b)
Lip ties Typical fixing
details
Figure 2.5 – Arrangement of lip ties and sway transoms
Where it is not possible to use box ties, lip ties may be used (see Figure 2.5).
These consist of an L-shaped arrangement of tubes and couplers to hook the scaffold behind elements of the
building. The load capacity of lip tie assemblies is usually limited to the strength of one fitting. They do not resist
inward movement of the scaffold unless accompanied by an adjacent butting transom or have two cross tubes, nor
do they resist sway along the façade unless accompanied by a sway transom as shown in detail (iv) of Figure 2.5
(a). Sway transoms must not be regarded as a substitute for façade bracing or triangulation of the tie tubes where
this is necessary. Lip ties and butting transoms should be connected to the ledgers with right angle couplers. Care
should be taken to ensure that the strength of any building feature utilised is adequate, particularly if this is a parapet
or similar structure. Coping stones on parapets may not be sufficiently stable to provide the necessary anchorage.
Parapets in excess of 1.0 m high may not be suitable for transferring loads, especially if applied near the top.
Lip ties may also be fitted over sills and under lintels. However, it will often be the case that the sill or lintel tie is
not level with a scaffold lift so that it can be fixed only to the inside standards or to a bridle tube fixed to two inside
standards resulting in bending of the same. This tie condition is outside the scope of the TG20 compliance sheets
and should be subject to design as discussed in section 2.9.4. Adjacent butting transoms and sway transoms should
Figure 11. accompany
Arrangement lipties
of lip ties
andfixed to lintels and sills.
sway transoms
Secured packing
Ledger
bracing
Tie fixed with right angle

couplers and placed close
to the window reveal
Note This drawing should be read in conjunction with the text Figure 2.6 – Through tie for independent tied scaffold
37
2.1.9.8 Through ties
Through ties for independent tied scaffolds

Through tie assemblies (see Figure 2.6) rely on a tube across the inside of an opening such as a window in a building
to prevent outward movement, and a similar tube on the outside of the opening to prevent movement inwards. The
load capacity of the tie assembly is limited to the strength of the single fitting connecting the tie tube to either the
vertical or horizontal tube at the opening and to the bending strength of those tubes.
The inside ‘anchor’ tube should preferably be placed vertically and rest on the floor so that it cannot slip downward,
but it may be placed horizontally. The tie tube should rest on the sill for the same reason but it may be placed under
the lintel.
Tie tubes attached to the ‘anchor tubes’ across the inside and outside of the window or opening should be as close to
one of the edges of the opening as possible to reduce bending in the anchor tubes due to the tie forces.
Where it is not possible to fix an outside anchor tube, an adjacent structural transom should butt against the outside
surface of the wall.
Through ties for putlog scaffolds

When a putlog is required to support boards and it is opposite a window opening, a bridle tube is frequently placed
near the wall across the adjacent putlogs on either side of the window. The putlog opposite to the window is fixed to
this.
A similar arrangement may be used to form a through tie.
Figure 2.7 shows an arrangement in which a tie tube is under slung and attached to both ledger and bridle.
Secured packing
Flattened end of putlog
Bridle
tube
Tie
Figure 2.7 – Through tie for a putlog scaffold on a bridle tube
Note This drawing should be read in conjunction with the text
2.1.9.9 Reveal ties

NOTE. This drawing should be read in conjunction with the text.
In cases where it is impracticable

Figure 13. Throughto drill
tie for into
a putlog the
scaffold on asurface
bridle tube of a building for screw or anchor ties, or where the quality
of the fabric of the building is not known, or where it is impracticable to open windows for through ties or lip ties, the
attachment of the scaffold may be made by reveal ties which rely on friction (see Figure 2.8). It is recommended that
no more than 50% of ties to a façade should be reveal ties.
38
Ledger
bracing
Timber
packing
Reveal
pin
Tie should be attached to the

reveal tube within 150mm of
the end opposite to the reveal
pin, whether latter is in the
vertical or horizontal position,
using right angle couplers
Note - This drawing should be read in conjunction with the text Figure 2.8 – Reveal tie
Opposing faces of a building surface, such as the two opposing sides of a window opening or alternatively the
underside of the lintel beam and the sill if this is not sloping, may be used to make an attachment of the scaffold to
the building by means of a tube, wedged or jacked tight between the opposing faces. It is essential that the manner
of wedging the reveal tube into the opening be firm, reliable and, if possible, positive rather than by friction; to avoid
any timber drying out, i.e. if the reveal tube can be fixed behind indentations or masonry features advantage should
be taken of this.
For most building façades, the reveals are plain and parallel and should not be marked or damaged. For these, it
is frequently necessary to place packing between the end of the reveal tube and the surface so that damage does
not occur. Timber packs should be thin so as to reduce shrinkage (a thickness of 10 mm is recommended). It is not
expected that they will spread the load over the surface of the reveal but that they should grip it and protect it at the
same time.
The preferred method is to use a reveal pin at one end of the reveal tube. This consists of a small plate on which
is mounted a threaded bar and nut. The assembly should be placed inside the bore of the reveal tube and the nut
adjusted until the reveal tube is expanded into the opening, gripping it with considerable force.
NOTE 1. This drawing should be read in conjunction with the text.
The tie tube should
NOTEbe2.fixed to the
The tube in thereveal tube
reveal can with
be in a right
the vertical or angle coupler
horizontal position.as near as possible to the end opposite to
the reveal pin andFigure
in all14.cases
Revealwithin
tie 150 mm of the face of the opening. It should also be fixed to the scaffold in two
places with right angle couplers (see Figure 2.8) but other arrangements may also be satisfactory subject to special
design.
For a putlog scaffold, a bridle tube attached to two putlog tubes can provide a second fixing point.
There are other methods of providing reveal ties, for instance by utilising adjustable props and struts.
Because reveal ties rely on friction and are usually packed with timber, they should be frequently checked for
tightness during the life of the scaffold. The load capacity of the reveal tie assembly generally depends on friction
and the bending resistance of the reveal tube and will be less than the strength of the single fitting securing it to the
scaffold. See Clause 2.1.9.12.
Where tying can only be provided by reveal ties this method of restraint should only be adopted after careful
consideration of their ability to carry the loads and where their physical condition will be regularly maintained.
The procedure and method statement to be adopted should be carefully written and the responsibilities for the
subsequent maintenance defined.
39
2.1.9.10 Anchorages and allied components
Selection
The client’s consent must be obtained for any anchorage into the building structure.
An anchorage can be provided by casting in a threaded socket, or fixing something similar, into a part of the structure
itself. Various components are then used to attach the scaffold. The appropriate anchorage and tie should be selected
from the principal types described in Clause 2.1.9.10. Anchorages and allied components should have a safe working
capacity in combined tension and shear to suit the circumstances.
A wide variety of anchors are available for fixing into holes pre-drilled into concrete or sound masonry. Advice on the
correct selection, installation and testing of such systems is contained in NASC Guide TG4 – Anchorage Systems for
Scaffolding.
Cast-in and drilled anchorages

A variety of screwed plates, sockets and nuts are available for setting into concrete during pouring, in a similar
manner to formwork anchors, for subsequent use as scaffold ties. The attachment of the tie to the anchorage should
be either by bolts welded to scaffold tubes or by use of special scaffold fittings (see Figure 2.9). Ring bolts may also
be used.
A variety of anchor sockets are available that are intended for fixing into holes pre-drilled into hardened concrete or
sound masonry (i.e. brickwork, blockwork or stonework). The means of attachment to drilled-in anchors are similar
to those for cast-in sockets. Drop-in and expanding anchors are designed for use in concrete; they may be used in
masonry only if approved for that use by the manufacturer and confirmed suitable for the particular masonry by site
tests. A recent development has been the use of plastic or nylon anchors into pre-drilled holes with screw in eyes.
These cause lower installation stresses than expanding metal anchors and may be used in masonry if successfully
tested and approved.
Resin anchors may provide a solution to problematic situations such as locations close to edges and relatively weak
or inconsistent base materials, but they must be installed with care, particularly with regard to hole cleaning where
it is vital to follow the manufacturer’s instructions to ensure adequate adhesion or bond. Resin anchors must not be
loaded before they are fully cured.
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
(f) (g) (h) (i) (j)
(k) (l) (m)
Figure 2.9 – Typical end details for tie tubes

40
If the masonry has been rendered, the location of the centre of the masonry units can be found by drilling test holes
and inspecting the location of the bed joints through the holes. Masonry joints behind render can sometimes be seen
when drying out after rain or intentional soaking. Care should be taken that the visible façade material is an integral
structural material and not a thin surface cladding. External cavity walls are frequently encountered and fixing to
the outer leaf is sometimes unavoidable. The advice of the anchor manufacturer and a structural engineer should be
sought to establish safe loads for ties to cavity walls.
Self-tapping screw anchors cut their own thread in pre-drilled holes in concrete or hard brickwork or stone. They are
removable, which avoids future corrosion, but should only be re-used if a reliable system is in place for controlling re-
use to a limited number of times and proof testing is carried out.
Installation of all anchors should be carried out strictly in accordance with the manufacturers’ instructions, preferably
by personnel trained in how to install the specific types of anchors used.
Holes for all anchorages and sockets should be drilled to the correct depth and diameter as recommended by the
manufacturer and be clean and normal to the surface. Some cavity walls and thin cladding panels may be unsuitable
for supporting tie loads in which case other tying methods should be used. When intending to fix anchorages, data
provided by manufacturers and based on tests carried out with substrates comparable to that of the structure might
be used with a suitable factor of safety. See NASC guidance note TG 4.
The capacity of the anchorage should be established by reference to the manufacturers’ data, if it exists, for the
base material concerned. If this is not available then preliminary tests should be carried out in accordance with the
recommendations of TG 4. The quality of installation should be checked on all jobs by proof tests on a sample of
anchors, also as prescribed in TG 4. In all cases the manufacturers’ instructions shall be followed.
Tie tube adaptors

Tubes fitted with end plates and angle cleats (see Figure 2.9) can be used when it is possible to drill the element of
the building to which the tie is to be attached and fix the end plate to it with a suitable anchorage. On new concrete
work, cast-in sockets can be used.
The tube welded to the drilled end plate can be standard scaffold tube, or tube of 60.3 mm external diameter able to
receive a standard scaffold tube inside it, the two tubes being fixed together with friction bolts.
A variety of scaffold fittings and half fittings may be adapted, by securely welding on bolts or drilling bolt holes, to
become satisfactory tie fittings.
Ring bolts
Typical ring bolts are shown in Figure 2.10 and Figure 2.11. They may be of two sizes:
m
m
m
m
30
55
Anchor Anchor
Figure 17. Typical wire or band tie anchorage

Figure 2.10 – Typical ring bolt tie Figure 2.11 – Typical hook tie arrangement
Figure 16. Typical ring bolt tie
a. With rings of between 50 mm and 55 mm internal diameter through which scaffold tube may be passed to
form a tie assembly.
Large diameter ring bolts intended to receive scaffold tubes have only limited capacity to resist shear force
parallel to the façade because of the distance between the tube and the effective anchorage in the structure
causing bending of the bolt. Ring bolts should preferably be aligned in the horizontal plane to ensure that any
settlement does not apply a vertical bending load into the ringbolt. Significant lateral loads should be taken
through brackets designed to transfer the forces to the anchors as tensile or shear loads – see TG 4.
b. With smaller rings for use with hook ties.
In case (b), the bolt should be fitted so that ring is tight against the façade and anchorage to minimise
bending and ensure effective transfer of horizontal shear. The tube and fittings assembly should be such that
it prevents the scaffold from moving inwards or outwards. These ring bolts are also suitable for use with wire
or steel banding, but this is not considered preferred industry practice.
41
2.1.9.11 Attachment of the scaffold to the anchorage point
In plan, tie tubes should be set at right angles to the building unless they are intended to triangulate or plan brace the
scaffold against movement along the façade. In the latter case, they may be set at an angle to the plane perpendicular
to the building but should be fixed in pairs at opposing angles so as to afford lateral stability in both directions along
the façade. The anchors for skew ties should be designed to resist the appropriate combination of normal and
parallel wind forces unless separate ties at right angles to the building are provided to resist normal forces.
When boards are fitted inside the inside standards, increasing the distance between the inside standards and the
façade, additional plan (horizontal) braces may need to be incorporated to triangulate the ties and provide additional
lateral restraint especially for two or more inside boards and high wind exposure. Where necessary the requirement
for additional lateral restraint is reported for standard scaffolds on the relevant TG20 compliance sheet.
In elevation, tie tubes should be horizontal or sloping slightly downwards away from the building .
Ties should be attached to both the inside and outside ledgers or standards at a point not more than 300 mm from
a ledger braced standard and ledger intersection (node point). Where this would hinder access along a platform,
attachment to the inside ledger or standard only is permissible provided that arrangements are made to ensure
effective lateral restraint to movement along the façade.
The couplers for ties set horizontally and at right angles to the building should be right angle couplers or another such
arrangement of couplers, which gives adequate strength. The couplers for ties set at an angle to the building may be
swivel couplers.
Where wire or banding ties are used, they should be turned around a node point of the scaffold or otherwise
prevented from slipping along the ledger or standard by fixing safety couplers. A tube butting against the structure
will be required in order to provide inwards strength.
2.1.9.12 Capacity of tie systems
The safe working capacities of a tie assembly should take into account the geometry of the arrangement and the
capacities of the individual elements of both the tie and scaffold within such an arrangement. The primary load on tie
assemblies is tension or compression, but often shear loads are also present and due consideration should be given
to the combined effects of tension and shear on the strength of the tie assembly. In determining the capacity of a
proprietary anchorage in combined shear and tension, reference should be made to NASC TG 4.
The capacities for typical types of tie and anchorage systems in various base materials are provided in chapter 07 of
the TG20 Operational Guide.
2.1.9.13 Abnormal façades
Where the tying arrangements described in previous clauses are impracticable or not permitted, the façade must
be considered abnormal and other means of access should be considered. These include hydraulic platforms,
rope access systems etc. Alternatively it may be necessary to prepare a special design for a freestanding scaffold
incorporating fully braced buttress frames stabilised with kentledge or ground anchors.
2.1.9.14 Equivalent tying value of scaffold returns and buttresses
The stability of a scaffold can be achieved by means other than anchorages fixed to the surface of the building.
Returns of scaffolds which are effectively tied around the ends of building façades may be regarded as providing an
adequate attachment of the scaffold at each lift equivalent to a vertical line of standard ties positioned at the end of
the building façade. The return scaffold should have façade bracing and be tied itself in accordance with this Guide.
The ledgers of the return scaffold should extend to connect to both inside and outside ledgers of the façade scaffold
being considered. Both façade and return guardrails should be connected to the corner standard at every lift with
swivel or right angle couplers.
Specially designed fully braced buttresses may be used to substitute for one or more vertical lines of ties. If the
spacing between buttresses is more than the equivalent horizontal spacing of ties it will be necessary to check for
horizontal bending of the ledgers due to wind loads normal to the façade and plan bracing may be required especially
if the scaffold is clad. Uplift of the buttress standards may occur under this load case and kentledge or ground
anchors may be required. In the absence of normal ties to the façade, continuous façade bracing may be required on
the inside as well as the outside faces of the scaffold.
42
2.1.9.15 Equivalent tying value of rakers
Single unjointed raking tubes of up to 6 m in length, at alternate (ledger braced) standards coupled at the top to the
ledger with a right angle coupler at the second lift, and adequately restrained horizontally and vertically at the foot,
may be considered as providing adequate stability for unclad façade scaffolds up to 6 m high.
The raking tube should either be wholly external to the scaffold or fitted from the inside ledger at the top of the
second lift as Figure 2.12 (a) and at an angle of not more than 2 vertical to 1 horizontal. If the raker is wholly external
it should be stabilised by wing bracing at the first lift . Alternatively a longitudinal tube may be provided at the first lift
level connected to each raker with a right-angle coupler, in which case an external plan brace should be provided for
every six bays of scaffolding.
A butting transom is required within 300 mm of each raker, connected with right-angle couplers or equivalent band-
and-plate couplers, to prevent the scaffold from moving toward the building. Alternatively all of the board bearing
transoms at the lift supported by the rakers may be positioned to butt the building, in which case they may be
connected with putlog couplers.
Transoms
to butt
building Maximum bottom
Transoms lift height 2.7m
to butt
building
Raker tube at alternate pairs of standards to be connected to ledgers

with right angle couplers and adequately restrained at its base
(a) Raker tubes on 2m lift scaffold (b) Raker tube with extended bottom lift
Figure 2.12 - Typical types of raker stabilisers used on domestic scaffolds
Note Conditions of use described in Clause 2.1.9.15
On any independent tied scaffold where the bottom lift cannot be fitted with ledger bracing and the scaffold cannot
be tied to the façade at the top of the first lift, an external unjointed raker tube can be fitted at alternate standards.
The raker tube should be connected to the ledger at the first (pavement) lift with a right angle coupler, should be
adequately restrained at its base from movement, and should be accompanied by butting transoms. See Figure 2.12
(a) and (b).
The effective safe load capacity of such a raking tube as an equivalent tie assembly may be taken as 2.7 kN
horizontally resisting outwards movement of the scaffold.
Figure 18. Typical types of raker stabilisers used on domestic scaffolds
For other applications rakers should be designed taking the bending effect of its self-weight noting that Table 5.10 is
forNOTE.
directConditions of use described in 8.6
axial load capacity; bending due to the weight of an inclined tube is not included. For combined bending and
axial load refer to Clause 5.8.1.
2.1.9.16 First working lift
When a working lift is required and no firm part of the building has been constructed to attach a tie, a scaffold may be
temporarily stabilised by raking tubes or other means. Such tubes should also be fixed during dismantling if low level
ties are impracticable. Adequate restraint must be provided at the base of the raker to prevent outwards movement. If
the rakers are on one side of the scaffold only, resistance to uplift will also be required.
43
2.1.10 Access to and in scaffolds
Guidance for the provision of access to and in scaffolds that meets the requirements of the Work at Height
Regulations 2005 is provided in chapter 08 of the TG20 Operational Guide.
2.1.10.1 Landings
The vertical distance between two successive landing places should not exceed 9.0 m.
2.1.10.2 Ladder towers and bays
Where practicable, the access to the scaffold

should be with its own stair or ladder tower
fixed to the outside of the main scaffold.
Integral ladder bays within the main access
scaffold may be substituted where justified
by a risk assessment. Typical details are
illustrated in the TG20 Operational Guide and
TG20 compliance sheets may be printed out
to justify standard arrangements.
Ladder towers are generally constructed with

one side common with the outer face of the **
access scaffold. They should be fully decked
at the landings and supplied with guardrails.
Toe boards should be provided where
there is a risk of falling material or objects
as appropriate. Short boards necessary to
complete the decking around the access **
hole should be tied down and supported at
the correct intervals. Further practical details
are given in chapter 08 of the accompanying
TG20 Operational Guide.
2.1.10.3 Loading * *
The superimposed loading adopted in

calculations should be not less than 1.00 kN/
m2 for all platforms in ladder towers and
ladder bays within a vertical loaded height of *
10 m. *
Landings should be designed for either a

single load of 1.5 kN over an area of 200 mm
x 200 m or for a uniformly distributed load of
1.0 kN/m2. End
toeboard
clip
Ladder towers present additional obstruction
to wind flow parallel to the façade especially
if clad with netting or sheeting and the
resultant forces must be transmitted to the
façade anchor points and to the foundations
via adequate vertical and plan bracing and
couplers .
Figure 2.13 – Ladder access tower with internal ladder
Ladder towers which project beyond the
Note 1 - Boards marked with an asterisk should be fixed down to a piece of
end of a façade are potentially subject to
600should
mm be board. SeetoSG 25. of 600mm board. See SG25:06.
additional wind forces because of lack of
NOTE 1. Boards marked with an asterisk fixed down a piece
Note
NOTE 2. For the sake of clarity,2only
- For the
the top sake
level of clarity,
is shown with twoonly the top level is shown with two
guardrails.
shielding by the façade and lack of direct Two guardrails must be fitted at every level.
guardrails. Two guardrails must be fitted at every boarded level.
ties thereto. The TG20 compliant designs do
not cater for this case so a special design
Figure 34. is
Ladder access tower
required.
2.1.10.4 Staircase towers
Stair towers are special scaffolds and are described in Clause 3.4.
44
2.1.11 Pavement lifts
Where scaffolding is erected on or adjacent to a public area, especially a narrow pavement, it is often required to
provide pedestrian access along the length of the scaffold at ground level.
This is called a ‘pavement lift’ and requires the omission of ledger bracing below the first lift and an increased lift
height to provide a minimum clear headroom of 2.44 m for public usage.
The TG20 Operational Guide section 10.2 provides practical guidance for the provision of a pavement lift in a TG20
compliant scaffold which should be read in conjunction with the following notes for designers.
The Operational Guide provides several alternatives to compensate for the removal of ledger bracing in a pavement
lift of maximum height 2.7 m. Greater pavement lift heights require structural design.
• If the scaffold generally has storey height lifts (e.g. 2.5 to 3.0 m) no special measures are required because
the pavement lift will already have sufficient headroom and be tied at alternate frames.
• If the scaffold is generally tied at every 2.0 m lift then ties may be provided at the first (e.g. 2.7 m) lift at
alternate frames.
• If the scaffold is generally tied at alternate 2.0 m lifts, ties may be provided at the first lift at alternate frames.
The next tied level must be not more than 4.0 m above the first lift. This configuration is illustrated by figure
2.14 (a).
• If the scaffold is generally tied at alternate 2.0 m lifts but ties cannot be provided at the first lift, the next lift
may be tied at not more than 4.0 m above ground. This implies a short second lift about 1.3 m high, as shown
by figure 2.14 (b).
• If the scaffold is generally tied at alternate 2.0 m lifts but ties cannot be provided at the first lift and a short
second lift is not acceptable, plan bracing may be provided throughout the first lift. This will act in conjunction
with the ledger bracing above to hold the first lift relatively rigid relative to the tied second lift at 4.7 m above
ground. This configuration is illustrated by figure 2.14 (c).
The above rules assume that the scaffold is operating at the maximum safe height and load capacity. If this is not the
case and it is considered worth the effort, it may be possible to justify less stringent measures by careful structural
analysis of individual cases.
Reference should be made to Clause 3.3 for the special design of pavement frames or gantries forming a semi-
permanent protection deck over a pavement.
Tie required at top platform if sheeting or debris netting attached
T T
T
Notes
T 1 Pavement scaffold first lift of
2.7 m as described in Clause
2.1.11.
T 2 Façade bracing is fitted

to the outside of the scaffold and
T extends to the ground level.
Ledger Ledger Ledger 3 Ledger bracing is fitted to

T alternate pairs of standards above
bracing bracing bracing
alternate alternate alternate the pavement lift.
bays bays bays 4 Scaffold loaded as Table 2.1
T
considered.
T
Plan 5 When the scaffold is sheeted
T max. bracing or has debris netting, a tie is
max. 4.7m every bay required at the top platform.
2.7m 4.0m 6 Where the first tie level is
between 4 m and 4.7 m above the
base, plan bracing is required in
every bay as shown in (c).
7 For scaffolds with lines of ties at
(a) Tie at first lift (b) Tie at 4.0m (c) Tie at 4.7m every lift, the arrangement at (b)
is not permitted.
Figure 2.14 – Arrangements of pavement lift
45
2.1.11 Openings and bridges
Openings are frequently required to be formed in tied independent façade access scaffolds for the following typical
reasons:
1. To span over a lower part of the building projecting in front of the main façade;
2. To span over a balcony or similar projection above ground;
3. To maintain vehicle access through a façade;
4. To maintain pedestrian access to shop windows and doors, sometimes at a corner.
General advice and typical details for a limited range of bridged openings are given in Chapter 9 of the TG20
Operational Guide which should be read in conjunction with the current text. Compliance sheets are provided in
Chapter 3 of the Operational Guide for two and three bay bridges in scaffolds up to 16 m height and sheets for higher
scaffolds may be generated from the TG20 eGuide. Bridges which do not comply with the conditions for the TG20
compliant designs must be specially designed by a suitably qualified engineer but many of the details illustrated in the
Operational Guide are applicable generally.
2.1.11.1 Bridge members
A bridge can be designed as a pair of lift-height braced girders formed from tubes and fittings, but this is relatively
labour intensive and the function of the tube components of the bridge and its couplers can be misunderstood by site
personnel. More typically pairs of prefabricated steel or aluminium beams are fitted to span the opening and laced
together with tubes and fittings to form a stable box girder structure. Erection with prefabricated beams is generally
considered easier than the alternative.
Prefabricated beams are generally either 305 mm deep ladder beams made of steel tube or lattice beams of greater
depth up to 750 mm made of either steel or aluminium. The TG20 Operational Guide specifies minimum structural
properties for the ladder beams and lattice beams respectively assumed for use in the TG20 compliant designs.
These may be referred to in special designs but usually the designer will select from manufacturers’ tables.
The load capacity of a prefabricated beam is governed by the maximum shear force or bending moment in the span
usually the latter. The moment capacity depends on the frequency of lateral restraints to the compression chord so
the manufacturer’s requirements must be adhered to in the provision of tie tubes and plan bracing in the design. It is
necessary to provide a system of plan bracing back to the supports as well as tie tubes connecting the beams.
For beams simply supported at both ends the top chord is in compression and requires the above bracing. For
cantilever beams which may be required at a corner, the bottom chord is in compression across both the cantilever
and the anchor span and requires bracing accordingly.
Sufficient right angle couplers must be provided to transmit the beam end reactions to the supporting standards. In
some cases supplementary couplers may be required.
Where a bridge supports a considerable number of lifts or is otherwise heavily loaded beyond the capacity of twin
beams, additional beams may be added and the load will be shared between them. Normally multiple bridge
beams for this purpose will be installed in lifts one above the other rather than spaced out through the height of the
structure. This reduces the chance of omission and also allows any doubled standards to be curtailed at a lower level.
2.1.11.2 Supporting standards
The four standards supporting a simple bridge have to support significantly more load than the remaining standards
depending on the span and the number of lifts supported. For a three bay bridge at the first lift the supporting
standards carry about 2 × the normal load. The standards supporting a cantilever are also heavily loaded by most of
the anchor span as well as the cantilever itself.
In order to enhance the load capacity of the bridge standards it is usual to provide ledger bracing to each pair and
façade brace both the inner and outer standards locally each side of the bridge to reduce their effective buckling
lengths. Further enhancement can be achieved by subdividing and bracing each lift to further reduce the effective
lengths.
Alternatively and more usually the method used to augment the load capacity of the bridge standards is to provide
supplementary standards to form ‘doubled standards’. The supplementary standard should be positioned 150 mm
from the main standard so that their baseplates can sit alongside. The supplementary standard should be on the
bridge span side of the main standard so that it receives most of the bridge reaction.
2.1.11.3 Stability
The design of a scaffold containing a bridge should give due consideration to the effect of the bridge opening on the
46
longitudinal stability against wind forces parallel to the façade particularly if the opening is large in comparison to
the length or if there are several openings. This can best be done by carrying out a full analysis of a realistic loaded
structural model of the scaffold façade length using frame analysis software.
It is desirable to provide ties to the façade adjacent to the bridge standards.
2.1.11 Raising and lowering material
2.1.11.1 Gin wheels
Gin wheels may be fixed to scaffolding for the purposes of raising and lowering materials during the construction
of the scaffold and for the user of the completed scaffold. The gin wheel should be mounted on a cantilever tube
projecting outwards from the scaffold to a suitable distance, which should not be greater than 750 mm without
special design.
The horizontal tube holding the gin wheel should be fixed with right angle couplers to two standards in the case of
an independent tied scaffold. In the case of a putlog scaffold, a puncheon should be fixed near to the wall from a
suitable putlog at a lower level to a putlog at the working level and extending upwards. The gin wheel tube should be
fixed to this and to the outer standard. A diagonal brace from the gin wheel tube to the outer end of a lower putlog
may alternatively be used to brace the standard carrying the gin wheel.
A ring type gin wheel is preferable (see Figure 2.15 (a)). If a hook type gin wheel is used it should not be hooked
through a coupler but, it should be lashed to the supporting tube and the hook moused (see Figure 2.15 (b)) unless
it is provided with a safety catch. In either case the gin wheel fixing to the tube should be prevented from slipping
towards or from the building by one fitting mounted on either side of the fixing.
Materials should be firmly attached to the gin wheel rope and should not exceed 50 kg in mass.
Gin wheel ropes should be of the correct size to suit the gin wheel (usually 18 mm) and should comply with the
requirements of the appropriate British Standard and be marked with an identification tag and the safe working load.
2.1.11.2 Scaffold jib cranes and hoists
Scaffold jib cranes should be attached to a standard in a scaffold by the means recommended by the manufacturer.
Special consideration should be given to the strengthening of the scaffold in the location of the crane and its
attachment to the building at this point.
2.1.11.3 Mechanical hoists
See Clause 3.13.
2.1.11.4 Multiple rope blocks
The attachment of multiple rope blocks to scaffolding should be made the subject of special design in respect of the
scaffold itself and its attachment to the building in the location of the upper block.
750mm 750mm
See note 2 See note 2
(a) Ring type (b) Hook type
Figure 2.15 – Gin wheel fixings

Note 1 This drawing should be read in conjunction with the text.
2 If there is a joint in the inner standard of a lift, a sleeve coupler should be used in order to resist uplift.
47
2.1.11.5 Impact loading
Where mechanical handling is used, special allowance should be made in the design of the loading area for the
additional loads due to the impact of placing see Clause 2.2.
2.2 Loading bays founded on the ground
2.2.1 Loads and general arrangement
When materials are to be stored on a scaffold, the weight of these will probably be in excess of any access load
class given in Table 2.1. It will usually be necessary to design for higher loads especially if palletted materials are to
be delivered to the loading bay. The TG20 Operational Guide chapter 12 illustrates a standard design for a loading
bay (attached to an access scaffold) suitable for a distributed static load of 10 kN/m2 or a single pallet or container
weighing 15 kN placed centrally in each bay and a TG20 compliance sheet is available for this. Loading bays outside
the scope of the compliance sheet should be specifically designed.
This section should be read in conjunction with the TG20 Operational Guide chapter 12 for non-structural aspects of
loading bay design.
Where material is placed by powered means, (e.g. crane or fork lift) the dynamic effect of normal impacts should be
allowed for by a 25% increase of the largest individual load to be placed on the platform, and should be included in
the design.
To allow for the dynamic effect of an individual item moving horizontally, an equivalent force of 10% of its weight
should be considered in any of the practical possible horizontal directions.
A typical arrangement of a two lift loading bay for 10 kN/m2 loading is shown at Figure 2.16. A design method
frequently used is to select the required length of the access scaffold to which the loading bay is to be attached and
Scaffold boards shown cut-away for clarity

Maximum spacing of transoms on loading bay for 5 board
width is 450mm, but can be 600mm
if limited to 4 board width
Independent
tied scaffold
Plan X
3.05m ladder
beams bracing
Maximum lift
height 2.0m
Space to suit beam
Maximum 4.0m
Figure 2.16 – Typical loading bay for 10 kN/m2

Notes
The loading bay shown is suitable for a 10 kN/m2 distributed load.
Supplementary couplers may be required on the central standard underneath the ladder beam marked X.
For clarity side brick guards and guard rails at the first lift are not shown.
A front gate or other device required for the safe operation of the loading bay is not shown for the sake of clarity.
48
to reduce the spacing of the standards in this length to supplement the total load-carrying capacity of the standards.
At the loading platform level, the scaffold tube ledgers are usually replaced with a continuous proprietary ladder beam
or equivalent. The bay size in this arrangement will depend on the loads in the standards. A third line of standards is
erected on the outside of the platform, also with a ladder beam ledger at the platform level, to carry a share of the
load.
Loading towers should not be used to support the mast of a hoist used to supply the loading tower unless specifically
allowed for in the design.
In order to avoid interference with crane and fork lift truck operation, transoms should not project significantly beyond
the outside face of the loading bay.
Where sheeting or debris netting is attached to the ends or face of a loading tower, the additional wind loads should
be taken into account .
Loading bays which project beyond the end of a façade are potentially subject to additional wind forces because of
lack of shielding by the façade and lack of direct ties thereto. The TG20 compliant designs do not cater for this case
so a special design is required.
2.2.2 Bracing
2.2.2.1 Diagonal bracing
The loading tower should be diagonally braced on all four sides. Where the loading bay is arranged at the level of
the top working platform of the access scaffold, the loading bay bracing may be considered as contributing to the
longitudinal bracing of the access scaffold.
Where the loading bay is not at the top working platform level, or there are several levels of loading bay in the height,
the internal façade bracing of the loading bay may hinder the access from the scaffold to and from the loading bay,
and accordingly may be placed in the form of a zigzag longitudinal bracing system on the main scaffold outside the
area of the loading bay. Unless such alternative bracing conforms to the requirements for façade bracing it shall not
be considered façade bracing for the access scaffold.
Where several levels of loading platform are required it may not be possible to brace the outer/front face at all times
because this would obstruct operations. In such cases it may be best to design an alternative bracing system so that
front face bracing is not required at any time and so avoid the need for temporary measures and special provisions in
the method statement.
2.2.2.2 Plan bracing
The loading tower should be plan braced at alternate lifts, including the top lift. This may be by plan bracing externally
(wing braces) off the access scaffold. Extra ties should be fitted to the main scaffold if necessary to resist the
additional wind forces from the loading tower.
Where proprietary ladder beams are used, consideration should be given to plan bracing the chords of the beam.
Where a ladder beam is connected across three or more standards plan bracing should be fitted to the lower chord of
the ladder beam with swivel couplers.
2.2.2.3 Connections
Relatively high loads have to be transmitted from the beams to the standards so a check should be made against
the slip capacity of the couplers proposed. Class B right angle couplers or Class A with supplementary coupler are
frequently required in certain locations.
The plan bracing system may include structural transoms to complete triangulation. Putlog couplers are normally
inadequate for connecting structural transoms. Right angle or band-and-plate couplers are normally used. Depending
on the exact location, the former may require the transom to be underslung.
2.2.3 Lifts
The storage levels of a loading bay may be required to match the levels of the floors of the building which may not
coincide with the lifts of the main access scaffold. It may be necessary to introduce supplementary lifts and bracing
to maintain the necessary load-carrying capacity in the standards.
2.2.4 Decking
It is advantageous to choose a length for a loading bay in modules of board lengths so that short boards are not
required, as movement of heavy materials about the platform may cause short boards to be dislodged. The platforms
49
may be double boarded, if necessary, in which case the layers of boards should be parallel.
Under typical storage loads, the spacing of board transoms is usually governed by the load capacity of the transoms
rather than the boards.
The design parameters for scaffold boards to BS 2482 differ when a stiff load, such as a pallet of equipment is loaded
across at least four boards enforcing load sharing. Section 5.4.2 gives information for the design of timber in general
including structural properties of scaffold boards in table 5.8 and factors for duration of load and load sharing in tables
5.7.2 and 5.7.5 respectively.
2.2.5 Guardrails and toe boards
The platforms should be provided with both principal and intermediate guardrails and toe boards on all faces except
where up-and-over loading bay gates are fitted of the type which provide edge protection at all times.
2.2.6 Foundations
Special consideration should be given to the adequacy of the sole plates and foundations for the heaviest loaded
standards in loading bays which typically support higher loads than normal standards in access scaffolds.
2.2.7 Notices
It is recommended that a notice should be erected showing the safe working imposed load on the loading bay,
expressed in kN/m2 or in terms of pallet loads.
2.3 Access birdcages

This section should be read in conjunction with the TG20 Operational Guide chapter 13 for non-structural aspects of
birdcage scaffold design and for details of the TG20 compliant birdcage designs.
2.3.1 Description
A birdcage scaffold consists of a grid of standards usually arranged at regular intervals in parallel lines and evenly
spaced apart. These standards are laced together with a grid of ledgers and structural transoms at every lift and
the top lift is boarded to form the access platform for work on ceilings and soffits, e.g. to fix lighting, ventilation
or sprinklers over an inside area. The perimeter bays of a birdcage may also be required to be boarded to provide
scaffold access to adjacent walls. A ladder access bay will usually be required and this may be conveniently
positioned adjacent to one of any boarded perimeter bays. If there are no perimeter bays, the ladder bay may be
placed in the centre of the birdcage for convenience of erection.
2.3.2 Loading
Except for intermediate working lifts in the outside bays, a birdcage should have only one working lift, i.e. the top lift.
The imposed loading on a birdcage scaffold will normally be not less than service class 1 loading of 0.75 kN/m2 but
higher loading classes 1 and 2 may be judged necessary for heavier work categories as for façade access scaffolds.
Whatever the value of imposed load used in the calculations for the ledgers, standards and for overall stability, the
platform boards and their transoms, forming the working platform should be capable of supporting at least the
service class 2 loading of 1.50 kN/m2 in accordance with the requirements of BS EN 12811-1:2004 clause 6.2.2.1.
Where a larger imposed load than Class 1 is required on a birdcage scaffold, BS EN 12811-1:2004 clause 6.2.2.6
permits the higher imposed load to be considered to act over an area of at least 6.0 m2 positioned anywhere on the
scaffold, in combination with service class 1 loading of 0.75 kN/m2 over the remaining area if the scaffold is larger than
6.0 m2 in plan. The application of this more complex arrangement of imposed loading rather than simply applying the
higher service load over the whole area does not seem to have any practical merit unless beams are used to increase
the spans between standards.
2.3.3 Dimensions
Table 2.5 gives maximum spacings of standards in birdcage scaffolds assuming continuous multi-span scaffold tube
transoms and ledgers are provided at the working platform:

Wider spacings are possible if ladder beams or equivalent are used instead of scaffold tube ledgers in the top
platform but this will result in higher loads in the standards.
The width of the perimeter bays, if provided, may be reduced to three, four or five boards to meet the requirements
for the particular type of access required around the edges. This reduction is usually found to be necessary to avoid
overloading the penultimate standards in taller birdcages.
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Table 2.5 – Maximum bay dimensions for birdcage scaffolding

Load class Maximum bay length Maximum bay width
1 2.1 m 2.1 m (9 boards + standard and couplers)
Common practice is for 2.0 m lift heights above a first lift height of 2.5 m to provide generous headroom at base level.
This does not preclude the adoption of other lift heights if justified by structural calculation and consideration of the
project requirements and risks.
2.3.4 Foundations
Section 2.1.3 gives general guidance for foundations for tied independent scaffolds which is generally applicable to
birdcages also.
However, birdcage scaffolds are more likely than other types to be supported on an existing structure so it is
particularly important to verify that the loads applied by the birdcage can be safely supported. This will usually involve
communication of the outline design and loading details (e.g. leg loads) to a structural engineer appointed by the
client who will be responsible for checking the permanent structure and specifying any temporary works or protection
that may be necessary. Whatever the arrangements adopted in practice the responsibilities should be clearly defined
in the contract with the client.
If the birdcage is to be supported on a structural concrete slab that has been assessed as adequate to support the
loads, the standards may be erected directly on to the concrete. However, if the concrete is fair-faced or covered
with any type of applied finish, steel base plates should be used in conjunction with plastic ‘visibility’ plates to reduce
abrasion damage. Where the base plates would otherwise bear directly onto soft flooring, non-structural paving or on
unfinished sub-grade in a part finished building, timber scaffold board sole plates should be used.
2.3.5 Ledgers
Ledgers should be connected to the standards with right angle couplers.
When a step in the ledgers is necessary in the lower one or two lifts, to accommodate a sloping or stepped floor, the
stepped ledgers should be attached to the same standard so that there is no bay without ledgers.
Joints in ledgers should comply with the recommendations of Clause 2.1.5.2.
A foot lift is not necessary for the TG20 compliant birdcage scaffold designs, except in intermittent places where foot
ties are required to receive the lower end of braces and in single lift birdcages. However, foot lifts can be useful in
special designs to improve the stability of the standards in the lowest lift.
2.3.6 Transoms
Structural transoms in foot ties and in the intermediate lifts should be fixed to the standards with right angle couplers.
Putlog couplers may be used to connect board transoms to the ledgers at the top lift if the principal transoms are
butted at both ends or tied at one end to the permanent building structure. For scaffolds which are free standing in
the direction of the transoms, provision should be made to deliver the notional horizontal forces from the top platform
to the bracing system and right angle or band-and-plate couplers are usually required for this purpose because of
their superior slip resistance compared with putlog couplers. Intermediate board transoms may be connected to the
ledgers with putlog couplers. However the use of different coupler types in the same plane can cause problems of
scaffold board alignment so it may be more satisfactory to provide structural transoms connected to the standards
with right angle couplers below the ledgers at the top lift with separate board transoms above and supported on the
ledgers fixed with putlog couplers. The board transoms can then be set out conveniently to suit the board lengths
without reference to the standard positions.
The spacing of transoms should conform to the recommendations of Clause 2.1.6 and joints should comply with the
same recommendations for the joints in ledgers given in Clause 2.1.5.2.
Although the intermediate lifts are usually left unboarded (except for perimeter bays) whilst the birdcage is in service,
temporary boards are required for safe erection and dismantling so that intermediate board transoms are required in
alternate bays at least. Refer to chapter 13 of the TG20:13 Operational Guide.
51
2.3.7 Stability
2.3.7.1 General
Birdcage scaffolds require bracing to ensure they are stable. The standards must be adequately braced to be strong
enough to carry the vertical loads. Birdcage structures must also be made stiff enough to resist lateral sway and
horizontal loads and be safe from overturning and this requires either bracing or attachment to a permanent building
structure. Single lift birdcages require special treatment as noted in 2.3.7.6.
Indoor birdcages in situations where there is negligible risk of significant wind loading should be designed to resist
the notional horizontal loads specified in BS EN 12811-1 section 6.2.3 so as to ensure a minimum level of lateral
stability and robustness. This requirement leads to total horizontal loads proportional to the scaffold width/length.
External birdcages should also be designed to resist the relevant wind forces and anchored when necessary to
prevent uplift and overturning.
2.3.7.2 Bracing
All scaffolds require bracing, as right angle couplers have only a limited moment capacity and are comparatively
flexible.
In order to minimise bending in the standards, the lower end of each of the lowest diagonal bracings should be
attached as near as practicable to the foot of the relevant standard by means of a swivel coupler or to a foot tie with
a right angle coupler. The TG20 compliant birdcage designs allow for a maximum 300 mm vertical eccentricity of
the brace connections above the base. Bracing in either direction should preferably be attached to the ledgers or
structural transoms using right angle couplers or, if this is not possible, to the standards by means of swivel couplers.
Normally bracing is provided in each line of standards in each orthogonal direction.
The required form of bracing depends on whether the birdcage is tied or butted to a permanent structure. It is
possible for a birdcage to be tied/butted in one direction and freestanding in the other depending on the lateral
support available from surrounding structure(s).
Bracing for tied or butted birdcages

Bracing in both directions should be provided at the rate of one set of bracing for every six bays in each line for
interior birdcages which are tied or securely butted. This may take the form of a diagonal tube running from top
to bottom and connecting all node points, or short tubes from one lift to the next, either zigzag or all of one slope.
Where the scaffold is of sufficient length to require more than one set of bracing in each line, the sets should be
arranged so that the lowest lift braces slope in opposite directions alternately. These simple rules assume that the
birdcage is butted or tied to the permanent building at the top lift. During erection and dismantling, tying or butting
restraints may be required at other levels in order to maintain stability. To avoid this it may be worth designing the
scaffold as freestanding from the outset as described below.
Bracing for freestanding birdcages

Bracing is particularly important for freestanding birdcage scaffolds. Resistance to the notional horizontal loads
normally requires each set of bracing to be in a continuous line extending from the base to the top platform returning
as necessary if the far end of the scaffold is reached. Sequential sets of bracing should slope in opposite directions.
Where the length of the scaffold only requires one set of bracing per line, an additional brace should be provided in
the lowest lift sloping in the opposite direction to the first brace. Bracing for low-rise birdcages which have more bays
than lifts should be have sufficient ‘opposing’ bracing sets so that no more than two sequential bays are unbraced
in 2 and 3 lift birdcages. These bracing arrangements minimise the incidence of uplift and its consequences and
distribute the bracing forces to as many standards as possible. Standard bracing solutions for freestanding interior
birdcages are illustrated in chapter 13 of the TG20 Operational Guide and are reproduced here as figure 2.17.
Single bay bracing is found to be inadequate for free standing birdcages because high compression loads are
induced in the ‘leeward’ braced standards and uplift occurs in the ‘windward’ braced standards unless they are
anchored down. Anchors or kentledge are usually considered impractical for birdcage scaffolds. When lift-off occurs
in standards with lowest bracings connected at the base, the lowest lift bracing becomes entirely ineffective and the
scaffold deforms excessively in a sway mode relying on coupler cruciform resistance. If lift-off occurs in standards
with lowest bracings connected at the first lift, the bracing diagonal remains in compression but becomes only partly
effective .
2.3.7.3 Tying and butting
Where an adjacent structure is available, bracing may be simplified as noted in 2.3.7.2.1 at the expense of butting
or tying if this is permitted by the client. If possible, all four sides should be butted. Where two opposite walls or
structural frames are available, it is sufficient to arrange tubes to butt against them from each side but if only one is
available, it is necessary to provide a push/pull fixing. No scaffold standard should be more than 6 bays away from
a butted or tied edge or a bracing set. The most satisfactory detail is to extend the transoms or ledgers to reach the
52
(a) Opposing sets of bracing to the top lift with sequential unbraced bays for a free-standing birdcage.
Two sequential unbraced bays are permitted between each set of bracing to the top lift for a 2 – 3 lift birdcage.
The opposing bracing should meet the first set if it does

not reach the top lift. A minimum of one braced bay is
required in the opposing direction.
(b) Opposing sets of bracing to the top lift for a free-standing birdcage with a minimum of one opposing brace.
Bracing starts in the penultimate bays for a single lift

birdcage.
A maximum of 3 sequential unbraced bays are

permitted between each set of bracing for a single lift
birdcage.
(c) Wrapping the bracing to reach the top lift. (d) Bracing a free-standing single-lift birdcage.
Figure 2.17 – Standard bracing arrangements for free-standing birdcages
53
butt position or anchorage. Where they are to butt at both ends, timber packers and reveal screws may be used to
achieve a tight fit.
Where butt support is available on two opposite walls (say 1 and 3) to brace the standards in the X direction but
not on the other two sides (2 and 4) of the birdcage, plan bracing may used to effectively brace the frames in the Y
direction without direct butt support back to walls 1 and 3 allowing them to be treated as if butted/tied. This is most
effective if the scaffold is narrower in the X direction than in Y .
2.3.7.4 Mixed support
Birdcage scaffolds which are butted at both ends in every lift may be erected without bracing in that plane if they
are less than 12 bays long. Where scaffolds have more than 11 standards in a line, it is not advisable to rely on edge
support only because some verticals will be too far from a support in at least one direction. Thus some bracing will be
essential, but can be used in conjunction with tying and butting. Intermediate parts of the structure served, such as
columns, may also be useful in providing stability.
2.3.7.5 Overturning
Overturning is not a risk in any plane which is effectively tied or butted both ends. The possibility of overturning
should be considered in any plane which is effectively free standing. However when the height of the scaffold is
less than the width, overturning is unlikely to be a problem. At all stages of construction the structure should have
a factor of safety against overturning of at least 1.5. Accordingly, the TG20 compliant birdcage scaffold designs for
indoor conditions without wind exposure have been justified by analysis calculations to be stable under combinations
of dead load only with 1.5 × the notional horizontal loads specified in EN 12811-1. This criterion leads to a maximum
height to width ratio of 3.0 for a fully braced free standing indoor birdcage with unanchored supports.
If the birdcage is required to be freestanding with greater height to width ratio, it will probably be necessary to
provide tension resistant supports using kentledge, ground anchors or bolting down to a structural concrete slab with
sufficient uplift resistance. Careful attention is necessary to joints in standards or bracing which may be required to
transmit tension forces greater than the capacity of sleeve couplers.
Elevation BB
B A B
Plan Elevation AA
Figure 2.18 – Single lift access birdcage scaffold butted on all sides
Note 1 - A foot tie may be omitted from a line of bays between each pair of braces to facilitate access.
Note 2 - Where the scaffold is stabilized by box tying around existing columns, the bracing may be omitted locally.
54
2.3.7.6 Single lift birdcages
Special attention should be paid to the bracing of a single lift birdcage of any height especially if it is free standing.
The absence of continuity of the standards into braced upper lifts means that lateral stability is heavily dependent on
one lift of bracing only, which should therefore be carefully positioned and fixed.
Foot ties are usually provided to partly compensate for the lack of continuity of the standards at the working lift. The
standards should be supplied with foot ties in at least alternate bays in both directions so as to form boxes. Foot
ties consist of structural transoms and ledgers connected to the standards with right angle couplers. Each standard
should be tied to at least one other standard in each direction. As there are no upper lifts to assist with horizontal
integrity, it is particularly important in single lift birdcages that the joints in the horizontal tubes of the top lift are made
with sleeve couplers and are staggered in alternate bays.
Figure 2.18 shows an example of a single lift birdcage which is butted on all sides to a permanent structure. In any
plane in which the structure is not butted or tied to a permanent structure, bracing should be fitted at least every four
bays with alternate braces sloping in opposite directions to minimise the effect of lift-off. Other arrangements may be
satisfactory subject to careful structural analysis allowing for supports to lift off.
2.3.8 Top working platform
The top working platform should be constructed in accordance with Clause 2.1.8 and supported by transoms spaced
according to Table 2.4. Scaffold board transoms should be placed at maximum 1200 mm centres.
Unless the standards are cut off or otherwise arranged to terminate just below the platform boards, they will protrude
through and present a trip or impact hazard and gaps will occur in the platform along the lines of the standards. The
project risk assessment should consider whether such hazards are acceptable or should be ameliorated by filler strips
and other measures to prevent injury.
2.4 Putlog scaffolds
A putlog scaffold consists of a single row of standards parallel to the face of the building and set as far away from it
as is necessary to accommodate a platform of three to five boards with the inner edge of the platform as close to the
wall as is practicable. An example is shown in Figure 2.19.
The standards are connected with a ledger fixed with right angle couplers and special board transoms called ‘putlogs’
are fixed to the ledgers with right angle or putlog couplers. The lift height for brickwork is normally between 1.35 m
and 1.50 m, although for certain types of masonry a lower lift height may be necessary.
The blade end of the putlog tube or a putlog adaptor is normally placed horizontally on the masonry as it is being built.
However, where putlog scaffolds are erected against an existing wall for re-pointing, old putlog holes may be reused
if present or others raked out. In the latter case the putlog blades may be inserted vertically in the perpend joints. The
resulting transom spacings will be based on brick modules.
Base plates, and where necessary sole plates should be placed under each standard. See also Clause 2.1.3.
To ensure the stability of the scaffold is maintained, it is recommended that:
a. At the base lift a foot tie, attached to the standards using right-angle couplers, is installed 150 mm above the
base plates;
b. At the first lift an under slung bridle tube should be installed approximately 100 mm from the wall/brickwork
with right angle couplers;
c. Ledger braces, connecting the bridle tube to the foot tie, should be installed at every second standard.
Where a putlog is required for a board support and it is opposite an opening in the building such as a window or
doorway, the inside end of the putlog should be supported on an under slung bridle tube spacing between adjacent
putlogs, which also shows a method of tying through these openings. However, it is recommended that a bridle tube
is used at the inner face of every lift as a matter of course.
Longitudinal bracing (also called façade bracing) is required every six bays and extending to the full height of the
scaffold, fitted either across two bays, or in a continuous line. Ledger bracing is not required in the finished structure.
Single lift putlog scaffolds may be in use for bricklaying when the wall has not reached sufficient height to give an
effective tie point. In this case, the scaffold should be stabilized by rakers and foot ties, until ties can be inserted in
the wall.
55
Bay length
Guardrails and
toeboards fixed
to the standards
Putlog
adaptor
or head
Through tie
(see figure 13)
Bridle
Putlog or right
Sleeve Flat ended
angle coupler
coupler putlog
Ledger
brace
Underslung Ledger fixed
bridle tube with right angle
couplers
Sleeve coupler 38 x 225mm timber sole

Foot tie Longitudinal or facade bracing plate when standing on soil
Figure 2.19 – Typical putlog scaffold

Notes - 1. This drawing should be read in conjunction with the text.
2. Some transoms have been omitted for clarity.
A putlog fitting is not a tie. On walls without openings, single bricks should be left out to accept ties. Tying
recommendations are detailed in Clause 2.1.9.
Putlog scaffolds are not normally sheeted or clad with debris netting.
NOTES:
1. This drawing should be read in conjunction with the text.
When using putlog scaffolds it is important to ensure that the supporting structure can resist the forces generated by
2. Some transoms have been omitted for clarity. See 10.
the scaffold. In cases where the brickwork is green, or there is any doubt about its adequacy to support the blade end
of the putlog, then an independent scaffold
Figure 8. Typical should
putlog be considered.
scaffold
2.5 Towers
Scaffold towers provide access to small areas in plan or elevation as distinct from tied independent scaffolds which
provide wider access to vertical façades and birdcage scaffolds which provide access to horizontal soffit areas.
Towers may also provide temporary support for equipment such as cameras, lights and observation platforms. Towers
are usually square or rectangular in plan constructed with four scaffold standards providing corner support. However
additional standards are sometimes added to reduce the span of ledgers or the load on the corner standards. In such
cases the construction and structural behaviour is more akin to a narrow birdcage scaffold.
Chapter 15 of the TG20 Operational Guide provides general advice on the construction of certain types of towers in
accordance with TG20 compliant designs.
The following types of tower are specifically covered in this section:
• Tied towers;
• Lift shaft towers;
• Internal free standing towers;
• External free standing towers;
• Mobile towers.
The working platforms of TG20 compliant towers are generally designed to support the same nominally uniformly
distributed imposed service loads as defined for tied independent scaffolds:
56
• Load class 1: 0.75 kN/m2;
• Load class 2: 1.50 kN/m2;
• Load class 3: 2.00 kN/m2.
Allowance is also made for a gin wheel hoisting up to 50 kg suspended from a bracket as specified in Clause 2.1.11.
However, where the tower is required to support significant heavy or eccentrically placed equipment a special design
should be prepared and the designer should take into account the method of installing the equipment as well as the
in-service condition.
The following text discusses some of the important characteristics and issues that should be addressed in the
structural design of towers which are not within the scope of the compliance sheets in chapter 3 of the TG20
Operational Guide or the TG20 eGuide. The TG20 compliant designs are for simple prismatic towers. In some
circumstances better performance may be obtained using `outriggers’ comprising corner raking tubes and horizontal
foot ties. These require special design and more stringent site supervision.
The standards (and outriggers if necessary) for towers should have foundations to the same standards as other
scaffolds.
2.5.1 Tied towers
2.5.1.1 Towers tied to a façade
A tower tied to a permanent façade structure is essentially the same as a narrow tied independent façade access
scaffold and is subject to the same guidance provided that it has similar width normal to the façade. The TG20
compliant designs are restricted to widths up to 5 main + 2 inside boards. When designing wider platforms it
should be borne in mind that the EN 12811-1 site coefficient (Cs) values allowing for wind shelter provided by an
impermeable façade are intended for typical façade access scaffolds and the extent to which an impermeable façade
shelters a much wider scaffold is unknown.
Tied towers may be one bay long, but two bays are preferred to provide sufficient length to accommodate the ladders
and landing platforms as well as the working area.
The construction options available to tied independent scaffolding may also be applied to a tied tower, including
provision for sheeting or debris netting, the use of prefabricated transom units and provision of cantilevered platforms
from the tower.
Ties should be attached within 300 mm of the end pairs of standards at alternate lifts or every lift as necessary to
justify the design. If ties cannot be fixed at these positions the effects should be investigated and allowed for in the
structural design.
2.5.1.2 Towers tied to other structures
Towers may be tied to a variety of non-façade structures such as open frames, bridge support columns, transmission
towers, silos, etc. It is not feasible to provide generic solutions for these applications. Designers will usually need
to create a structural analysis model of the scaffold using suitable software so as to efficiently and realistically
investigate the effects of loading and support conditions during service and sometimes at various stages of erection
and dismantling.
2.5.2 Lift shaft towers
A lift shaft tower provides access to the interior of a lift shaft. As the tower is completely enclosed by the lift shaft it
is shielded from the wind and can be prevented from lateral movement by securely butting it on all four sides at every
lift. If this can be achieved it is not necessary to tie or brace the scaffold.
The TG20 compliant designs are based on this assumption and other conditions given in Chapter 15 of the TG20
Operational Guide. Alternative arrangements may be acceptable subject to special structural design. In particular it
may be preferable to provide butted lateral supports at larger intervals than every 2.0 m lift height. For tall towers this
will require bracing on all sides to minimise the effective lengths of the standards and resultant vertical load capacity.
For towers of lesser height and area the increased effective length without bracing but with lateral restraint at two or
three lift intervals can be established by structural analysis and the resultant vertical load capacity calculated.
2.5.3 Internal free-standing towers
Towers may be regarded as internal if erected within an enclosed building with negligible risk of wind loading. They
should be designed to resist the notional horizontal loads specified in BS EN 12811-1 section 6.2.3 so as to ensure a
minimum level of lateral stability and robustness.
Chapter 15 of the TG20 Operational Guide specifies construction details for TG20 compliant designs which may be
printed out from the TG20 eGuide. These details are generally applicable to special designs and should not be relaxed.
57
Table 15.2 of the Operational Guide provides maximum and minimum plan dimensions with the latter governed by the
bending strength of transoms and ledgers made from scaffold tube. Larger plan sizes can be achieved using ladder
beams or equivalent for ledgers and reducing the spacing of transoms. Alternatively additional standards or diagonal
props in pairs can be used to prop the ledgers.
The height of the TG20 compliant internal towers is restricted to four times the lesser base dimension but not
more than 12.0 m. The height limits are based on no uplift / zero tension occurring under ultimate limit state load
combinations of the type 1.0 × dead ± 1.5 × notional horizontal loads. It should be noted that uplift / tension in the
standards of a four legged tower is rapidly followed by catastrophic overturning. The following loads were applied in
the analysis models for the TG20 compliant designs:
• Self-weight of tubes and couplers;

• Self-weight of decking and toe boards on all boarded lifts including a ladder landing;
• Imposed uniform load at the top lift according to the load class (cl.8.2.1.2 of EN 1004-2004) but not < 5.0 kN
total (cl 8.2.1.4);
• Imposed load of 0.7 kN hung eccentrically at 0.750 m from any standard representing load on a gin wheel
including its self-weight;
• Horizontal load of 0.6 kN in the top lift in X and Z directions (cl.8.2.2.1 of EN 1004-2004);
• Ladder access load of 0.75 kN/m2 considered on one intermediate lift only;
• Working wind velocity pressure of 0.1 kN/m2 (cl.8.2.2.2 of EN 1004-2004) to allow for nominal 13 m/s internal
wind flow through the unclad structure due to normal openings.
These loads may be adopted for designs which fall outside the scope of the TG20 compliance sheets. The limits on
height may be exceeded if justified by structural analysis and design but this may require kentledge or equivalent
anchorage to an adequate substructure. Enhancement of the bracing may also be required. The effective length of
standards for towers braced on all sides and 2.0 m lift height has been established as 2.2 m. The effective length is
greater than the lift height due to the effects of modelling the allowable eccentricity of bracing connections and finite
stiffness of swivel couplers.
The height to least base ratios given in this guide relate to scaffolds constructed from steel scaffolding materials. BS
EN1004:2004 gives specifications for all prefabricated mobile access and working towers. This includes aluminium
structures which are generally lighter than steel and for which lower height-to-base ratios are appropriate.
2.5.4 External free standing towers
External free standing towers are similar to internal towers except for the important issue of wind loading risk. If the
tower is to be left out of doors without restrictions it must be assessed for wind loading in the same way as for a tied
independent scaffold except that favourable wind shelter from an impermeable façade may not be available. Towers
subject to full wind loading usually have to be restrained against overturning by means of kentledge, ground anchors
or bolted to a supporting structure which can provide adequate resistance. Enhanced bracing may also be required
together with tension resistant joints in the standards.
No TG20 compliant designs are currently available for unrestricted wind exposure. Instead the TG20 eGuide provides
a restricted range of external tower designs which are dependent on the strict implementation of a wind management
system which requires the scaffold to be dismantled or temporarily stabilised if wind gusts in excess of 18 m/s
(40 mph) are forecast. This ‘working wind load’ corresponds to a velocity pressure of 0.200 kN/m2. The loads applied
to the analysis models for these TG20 external tower designs were the same as for internal towers except for the
working wind load.
The height of the TG20 compliant external towers is restricted to three times the lesser base dimension but not more
than 8.0 m. The height limits are based on no uplift/zero tension occurring under ultimate limit state load combinations
of the type 1.0 × dead ± 1.5 × working wind loads.
It was found that the wind effects arising from adding a boarded lift are roughly balanced by the restoring effect
of the additional dead load and so the lower lifts of a tower may be optionally boarded or non-boarded so long as
sufficient landings are provided for ladder access.
2.5.4.1 Cladding and other wind obstructions
The TG 20 compliant designs for free standing towers assume no cladding (debris netting or sheeting) is attached
to the structure. Similarly there is no allowance for the effect of wind on attached hoardings, notice boards, sheds
or equipment which has significant surface area exposed to the wind. These applications require careful structural
analysis and design and subsequent site control.
58
2.5.5 Mobile towers
Nowadays mobile towers, mounted on castors, are typically prefabricated aluminium structures and are rarely formed
from tubes and fittings. Consequently, no TG20 compliant designs are published. Nevertheless the requirements for
mobile towers constructed with steel tubes and fittings are essentially the same as for stationary towers except for
the castors which must be checked for adequacy under the maximum leg loads including for any kentledge if this is
supported on a scaffold foot lift rather than directly by the ground. Castors require foundations to be provided to the
same standards as for static scaffolds.
Mobile towers should only be used on even ground and never on a slope which is sufficient to allow them to run
away when the castors are released.
Castors should be of the swivel type and fixed to the standards of the tower so that they cannot fall off if the leg is
out of contact with the ground. The wheels should be fitted with brakes, which should be locked on during use. Only
castors with a safe working load not less than the working / unfactored leg should be used.
Castors should normally be kept locked except when the tower is being relocated. When used on surfaces which
have a cross fall and/or a longitudinal fall, the user should be particularly careful to see that the brakes are on at all
times other than whilst moving the tower. If there is any doubt as to the adequacy of the brakes, the wheels should
be chocked.
Mobile towers should never be moved with an operative present on the working platform or landings. The force to
achieve re-siting of the tower should be applied at the base to minimise risk of overturning.
Timber cover for

access hole
Plan brace
under deck
Wire lashing
Plan brace
Ladder should be
fixed to narrower
width of tower
Bottom of ladder
supported by
transom
Figure 2.20 – Mobile tower with internal ladder

Intermediate guard rails have been omitted for clarity.
Figure 30. Mobile tower with internal ladder

Special scaffolds
3 59
3.1 Guidance for

special scaffolds 60
3.2 Protection fans & nets 60
3.3 Pavement frames or

gantries 64
3.4 Stair towers 65
3.5 Cantilever scaffolds 65
3.6 Truss-out scaffolds 67
3.7 Power line crossings

& other protection
scaffolds 71
3.8 Masts, lighting towers

& transmission towers 72
3.9 Kentledge, guys &

struts 73
3.10 Slung & suspended

scaffolds 75
3.11 Pedestrian bridges &

walkways 78
3.12 Temporary ramps &

elevated roadways 78
3.13 Mechanical hoists 78
3.14 Lifting gantries 78
3.15 Temporary buildings &

temporary roads 79
3.16 Spectator terraces

& seating stands 80
3.17 Temporary storage

on site 81
3.18 Hoardings & fences 82

SECTION 3 I Special scaffolds
60 Special
xx scaffolds
3.1 Guidance for special scaffolds
3.1.1 General
The recommendations made in this section for special scaffolds are mainly based on the requirements of the former
BS 5973:1993 Code of practice for access and working scaffolds and special scaffold structures in steel because the
current code BS EN 12811-1 2003 covers performance requirements and general design but not practical applications.
Most of the special scaffolds in this section are not included in the TG20 Operational Guide and so it is necessary for
completeness to include commentary on matters other than structural design where this is appropriate.
Structural calculations should be made for all special scaffolds but they are not explained in detail in this section
which consists mainly of in principle design recommendations and memoranda. Sections 4 and 5 of this Design
Guide give more specific information and numerical data for calculations.
3.1.2 Node point restraint
The strength of scaffold standards, bracings and other strut members depends on many factors, but in particular
their tendency to buckle under compressive loads. The recommendations for special scaffold designs in this section
assume that the node points in a scaffold structure are effectively restrained from moving in any horizontal plane
relative to its external supports. This restraint will normally be achieved by triangulating the node points using
diagonal bracing tubes within the structure. The resulting effective member buckling lengths are not more than 1.1 ×
the actual lengths between nodes if bracings are connected with swivel couplers at 300 mm from the nodes. Shorter
effective lengths approaching 1.0 × the actual length may be assumed if bracings are connected with right angle
couplers to ledgers or structural transoms positioned immediately adjacent to the node main couplers. It may be
noted that common façade scaffolds are not normally completely braced in this way. Some of the standards in façade
scaffolds are only indirectly restrained as described in the further guidance on establishing the effective length of
scaffold standards given in Clause 5.7.
3.2 Protection fans and nets
Chapter 10 of the TG20 Operational Guide provides general guidance on the various means of providing protection
to the public and to site personnel from hazards associated with the construction, use and dismantling of scaffolding
including the provision of protection fans, nets and pavement frames. It should be read in conjunction with the
following text.
3.2.1 Description and duty of protection fans

Protection fans and nets are sometimes added to access scaffolding to intercept objects that may fall from the
structure. Fans may be supported from the building itself or more usually from an access scaffold using wires or
tubes.
Typical traditional fan structures as described here are capable of arresting relatively small objects falling from
moderate heights. The principal limitations of protection fans are:
• Feasible width: falling objects may land outside the fan due to an initial horizontal force applied or the effects
of wind;
• Rebound: falling objects may bounce off the fan platform either outside or inside;
• Limited strength: impact energy may puncture the fan platform and cause secondary projectiles.
All of these hazards can be minimised by limiting the vertical distance between the working platform(s) and the fan
platform.
Tests by the HSE have shown that by limiting the distance from the fan to the working platform to about 6 m, the
chance of normal building items being arrested increases significantly . This may necessitate moving the fan to follow
the sequencing of working lifts (which introduces its own hazards) or providing fans at more than one level which
entails additional loading due to self-weight and wind effects. Care should be taken to minimise the risk of objects
bouncing and rolling out of the fan by attention to its position and details. This should include both outside and inside
edge protection.
No authoritative guidance is currently available for the structural design of fan platforms and support members for
impact loadings since it cannot be predicted what weight will fall and from what height and the performance of likely
components under impact is not documented. At the time of writing this guide a European standard: BS EN 128111-
4 for protective fans in scaffolds is in preparation. A recent draft indicates that the performance criterion will be in
61
the form of a standard vertical drop test (12 kg sphere falling 6 metres) impacting certain positions on a prototype
assembly. No calculation method is currently proposed so that it will become necessary for manufacturers of
proprietary components or industry bodies to commission tests to justify each combination of platform and scaffold
components.
The classes of protection fan listed and described below are reproduced from the former BS 5973 and represent
traditional arrangements that have been found to be generally satisfactory in practice (see Figure 3.1). They
may be superseded in due course by the introduction of the new standard BS EN 12811-4 and resulting industry
developments.
Class A
A light duty fan with a maximum loading equivalent to 0.75 kN/m2, for the protection of pedestrians from paint
droppings from painters working in cradles or from droppings of mortar from the pointing of brickwork, etc. In some
cases a sufficient level of protection can be afforded against fine dust or paint by containment nets and sheets. If this
type of material is being considered reference should be made to BS EN 1263-1.
A standard configuration of Class A fan is defined in the TG20 Operational Guide.
Wire
Frames every
scaffold bay
Frames every Tube

1.5m
(i) Attached to building facade (ii) Attached to scaffold
(a) Light duty (class A) fans suspended on wires
Figure 3.1 - (a) Light duty (class A) fans suspended on wires or supported by tubes
Wire Wire
Wire
Decking
Frames every
scaffold bay
Prefabricated
beam Tube
Frames every
2.4 or 3m with
Tube intermediate tube
board bearer
(i) Attached to building facade (ii) Attached to scaffold
Figure 3.1 - (b) Medium duty (class B) fans

62 xx
Tube Position of
temporary rigging
wire if required
Frames of calculated
spacing
Tube
Figure 3.1 - (c) Heavy duty (class C) fans
Class B
A medium duty fan with a maximum loading equivalent to 1 kN/m2 for protection against falling aggregate, bricks and
like weights from heights not
(c) exceeding 6 mC)overhead.
Heavy duty (class fans Bricks falling from overhead can produce a large punching
force in the fan, which should therefore be covered with a material able to cope with this.
Figure 24 (concluded)
Class C
Fans built to catch objects heavier and larger than bricks, or for bricks and blocks etc. falling more than 6 m, should be
designed specifically for the application. These types of fans are not dealt with in this guide but Figure 3.1 (c) shows
the type of additional strengthening which might be required.
Class D
A fan with safety nets for arresting the fall of persons or like weights, falling about 6 m or the distance of about two
building storeys, which should be erected in accordance with BS EN 1263-2 (cf. 25.9).
3.2.2 Effect of fans on the loads in standards of access scaffold
3.2.2.1 Vertical loads
A typical construction is to fix the transom of the fan above the outside ledgers of an access scaffold and below the
inside ledgers, giving a minimum slope of 100 mm in 1.2 m (or 1 vertical to 12 horizontal).
This arrangement imposes additional loads on the ledgers and standards of the access scaffold. The inside standards
may be subject to an uplift.
3.2.2.2 Horizontal forces due to vertical loads
As the inwards and outwards forces acting at the points of attachment of the fan and its ties and struts may be large,
account should be taken of this by the use of suitable attachments to the building. Care should be taken that the
strength of the building is adequate to accept these forces, particularly if it is partially demolished.
3.2.2.3 Wind forces
The wind forces on fans and nets can only be assessed approximately. The force may be upwards or downwards at
various times, depending on the topography of the site and the degree of completion, size and shape of the building
and adjacent structures. BS EN 1991-1-4 section 7.3 gives information on canopy roofs which may be interpreted
to estimate the wind forces acting on fan decking. In the case of nets, allowance may be made for their wind
permeability as discussed in Clause 4.2.3.4.
63
3.2.3 Decking
The decking material may consist of simple safety netting or more usually combinations of flexible waterproof
sheeting, galvanised profiled steel sheeting or scaffold boards depending on the performance and function intended.
Special consideration should be given to the closeness of the boarding or sheeting and the size of the mesh of nets.
Where scaffold boards are used as decking, they should all be secured from displacement using proprietary clips or
equivalent. Double boarding may be used to increase the strength of the deck, but account should be taken of the
additional weight. Note that where double boarding is used in conjunction with a waterproof membrane and is in
place for a long period, there is an increased risk of the boards rotting and losing some or all of their strength. Nets
may be attached with cord. Corrugated sheeting should be attached with sheeting hooks or hook bolts.
The gap between the fan decking and the main scaffold should be minimal to reduce falling objects, particularly from
small fragments from the break up on impact of blocks etc., from passing through the gap. However blocking the gap
completely may affect the drainage arrangements of the fan and should be agreed with the user.
3.2.4 Precautions during erection and dismantling
The outside point of support of the fan structure should be in the outside third of its width, measured at right angles
to the building or scaffold.
Because a typical fan structure has only two support points, the outside one of which sometimes may not be at the
extreme outside edge, significant out of balance forces can occur during construction and dismantling.
Safe systems of construction and dismantling should be planned and adhered to on the site.
3.2.5 Descriptions of fan structures
3.2.5.1 Light duty (class A) fans
A standard configuration for a single Class A fan is defined in the TG20 Operational Guide using a single layer of up to
6 scaffold boards.
3.2.5.2 Medium duty (class B) fans attached directly to a building
This type of fan consists of proprietary beams projecting from the building to distances greater than 2.4 m and
sometimes up to 5 m.
The inside ends of the beams should either rest on the building floor or on sills or be located on a bridle tube fixed to
the building with ring bolts. The outside ends of the beams should be supported and maintained at the desired angle
by wires or tubes from or near the ends in an upwards or downwards direction attached to suitable anchor points on
the building.
The beams should be laced together with ledgers fixed just below their top chords. Intermediate board transoms
span between the ledgers so that the resulting framework can be boarded out.
A variety of prefabricated beams are suitable for this purpose but it should be ascertained that each is adequately
strong in reverse bending if the point of suspension is not at its end.
Both ends of the beams should be stabilized against movement out of plane. Diagonal bracing should be provided in
the plane of the supporting tubes or wires.
The decking may be of corrugated sheeting or scaffold boards and it should be fixed securely to the framework.
Under wind forces, the anchor points both above and below the fan may be subject to loads of the order of 20 kN for
every 3 m of length of fan supported. Suitable means of attachment should be designed and installed to points on the
building capable of sustaining these forces.
The decking may be tightly lapped to draw rainwater to the inside edge or fixed with spacers so that the water drips
through at other agreed locations.
The outboard end of the fan may be provided with a vertical or near vertical parapet to give further protection.
3.2.5.3 Medium duty (class B) fans supported by an access scaffold
This type of fan is of similar construction to that described in 3.2.5.2 except that the fan beams are coupled to both
the inside and outside of an access scaffold to achieve a cantilever action which may be supplemented from below
by tubular struts.
64 xx
A medium duty fan is often used during the demolition of a building and may be designed to be structurally stable
with only raker struts beneath it. It is frequently fitted with a parapet and closely boarded out. The resulting fan
structure is heavy and exerts considerable forces on the access scaffold which should be well tied in at the fan level
and strutted off the building with structural transoms at the bottom end of the rakers.
For installations at high level, the fan may be subject to significant wind uplift so the propping rakers should be
capable of tension as well as thrust and provided with supplementary couplers where necessary.
Diagonal bracing should be provided in the plane of the supporting struts if provided or if not, at the underside of the
deck.
3.2.5.4 Safety net system (class D fans)
Safety nets should comply with BS EN 1263-1 and be rigged in accordance with BS EN 1263-2. The larger mesh nets
may be overlaid with a finer mesh to catch small debris.
The nets should be attached to a framework of scaffold tubes as described in Clauses 3.2.5.2. The framework should
slope downwards towards the building and be maintained at an angle of 10 ° to 30 ° to the horizontal by tension wires
above. It should also be fitted with steadying wires beneath the net to resist wind uplift.
The framework may be made in small detachable units in order to be easily removed and refitted to the building so
that it can be safely moved up the building as required.
The net should be attached to the framework with a winding of rope round the edge cord of the net or by the use of
suitable clips. Where practicable, the net should be fixed clear from the framework of tubes.
3.3 Pavement frames or gantries
When a scaffold has to be in position over a pavement, it is frequently desirable to form a fully boarded protection
deck over the pavement to provide safe access for pedestrians beneath the scaffold.
Where the pavement is narrow and the access way can be contained within the normal width of the scaffold it is
referred to as a ‘pavement lift’ and reference should be made to 2.1.11 and to section 10.2 of the TG20 Operational
Guide.
Where an access way wider than the normal width of the scaffold is required, the resultant structure is called a
pavement frame or gantry. The assembly should comply with any local authority requirements for temporary works on
pavements.
The principal structural features of a pavement frame are:
• The outer standards of the upper scaffold must be supported on beams to transfer the vertical loads to the
inner standards and to the outrigger standards;
• The ledger bracing and façade bracing systems are interrupted by the gantry requiring a plan bracing system
to transfer wind forces to the first lift standards which themselves should be provided with longitudinal
bracing and tying to the façade;
• The deck may be subject to dynamic impact loads from items dropped from higher levels.
Pavement gantries are often used to support site offices or storage platforms each generating additional loads to be
considered in the structural design. Consideration should be given to a protection fan at higher level.
The forces in members and connections of a pavement frame, its bracing and foundations can be much higher than
in simple access scaffolds requiring special care in structural design. The use of frame analysis and design checking
software can be very helpful in organising and visualising a complex design problem.
Guardrails and toe boards will be required at the edges of the gantry platform and around any ladder access.
Special consideration of platform drainage arrangements is required especially if there is public access at ground
level.
65
3.4 Stair towers
3.4.1 General
Stair towers are generally constructed with one side common with the outside of the access scaffold.
Stair towers are more rigid than ladder-access towers because of the inherent bracing effect of the sloping stringers
for the steps. The extent to which this can substitute for normal bracing depends on the disposition and details of the
stair and is therefore subject to the engineering judgement of the designer. If in doubt the bracing requirements for
ladder towers may be adopted.
3.4.2 Loading
BS EN 12811-1 (Clause 6.2.4) specifies loading requirements for stairway treads and their respective landings.
The structure of a stairway shall be capable of supporting a uniformly distributed load of 1.0 kN/m² on all treads and
landings within a vertical loaded height of 10 m.
Stairways and landings shall be designed for either a single load of 1.5 kN over an area of 200 mm × 200 mm or for a
uniformly distributed load of 1.0 kN/m².
3.4.3 Stairway dimensions
The dimensions of stairways for use in scaffolds are given in BS EN 12811-1 (Clause 5.8.2). Two classes are given
depending on tread width. Class B stairways should be provided, which can be achieved with treads utilising 225 mm
scaffold boards. The minimum clear width of a stairway is 500 mm.
The angle of the stairway shall be between 30° and 55° measured from the horizontal.
The combination of the rise, u, and the going, g, shall be in accordance with:
540 ≤ 2u + g ≤ 660 in mm
Further guidance on the setting out of staircases is provided in chapter 08 of the TG20 Operational Guide.
3.4.4 Decking
Stair towers should be fully decked at the landings and supplied with double guardrails. Inclined double guard rails
should be provided to form the staircase handrails. Toe boards should be provided where there is a risk of falling
material or objects as appropriate. Toe boards are not normally required adjacent to the steps.
The openings in the decking to allow access from lift to lift up the steps should be as small as practicable. Short
boards necessary to complete the decking around the access hole should be tied down and supported at the correct
centres.
3.5 Cantilever scaffolds
3.5.1 General description
Where it is impracticable or undesirable to found an independent tied scaffold on the ground it may be supported on
beams cantilevering out from the building as illustrated by Figure 3.2. Cantilever scaffolds are not to be confused with
cantilever platforms which are discussed in 2.1.8.10.
The scaffold designer and the building owner(s) or their engineer shall agree on the suitability of the building to resist
the forces applied by a cantilever scaffold before any work is done on site.
3.5.2 Loads
The cantilever beams should be spaced to suit the bay lengths of the scaffold to be built on them. They should
be designed in accordance with relevant structural codes to support the self-weight, the imposed load and the
wind loads exerted by the scaffold above with particular attention to ensuring lateral-torsional stability by means of
adequate lateral restraints.
The building material and structure should be checked to ensure that the loads applied by the scaffold can be resisted
safely.
66 xx
Timber packing beneath full length

of steel joist cantilever
Tie
Facade
bracing
Alternative method of
tying scaffold to
underside of slab
Strut
bracing
Tubular props Inverted
or scaffold forkhead
tube strutting
to suit loading Physical stop
or standard
150 mm min.
RSJ distance from Detail showing
beam end packing for edge
Alternative method of tying down beam arrangement
Timber packing
beam by bolting through slab
beneath full length
Rolled steel joist of steel joist cantilever
Also shows packing for edge beam situation
Figure 3.2 – Typical cantilever scaffold
The user should exercise the strictest control on the loads applied to cantilever scaffolds. There should be full liaison
between the scaffold designer and the user on this matter and the drawings and calculations should state the load
limitations clearly.
3.5.3 Fixing the beams to the structure
Figure 3.2 shows a typical cantilever beam assembly. There are two points on each beam which apply loads to the
building:
a. The holding down position or anchor point at the inner end of the beam;
b. The supporting or fulcrum point near the edge of the slab or the edge beam of the building.
The forces acting at these points may be calculated by simple statics using the calculated loads applied by the inner
and outer standards at their relevant positions in relation to the fulcrum and anchor supports.
The load at the anchor point will apply an upward force into the permanent structure and its resistance to this
should be verified. Further temporary works may be required particularly where the cantilever beams are located
midway between columns or walls. Under the CDM Regulations both the Permanent Works Designer (PWD) and the
Temporary Works Coordinator
Figure 25. (TWC) will have
Typical cantilever responsibilities to ensure that these loads are safely sustained in the
scaffold
permanent work. As shown in Figure 3.2, the anchor load may be applied to the permanent structure by either:
• Propping off the floor structure above using adjustable props and packers and bracing if necessary;
• Bolting down to the floor structure just below the beams using through bolts and backing plates.
The load on the structure at the fulcrum point should be calculated and it should be borne in mind that this is
greater than the total load from the scaffold, being the sum of this load and the anchor force. The resistance of the
permanent structure to this load must also be verified and if necessary temporary works designed to deliver the load
to strong points.
The packing under the beam should be of hard timber and should be of sufficient width and uniformity to ensure that
the beam is squarely seated at the same fulcrum position as assumed both in the design check on the permanent
structure and the design of the beam itself. A similar thickness of packing should be in place under the tailing edge of
the beam so that the beam may be clamped firmly down at its tailing end but remain horizontal.
3.5.4 Supported scaffolding
The scaffold, which is supported by the cantilevered beams, should be mechanically fixed in position and so
prevented from becoming dislodged.
A cantilever scaffold should always have foot ties in both directions. This foot lift may be used to fix the location of
67
the standards on the beams.
Plan bracing may be required to ensure lateral restraint to the beams and transfer of wind forces.
The supported access scaffold should be tied and braced as normal but ensuring that the first level of ties is at
the first floor level above the cantilevered beams and fitted to every row of standards.
3.5.5 Safety during erection and dismantling
The erection and dismantling of a cantilevered scaffold is potentially more hazardous than a similar scaffold
founded on the ground. Therefore the operations should be carefully planned and a method statement agreed by
all relevant parties before any work is done on site. The following points are worthy of special consideration:
• The cantilever beams should be installed and fully secured to the permanent structure before attempting
to erect the access scaffold;
• Safety nets may be required;
• A working platform will normally be required at beam level designed to allow the access scaffold
standards to be safely erected;
• The first lift above beams should be securely braced and tied to the permanent structure before
proceeding further.
3.6 Truss-out scaffolds
3.6.1 General
Where it is impracticable or undesirable to found an independent tied scaffold on the ground it may be supported
by truss frames formed of scaffold tubes and fittings projecting from the face of the building or other permanent
structure as illustrated by Figures 3.3, 3.4 and 3.5.
The scaffold designer and the building owner(s) or their engineer shall agree on the suitability of the building to
resist the forces applied by a truss-out scaffold before any work is done on site.
The location of the fulcrum point for the purpose of the calculation should be taken as the centre of the packing.
On site, the packing should be located as required by the scaffold designer after liaison with the building owner(s)
or their representative.
Bracing from ledger A

to guardrail
Elevation Bracing
A
(see section)
Bridle
Lintel
Line of
Timber packing
bracing
or wedging
Timber packing
on sill
Pack in here, or
protect wall with
plastic cap to tube
Section AA Alternative section AA Intermediate section

platform at sill level platform at lintel level when main frames are
spaced apart more
than 2.75m
Figure 3.3 – Single lift truss-out scaffold

68 xx
Tie tube
with
anchor
Facade
bracing
Alternative through
tie restraint
Frame nipped with

adjustable base plates
using single or double
props or tube struts as
appropriate
Needle Timber packing under

transoms needle transom to clear
window framing
Ledger bearing on
face of wall
Shaped timber packing

below raker
Detail of packing
at base of raker
NOTE: ‘X’ marks the position of check couplers above the puncheon fixing and below raker fixing.
Figure 27. Typical truss-out independent tied scaffold (on existing building)
Figure 3.4 – Typical truss-out independent tied scaffold (on existing building)
Note - ‘X’ marks the position of check couplers above the puncheon fixing and below raker fixing.
69
Facade
bracing
Tie tube with

anchor
Adjustable
base plates
Raker should bear

on base plate or
sole plate
Figure 3.5 – Typical truss-out independent tied scaffold (on building under construction)
Note - ‘X’ marks the position of check couplers above the puncheon fixing, below raker fixing and at outer end of transom.
Where it is undesirable to bolt down the anchor ends of the trusses, they may be propped from the structure above in
the manner shown in Figure 3.2. In this case an uplift force is exerted on the structure firstly by the balancing load and
secondly by the driving of the wedges or by the extension of adjustable jacks. The building owner or engineer should
agree the suitability of his structure to resist these forces.
When props are used to secure the anchor end of the trusses, every prop or tube so used should be effectively
maintained in position by an assembly of tube and fittings and be itself of adequate strength to carry the loads
imposed on it.
The supporting scaffold structure is referred to as the truss-out.
The access scaffold will normally be designed first with the truss-out then designed to match the scaffold bay
dimensions. However, exceptionally the permanent structure may dictate the spacing of the scaffold frames
Two types of truss-out are in common use:
a. A truss-out in which the vertical loads are carried by a ledge or sill at a lower level in the wall or outside the
building, and the scaffold is tied in at the top of the truss-out as illustrated in Figure 3.4;
b. A truss-out in which the vertical loads are taken on the edge of a slab at a point inside the building and
maintained in position by a rigid structure between adjacent floors, as illustrated in Figure 3.5.
In case a) the designer and the building owner or their representative should agree on the adequacy and suitability of
the ledge or sill to receive the vertical loads from the scaffold.
The truss out in case b) exerts an upward force on the underside of the slab above the internal scaffold structure as
well as the downward load on the slab edge.
70 xx
3.6.2 Loads
The building material and structure should be checked to ensure that the loads applied by the scaffold can be resisted
safely.
The user should exercise the strictest control on the loads applied to truss-out scaffolds. There should be full liaison
between the scaffold designer and the user on this matter and the drawings and calculations should state the load
limitations clearly.
3.6.3 Design of the truss-out
The truss-out should be designed to cater for the vertical self-weight of the scaffold and its imposed load and the
loads resulting from wind forces. The forces in the rakers should be evaluated, the rakers designed accordingly,
stiffened where appropriate and, if necessary, fitted with supplementary couplers.
The internal restraining scaffold should be designed to cater for the resulting horizontal forces and be adequately
locked into the building to prevent inward and outward movement.
In Figure 3.4, the needle transom should rest on the sill and be fitted with internal and external bridle tubes, as shown.
Wherever possible the stability of the scaffold should not be solely dependent on friction.
In Figure 3.5, the truss-out should be capable of resisting any distortion due to the vertical reactions and the inward
and outward horizontal forces.
The points of application of the vertical load to the building should be padded. The shape and spread of the pads
should be agreed between the designer and the building owner or his engineer and inserted on site as detailed. The
vertical forces on the building should be taken at the location of the vertical tubes on the pads.
3.6.4 Supported scaffold
The supported access scaffold should be tied and braced as normal but ensuring that the first level of ties is at the
first floor level above the truss-out.
3.6.5 Single deck truss-outs
Where a single deck truss-out utilizing window openings is required, the form of construction detailed in Figure 3.3
is suitable. If the clear span between truss-outs exceeds 2.75 m an intermediate triangular frame should be used, as
shown.
3.6.6 Safety during erection and dismantling
The erection and dismantling of a truss-out scaffold is potentially more hazardous than a similar scaffold founded
on the ground. Therefore the operations should be carefully planned and a method statement agreed by all relevant
parties before any work is done on site. The following points are worthy of special consideration:
• The truss-out should be complete and fully secured to the permanent structure before attempting to erect the
access scaffold;
• Safety nets may be required;
• A working platform will normally be required at the top of the truss-out level designed to allow the access
scaffold standards to be safely erected;
• The first lift above the truss out should be securely braced and tied to the permanent structure before
proceeding further.
71
3.7 Power line crossings and other protection scaffolds
Power line crossings and other protection scaffolds typically consist of a pair of long, narrow towers suitable for the
duty to be performed with a net or tube mattress spanning between them. They are frequently maintained in position
by guys at either side as illustrated by Figures 3.6 and 3.7.
This type of structure is quite stable when completed but during construction, which may take several days, the tower
may be unstable because of wind forces before the guys are fixed if it is not adequately stabilized temporarily.
Vehicle impact barriers may be required when power line crossings and other protection scaffolds are adjacent to
roads and/or motorways. The Highways Agency or relevant local authorities should be consulted on the level of
protection to be adopted.
Where specified horizontal forces are to be resisted in addition to wind forces, the tower structures should be
plan braced so that those forces may be distributed along the length of the structure and subsequently distributed
between the guys and anchors.
When the cross wires maintaining the protection sheeting or nets are on the skew, the guys should be on the same
skew.
Direction of pull
One turn of cable
Vertical bracing occurs around ledger
every other standard
If no wires are possible
here this tower should
Standard method be buttressed instead
of anchorage of being guyed
Varies
1.8m CRS Soleplate
(a) Side elevation (b) Side elevation
Figure 3.6 – Small power line crossing
Figure 31. Small power line crossing
Wires at 3.0m centres max.

(See note 2)
Catenary wires guided but
not fixed to central column
Guy wires
Typical side
scaffold and
buttress
Purpose made
central support
Concrete block
Verge Hard Carriageway Carriageway Hard Verge

Screwed - in shoulder shoulder Screwed - in
ground anchors ground anchors
Figure 3.7 – Power line crossing over motorway
Note 1. Catenary wires should not be connected rigidly to centre columns.

Note 2. Catenary wires should be securely fixed to the inside top ledger with a short wire and 3 bulldog grips.
NOTE 1. Catenary wires should not be connected rigidly to centre columns.

NOTE 2. Catenary wires should be securely fixed to the inside top ledger with a short wire and 3 bulldog grips.
Figure 32. Power line crossing over motorway
72 xx
3.8 Masts, lighting towers and transmission towers
3.8.1 General
Masts, lighting towers and transmission towers are constructed in similar fashion to fixed external towers, but they
usually differ in the height to base ratio for which values up to 30 are sometimes required by local circumstances.
Some of the special requirements that should be taken into consideration in design are given in Clauses 3.8.2 to
3.8.10.
3.8.2 Loading
The vertical loading and self-weight may be less significant than the loads resulting from wind and other horizontal
forces.
Large overturning moments are usually encountered which result in large loads in the legs, both in tension and in
compression. The lift heights should be determined to accommodate the thrust in the legs. The strength of the joints
on the tension side of the structure may be the limiting factor to the height and exposure to wind.
Wind loads should be calculated.
3.8.3 Foundations
The foundations should be designed to resist the forces and moments transmitted to them from the tower. Where
guys are provided, allowance should be made for flexing of the tower before the guys take up their load.
Driven tubes or similar anchors embedded in the ground may not be adequate on their own. To improve the restraint
provided by the anchors they may be embedded in a concrete foundation block. Alternatively, it may be necessary to
embed the whole of the lowest level of lacing tubes in order to provide adequate stability.
3.8.4 Guys
Guys and appropriate anchorages are usually required and should be in accordance with Clause 3.9.4. The vertical
forces in the standards resulting from the guy tensions should be taken into account.
3.8.5 Standards
The joints in standards should be formed using sleeve couplers, lapped or secured by shear pins, where necessary.
3.8.6 Ledgers and transoms
The ledgers and transoms of unboarded lifts should be fixed to the standards with right angle couplers. Intermediate
transoms on boarded lifts may be fixed to the ledgers.
3.8.7 Bracing
Zigzag bracing and in some cases cross bracing to all faces should be fixed to the extended ledgers and transoms
using right angle couplers.
The forces in the bracing, particularly in the lower lifts, may be in excess of the safe working load of the right angle
couplers, in which case supplementary couplers or shear pins should be used at each end of the braces.
3.8.8 Cladding
Sheeting or debris netting should not be used unless the forces on it have been taken into account in the calculations.
The vertical surface area of all attachments should be kept to a minimum.
It is preferable that, after fixing the equipment, which the tower supports, the boarded decks and ladders and any
vertical sheeting are removed for the life of the tower.
3.8.9 Icing
In exposed locations, the effect of the accumulation of ice on towers and long guys should be taken into account.
Steps should be taken to prevent water accumulating inside the tubes.
3.8.10 Access
Access may be provided by ladders built into the mast with landings in accordance with Clause 2.1.10.
73
3.9 Kentledge, guys and struts for free standing scaffolding
3.9.1 General
All types of freestanding structures depend for their stability against overturning either on their self-weight or on
additional guys, anchors, outriggers or kentledge.
The factor of safety for scaffold structures, i.e. the ratio of the righting moment to the overturning moment, should
be not less than 1.5. The overturning moment is due to eccentric weight and imposed and environmental loads. The
righting moment is due to the self-weight, if suitably centred, added kentledge and the anchor, guy or strut forces, if
any.
3.9.2 Kentledge
Kentledge may be provided in the form of concrete blocks supported on the ground but connected to the relevant
adjacent standards with taut wire rope and fittings capable of sustaining the weight of the kentledge. Alternatively
kentledge may be loaded onto a foot lift designed to transmit the loads to the relevant standards and their
foundations. If castors are used, their capacity to take the extra load should be checked.
Kentledge should preferably be of solid construction. However, if it is made up of materials that can flow, e.g., water
or sand, then the container should be of a construction that will not lead to catastrophic loss of kentledge if the
container is ruptured, e.g. it should be containerised so that a rupture can only lead to loss of [20%] of kentledge.
3.9.3 Anchors
3.9.3.1 General
Anchor capacities are dependent on ground conditions and reference should be made to the designer for the
type, number and location of anchors. Where proprietary ground anchors are used the recommendations of the
manufacturer or in accredited installer should be followed and a certificate of safe or ultimate loading obtained. In all
cases a sufficient number of pull-out tests should be carried out on site to verify the design statistically.
Four types of anchorage are in common use as described in Clauses 3.9.3.2 to 3.9.3.5 and illustrated by Figure 3.8.
3.9.3.2 Cross tubes attached to a foot lift
Temporary stability of large structures during construction and permanent stability of small structures may be
achieved by using cross tube anchors attached directly to the bottom of the structure as shown in Figure 3.8 a.
The forces involved should be calculated and the necessary number of anchors inserted. The necessary number of
supplementary couplers should be added to the base frame of the structure and the tensions in the standards catered
for by sleeve couplers or, where necessary, lapped joints with parallel couplers.
3.9.3.3 Driven tube anchors attached to guys
Driven tube anchors can be used with as many tubes as required as shown in Figure 3.8 b. Tubes are typically about
1.75 m long and penetrate 1.25 m into the ground. They should be fixed together with tubes and fittings connected
with right angle fittings in preference to lashings. The tubes should be set at right angles to the guy.
The guy should be attached at the bottom of the front tube and prevented from slipping by means of a scaffold fitting.
Driven tube anchors should not be used on a down slope towards the structure. They can be used in clay, sandy or
gravelly ground. Special sliding driving hammers are available. Users should refer to designers’ and manufacturers’
literature for number, type and location.
3.9.3.4 Screwed-in flight anchors
Two sizes of screwed in flight anchors are available, approximately 200 mm and 300 mm diameter as shown in Figure
3.8 c. They are set approximately in line with the guy and are screwed in using a short length of scaffold tube through
the ring.
They will not penetrate so deeply on an uphill slope towards the guy and allowance for this should be made.
3.9.3.5 Plate and pin anchors
Plate and pin anchors are used where the ground is too stony or has shattered rock, limestone or chalk near the
surface and are illustrated in Figure 3.8 d.
74 xx
Ground level
45° 1.25m
approx approx
a) Cross tubes
A
Bulldog grips
Tensioning device
Thimble
Maximum angle
45° but preferably Rigging screw
considerably less
Tube should be ‘D’ shackle

Eye bolt
driven into
ground at
least 1.25m
View at A
b) Driven tube anchor c) Screwed in flight anchor
d) Plate and pin anchor
Figure 3.8 – Anchors
Various types of plate are permissible; the example shown is a length from a 100 × 100 mm rolled steel angle.
The pins are driven in at right angles to the guy. Anchors should be set so that the guys are flatter than 40° to the
horizontal.
For square towers, a separate anchor should be provided for each corner. For anchoring long towers, it is
advantageous to fix a ground ledger through all the anchors so that each can supplement the others if required.
3.9.4 Guys
Guys for temporary scaffolding structures should be of 10 mm or 12 mm diameter wire rope, which should be
attached to the scaffolding structure and to the ground tube or anchor by a single round turn and a minimum of three
bulldog grips. The recommended safety factor for guy ropes is 3.
Normally guys should be tensioned so that the slack is just removed. If the guys are fairly steep, e.g. 50° to the
75
horizontal, they can usually be adequately tightened by hand or with the aid of a scaffold tube lever. When this cannot
be achieved, a winch or turnbuckle should be used. No tensioning device should be pulled up too tightly, since the
force required to pull a wire guy tight results in very considerable tension being placed on the ground anchorage and
the structure before it has been loaded with the wind forces.
When guys are designed to be pre-stressed, a means of measuring the force in the guy may need to be incorporated.
Where guys are used to maintaining safety nets in position, the tension forces may rise to a large value and must be
opposed by compressive forces in certain of the standards which are transmitted to the ground as added load. This
load path should be taken into account in designing the structure.
Where guys are necessary they should be attached to node points in the structure. Plan bracing should be fitted at
the same level as the guy connections.
If guys are being placed on one side of a structure to resist a force not yet applied on the other side, the structure
should be made stable against the guy force until the balancing force comes into play.
3.9.5 Stabilisers
A scaffold tube may be used in tension as a stabiliser provided that the necessary numbers of safety fittings are used
to attach it at each end. The length of such a scaffold tube should be calculated. Intermediate bracing of the stabiliser
may be required.
It is recommended that all external free standing structures subject to wind pressures be strutted with tubes at least
temporarily and if the structures are of low height the tubes may be left in place as stabilisers.
3.10 Slung and suspended scaffolds
3.10.1 General
A slung scaffold consists of a working platform suspended at a fixed height below a permanent structure using tube
and fittings. Where the method of suspension is by lifting gear and wire ropes, which are provided with the means
of raising or lowering when in use, then the scaffold is classified as a suspended scaffold and, reference should be
made to BS 5974. Typical examples are shown in Figure 3.9.
Handrails to perimeter of deck connect Protection softening 3 round turns

to wire by purpose made fitting or to to be fixed at all and 3 bulldog
handrail puncheon from extended edges to grips
ledger transom complete with toe boards protect wires
Max. grid of wires

2.1 x 2.1m
38 mm boards
Alternatives
m
Wire 1.5
Bracing x.
Ma CRS
For end conditions like this

add a coupler as check to
prevent wire slip or fit wire
to inside of transom.
3 round turns
of wire and 3
bulldog grips
(a) Light duty scaffold suspended on wires
Figure 3.9 – Suspended and slung working and protection scaffolds

76 xx
B
See note 1 C.C. A
C.C. C.C.
C.C. C.C. C.C. C.C. C.C. C.C. C.C.
C.C.
Right angle
coupler
Guardrails
Section Section
A-A B-B
C.C. C.C. C.C. C.C. C.C.

Preferred C.C. A
method of Ladder Plan C.C. C.C. C.C.
hanger tube beam brace
fixing C.C. C.C. C.C.
alternative
C.C. C.C.
C.C. C.C. C.C.
C.C. C.C.
C.C. B
Lower C.C. C.C. C.C.

platform Trapeze tubes C.C. = Check Coupler
(b) Scaffolding slung from joists
(b) Scaffolding slung from joints.

Figure 35 (continued) A
Girder
Walkway
Check Upper platform
coupler
C.C. C.C. C.C. C.C. C.C.

C.C. C.C.
Detail D
Lower platform
C.C. C.C. C.C. C.C.

C.C. C.C.
Check Section A-A
coupler
A
C.C. = Check Coupler
Detail B
90° (C) Scaffold slung on tubes
90° Coupler Couplers
Girder flange
(c) Scaffolding slung from girders
(c) Scaffolding slung from girders.

Figure 35 (concluded)
77
Note: lifting gear means a chain sling or wire rope sling attached to rings, links, hooks, girder clamps, shackles,
swivels, eye bolts or rope eyes fixed to the permanent structure.
3.10.2 Loading
The design imposed load adopted in the calculations should not be less than Service Class 1 at 0.75 kN/m2 and there
may be multiple platforms at this load rating. The hangers should be designed for the design imposed load, but the
decking and platform units should be capable of supporting a minimum of Service Class 2 load of 1.50 kN/m2, but
this shall not apply to the scaffold structure in its entirety where the design load is Service Class 1. Certain areas,
particularly access ways and walkways, will require to be designed for at least a Service Class 2 load of 1.50 kN/m2.
Slung and suspended scaffolds also need to be designed to resist a notional horizontal working load acting at all
levels where the working area is loaded. For each bay or area between supports, this load shall be not less than 2.5%
of the total distributed design imposed load or 0.3 kN whichever is the greater.
3.10.3 Dimensions
The plan dimensions of the scaffold will generally be governed by the spacing of the members from which the decks
hang. Special attention should be given to the supporting capacity of the transoms and ledgers and the dimensions of
the bays should be defined accordingly.
3.10.4 Design
Figure 35 shows typical constructional details of slung and suspended scaffolds. However these details are indicative
only and all slung and suspended scaffolds should be specifically designed for their particular location and service
requirements .
3.10.5 Method of scaffold suspension
If the hangers are scaffold tubes, they should be assembled using right angle couplers and the necessary number of
supplementary couplers fixed at each end. A check coupler should be used at each end of the hanger. The effect of
any inclination of suspension tubes should be taken into account. Sleeve couplers or joint pins should not be used for
vertical axial joints unless the joint is also lapped.
If the slinging is on wire ropes, these should have a factor of safety of 6 and be fixed to the suspension point and the
scaffold by three round turns and three bulldog grips or by using an eye and a shackle capable of carrying the loads
safely.
All lifting gear and means of suspension should be thoroughly inspected before and after it is installed and
subsequently as required by the statutory Regulations.
Suspension wires may be inclined to reduce the span of the grid of tube. The effect of inclination of the suspension
wire needs to be taken into account.
The design of suspended and slung scaffolds should take account of the effects of imposed horizontal loads caused
by the wind or, in the absence of wind, notional loads.
3.10.6 Suspension points
Any suspension point, member or attachment should be specially designed and formed in such a way that it cannot
become dislodged or displaced by oscillations of the slung scaffold.
The designer should ensure that the suspension points are strong enough to support the vertical and lateral loads and
have a suitable factor of safety.
3.10.7 Couplers
Tubes supporting the boards should be fixed to the ledgers with right angle couplers.
3.10.8 Decking
The platform should be in accordance with Clauses 2.1.8 or 2.3.8 as appropriate.
3.10.9 Bracing
Slung and suspended scaffolds should be prevented from swaying either by tying to the main structure or bracing.
The bracing should be capable of transmitting the notional horizontal loads (see Clause 3.10.2) or wind loads from the
platform area to suitable restraints. (See Figure 3.9 for typical examples.)
78 xx
3.11 Pedestrian bridges and walkways
Pedestrian bridges and walkways are frequently of box type construction with overhead and under deck bracing.
All pedestrian bridges and walkways should be specifically designed for their particular location and service
requirements.
3.12 Temporary ramps and elevated roadways
Temporary access ramps and elevated roadways may be constructed with scaffolding components.
All vehicle ramps and elevated roadways should be specifically designed for their particular location and service
requirements
3.13 Mechanical hoists
Mechanical hoists are items of proprietary equipment designed to convey materials or personnel to different lifts on
the scaffold.
Mechanical hoists are not usually self-supporting and require connections to the building to ensure their operational
effectiveness. For preference these connections should be made directly to the building. If this is not reasonably
practicable and the connection is made to the scaffold, this part of the scaffold must be specifically designed to take
into account the additional loads imposed by the hoist. The supplier of the hoist is responsible for specifying these
additional loads. Such loads may have both static and dynamic components of significant magnitude.
3.14 Lifting gantries
3.14.1 General
Figure 3.10 shows a typical lifting gantry constructed from scaffold components. The load is lifted between the two
scaffold towers, which are held and kept apart by the cross head members carrying the lifting beam. The gantry
shown has a continuous runway beam but fixed lifting points may also be catered for. Cantilever lifting gantries
should be avoided if possible. All lifting gantries should be specifically designed for their particular location and
service requirements.
Lifting gantries are subject to the requirements of the LOLER Regulations. The safe working load should be displayed.
A lifting gantry is usually a free standing structure and the design should ensure that it is stable in use under all
feasible load combinations. Computer aided structural analysis software can be an invaluable aid to determining and
visualising the forces and deflections of the structure.
3.14.2 Loading
The towers and the cross head should be capable of carrying both the lifted load and the horizontal surge forces
resulting from it. Consideration should also be given to the horizontal and vertical impact loads. BS EN 1991-3
provides loading information for cranes.
3.14.3 Cross head
The cross head may consist of a prefabricated beam or a built up beam of scaffold materials. In either case the height
of the towers should be such that rakers to the cross head can be installed.
Multiple tube cross heads, consisting of two or more transoms side by side, may be used.
Alternatively, two tubes mounted in parallel one above the other may be suitable.
3.14.4 Towers
The standards should be vertical, pitched on base plates and prevented from being vibrated off them.
79
Keep to minimum Stop end on runway beam
Clearance to allow
for lifting tackle
and for runway
beam
Headroom
Longitudinal bracing
Ledger braces minimum requirement
to all bays shown here and on
end elevation
All standards to have base
End elevation Part side elevation plates on timber sole
plates, where necessary
Plan bracing, minimum
requirements at top and
lift immediately below
Plan bracing at top
Runway beam connected

to support tubes by suitably
designed clamps
Plan view
Figure 3.10 – Typical lifting gantry

Figure 36. Typical lifting gantry
The ledgers and transoms should be fixed to the standards with right angle couplers at lift heights that are
determined by the load-carrying capacity of the standards and consideration of safe erection practice.
The design of the standards should take into account the fact that a large percentage of the load in each tower will be
carried by the inside leg.
3.14.5 Traffic fenders
Traffic fenders should be installed between the towers if vehicles are to use the gantry.
3.14.6 Bracing
The towers should be fully braced. Bracing is usually required on every pair of standards.
When the forces in the raker and the ledger bracing in the tower demand it, the necessary supplementary couplers
should be installed. Note that loads in bracing may reverse but supplementary couplers act only in one direction.
When the transverse surge force is sufficiently large, the tower ledger bracing may need to be extended outwards to
form a buttress with extended transom foot ties.
3.15 Temporary buildings and temporary roofs
A temporary building is a sheeted structure designed to provide cover for an area. It may stand on the ground or on
top of a building or be an extension of a scaffold around a building. It may have fully sheeted walls and roof, only a
roof or a roof with skirts.
These structures are outside the scope of TG20 so reference should be made to the NASC publication TG 9: Guide to
the Design and Construction of Temporary Roofs and Buildings. At the time of writing a new European standard for
temporary enclosures BS EN 16508 is in preparation.
80 xx
3.16 Spectator terraces and seating stands
3.16.1 General
Spectator terraces and seating stands form temporary accommodation for spectators and can be classified into
standing terraces and seating stands. Either type may be covered or open. They are essentially stepped platforms
of boards or special components resting on a tubular framework. The going and the rise of the steps are critical
dimensions which should be determined at an early stage in the design process.
For seating stands, the seats may be separate or in bench form and the space allocation per seat should be
determined early in the design.
There are many prefabricated units available to facilitate efficient modular construction. These units may be used on a
base framework of tube and fittings or on prefabricated scaffold frames.
Attention is drawn to the Institution of Structural Engineers publication ‘Temporary demountable structures’ (Third
edition - 2007) which is the principal source of guidance for design and construction.
3.16.2 Loading
The loadings adopted in calculations for the platform should be in accordance with Table 3.1. For further information
concerning loadings for protective barriers such as handrails, reference should be made to BS 6180:1999.
Wind loading should also be considered, with reference to the recommendations of BS EN 1991-1-4.
3.16.3 Guys and anchors
When the stand is covered and subject to large wind forces, guys and anchors may be required. These should be
adequate to withstand the calculated forces, especially the force of the wind entering the stand from the front and
being impeded by both the roof and the rear wall skirt.
On sloping ground, the framework should be secured against slipping down the slope. Driven tube anchors in
crossed pairs coupled to the foot ties at suitable intervals will usually suffice. These foot tie anchors should be
adequate to cater for the forces from the wind blowing on the rear of the stand and being impeded by the stepped
deck. Any anchors and guys used should be constructed in accordance with Clause 3.9.3.
3.16.4 Foundations
Sole boards should be used for foundations and on sloping ground these should be dug in flat. On uneven ground,
individual short sole plates will be more convenient than continuous sole boards, requiring less excavation and
preparation of the ground. In other respects the guidance in Clause 2.1.3, Appendix E and in the TG20 Operational
Guide chapter 5 is applicable.
3.16.5 Standards
Standards should be pitched on base plates and be of such a length that they do not protrude through the decking at
the top.
Ledgers and transoms should be fixed to the standards with right angle couplers, except for the foot lift and the top
lift on which the transoms may be fixed to the ledgers.
A foot lift should always be fixed and this may be inclined to follow sloping ground.
Table 3.1 – Loading for show stands and places of assembly
Structure Loading kN/m2
Show stands (sitting accommodation) 4.00
Show stands (standing accommodation) 5.00
Access corridors, stairs and ramps 5.00
In addition to the wind load, the scaffold structure should be designed to resist a notional horizontal load of 10% of the
vertical imposed load. This is considered a Category 3 grandstand specified in BS 6399-1.
81
3.16.7 Bracing
Spectator stands are subject to large horizontal surges in addition to wind forces. Bracing should be provided in both
directions to accommodate the notional horizontal forces in addition to the wind loads. The bracing should be fixed
to the ledgers and transoms with right angle couplers, at one level whenever possible, and should be fixed to the foot
lift.
3.16.8 Decking
The decking may be of special units or of scaffold boards, in which case they should be supported in accordance with
Clause 2.1.8.
Steps in corridors between seats or terraced stands should preferably have a rise between 100 mm and 250 mm and
should be of consistent height.
Landings, horizontal areas and access bridges should be fitted with principal and intermediate guardrails and toe
boards. The principal guardrail should be at least 1100 mm above the platform level. At the ends of the stands,
guardrails with intermediate rails or other protection should be provided to give a maximum vertical gap of not more
than 470 mm. The decking and seats should be of smooth clean timber or other suitable material, which will not cause
a hazard. The grouping and spacing of seats should comply with the requirements of the appropriate authority.
3.16.9 Couplers and fittings
Couplers and fittings should be clean and free from burrs and paint which might injure persons or damage clothing.
3.17 Temporary storage on site
3.17.1 General
Racking for the storage of goods or of building or scaffolding materials is usually designed and constructed in the
form of a birdcage of scaffold tube with bay lengths and lift heights suitable to the size and nature of the goods to be
stored.
3.17.2 Loading
The weight and quantity of the goods to be stored should be agreed with the user.
The weight to be stored in any bay should preferably be less than the amount that would overload single fittings so as
to avoid a multiplicity of supplementary couplers which would impact on labour and supervision.
To allow for the dynamic effects of mechanical loading, an additional factor of 25 % should be allowed on the
maximum individual vertical load to be deposited. To take account of the dynamic effect of a load from an individual
item moving horizontally, an equivalent static force of 10 % of the weight of the item, acting in any feasible direction
should be considered in the design. Note that these dynamic allowances apply to the largest deposited load which is
not necessarily or usually the total stored load
The design should take account of the wind force on the racking, including any sheeting cover, and its contents.
3.17.3 Foundations
Because of the heavy loads frequently occurring in racking, the foundations should be specially designed. However
reference may be made to TG20 Operational Guide chapter 5 for general good practice and to Clauses 2.1.3 and
Appendix E of this Design Guide for engineering principles.
3.17.4 Standards
The standards should be pitched on base plates and not deviate from the vertical by more than 5 mm in 3 m.
In most rack arrangements, the tubes which are parallel to the front of the rack receive the weight of the goods stored
and therefore should be connected to the standards above the tubes running from front to back so that the fittings on
these latter tubes will act as supplementary couplers.
Obviously the opposite can be true and the scaffold should be detailed accordingly so that the main load bearing
horizontals are connected immediately above tubes which are non load bearing or more lightly loaded.
82 xx
Both the ledgers and structural transoms should be fixed directly to the standards with right angle couplers.
Supplementary fittings may be required.
3.17.6 Bracing
Bracing should be fixed in two directions in a quantity that will be adequate to resist impact and be commensurate
with the method of loading. It should be able to withstand at least 5% of the load capacity of the rack. Where it is
not acceptable to place bracing continuously across the face of the rack, it may be concentrated in particular bays,
e.g. every fifth bay, bearing in mind that the forces in shorter braced bay standards are higher than with continuous
bracing.
3.17.7 Plan bracing
Plan bracing is particularly important in racking to distribute impact forces generated during loading and unloading.
It is recommended that plan braces be inserted at vertical intervals of approximately 3m. They should be fitted as
closely as practical to the underside of the racking.
3.17.8 Fenders
Where mechanical loading is to be used, the provision of fenders and bollards at the appropriate places should be
agreed with the user.
3.17.9 Attachment of racking to other structures
Racking should generally be in small units separated by access corridors. Each unit should be tied to a permanent
structure, if this can be arranged and agreed with the user. If no restraint by a permanent structure is available, the
resistance of the racking frame to sway and possible uplift and overturning should be considered.
3.17.10 Slab and post racks
Racks for storing slabs on edge, e.g. pre-cast concrete facing slabs for buildings, or columns or posts vertically,
should preferably be designed so that the material stored remains vertical and cannot be placed inclined against the
rack.
The ends of the rack should be fenced off so that goods cannot be stored leaning on the end.
3.17.11 Racking roofs
Racking installations are frequently used for supporting temporary roofs to cover the storage area. The combination of
wind forces, the roof self-weight and the weight of the stored material usually results in high loads in both the vertical
and horizontal directions. Proper account should be taken of these loads and reference made to TG 9: Guide to the
Design and Construction of Temporary Roofs and Buildings.
3.18 Hoardings and fences
Nowadays see-through temporary fencing is usually assembled from proprietary components. Smaller opaque
fences up to 2.4 m height can usually be constructed economically with steel or concrete posts embedded and if
necessary concreted into the ground. However tube and fitting scaffolding remains eminently suitable for the framing
of larger temporary fences, hoardings and signboards.
3.18.1 General
Scaffold framing for fences and hoardings usually consists of raker or buttress transverse frames positioned at
intervals linked by horizontal members and longitudinal bracing on the front and rear faces. The cladding panels are
attached to the front face horizontals which may be tubes or ladder beams ‘laid on side’ depending on the wind load
magnitude and their span.
3.18.2 Loading
The principal loading effect is wind blowing on the front or rear face of the cladding tending to cause overturning of
the transverse frames. Consideration should also be given to wind forces acting parallel to the cladding which may
be maximum when the wind blows at an oblique angle being the sum of frictional drag and the vector component of
the direct force. BS EN 1991-1-4 and the UK Annex thereto provide guidance for calculating wind loads. In particular
section 7.4 of BS EN 1991-1-4 provides force coefficients for fencing and signboards in various situations. Hoardings
and fences erected indoors are not necessarily completely shielded from wind loading. Consideration should be given
to the possibility of internal wind flow due to dominant openings in the building cladding forming either intentionally
or accidentally. A minimum velocity pressure of 0.1 kN/m2 is advisable in the absence of any greater calculated wind
83
loading.
A minimum horizontal line load of 0.74 kN/m should be considered to act from either side of the hoarding at 1.2 m
above ground as defined in BS 6180:2011 table 2. For areas potentially subject to crowd loading a higher horizontal
load should be considered acting from the public side as defined in BS 6180 table 2 or in the case of spectator
accommodation refer to BS EN 13200-3:2005.
The weight of the cladding may be significant and therefore potentially helpful to resist overturning due to wind on
the front face but not the rear.
3.18.3 Design issues
Careful attention should be given to the connections of the cladding to the supporting scaffolding members. They
must be adequate to resist both tension due to wind blowing on the back of the cladding, shear due to wind force
parallel to the cladding and to transmit the cladding self weight to the scaffolding.
Depending on the characteristics of the cladding and the spacing between transverse frames it may be necessary to
provide anti-sag bracing to transmit the cladding self weight to the transverse frames.
The most important design issue is to prevent overturning due to wind blowing on the front or rear face of the
cladding. The calculated factor of safety against overturning should be at least 1.50.
In most if not all cases, foundations must resist both vertical tension/uplift and compression. The foundation in
compression will need to simultaneously provide resistance to horizontal forces.
Typical foundation solutions are:
• Kentledge with sole boards;

• Ground anchors with sole boards;
• Stub standards/rakers encased in a mass concrete foundation;
• Bolted connections to an existing structural concrete ground slab or permanent superstructure capable of
resisting the loads.
The foundation solution should be discussed and agreed with the client before implementation. Ease of dismantling
and site restoration may be as important as efficiency of erection.
If ladder beams are used the manufacturers’ guidance for lateral restraint should be followed, bearing in mind that the
dominant wind loads are fully reversible.
Reference to Temporary Works Forum publication TWF 2012-01 Hoardings – a guide to good practice is
recommended.
84 xx This page is intentionally left blank.

Structural design of tube and fitting scaffolds 4 85
4.1 Structural characteristics

of tube and fitting
scaffolds 86
4.2 Design loads 87
4.3Load combinations &

‘limit state design’ 100
4.4Overall structural
behaviour of tied façade
access scaffolds 104
4.5Overall structural
behaviour of untied
scaffolds 108
SECTION 4 I Structural design of tube and fitting scaffolds
86 Structural design of tube and fitting scaffolds

4.1 Structural characteristics of tube and fitting scaffolds
At first sight it may seem that scaffolds constructed from tubes and fittings can be analysed and designed making
assumptions and structural models similar to those used for other framed structures. However there are important
points of difference which need to be taken into account to avoid misleading results and either unsafe or over-
conservative designs. The most notable issues are discussed briefly below and where necessary in more detail in
later sections.
4.1.1 Slenderness
Most scaffold structures and their individual members are more slender than typical building and plant frameworks. It
is therefore important to take into account the stability effects of slenderness either directly by second-order P-delta
computer analysis or by allowances in hand calculations such as effective length factors.
4.1.2 Connections
The majority of connections between members in steel building and plant frameworks are co-axial, in-plane and
relatively rigid in translation - if not always in rotation. Many system scaffolds are similar. By contrast, the coupler
connections between scaffold tubes normally allow the members to pass each other so they are neither co-axial nor
co-planar and they have much more limited stiffness and strength properties than common steelwork connections.
4.1.2.1 Connection eccentricity
The bending moments generated by coupler eccentricity out-of-plane are very small and can be neglected in
hand calculations. However, larger ‘in-plane’ eccentricities are unavoidable e.g. where bracings are connected to
standards with swivel couplers to avoid clashing between adjacent couplers. Eccentricities less than 100 mm must
be considered impracticable and it is established practice in access scaffolding to allow up to 300 mm eccentricity
between the centres of all adjacent couplers and this should be catered for in practical structural design in situations
where the resultant bending moments are likely to be significant (e.g. at the lowest lift standards where façade
bracing is connected with a swivel coupler).
4.1.2.2 Connection strength
All the common couplers for use with scaffold tubes rely on friction grip to transmit axial and shear forces between
tubes. The friction grip is generated by clamping the coupler ‘flap’ or ‘sleeve’ against the tube by means of tightening
an M 12 or M 14 bolt. The resultant class A right angle or swivel coupler resistance to slip is only about 30% of the
axial buckling resistance of a typical façade bracing tube. Similarly slip resistance may limit the vertical load capacity
of a ledger connected to a supporting standard.
4.1.2.3 Connection stiffness
At the ledger to standard connection formed with a right angle (R A) coupler, the ledger and the standard are each
continuous members but they can rotate semi-independently. The partial fixity between the ledger and standard
provided by the coupler is usually called its cruciform stiffness. This is an important property which is discussed in
more detail in 5.7.3.1, 5.9 and Appendix G.28. Similar but lesser cruciform stiffness is provided by the putlog couplers
connecting board transoms to the supporting ledgers. Swivel couplers connecting bracing members to standards
obviously have no cruciform stiffness. In addition to the above rotational stiffness characteristics, scaffold couplers
have finite translational stiffnesses. The coupler stiffness characteristics and eccentricities influence the buckling
behaviour of the connected members expressed as their effective lengths as discussed in 5.7.
4.1.3 Dominant dead load
Self-weight and other dead loads usually form a large proportion (typically 75%) of the design load supported by the
scaffolding standards. It is therefore important to calculate the effects due to self-weight and added dead loads as
accurately as is practical. However, the practicalities of construction dictate that scaffold tubes are often significantly
longer than strictly necessary. The dominance of dead load and its variability may be one of the reasons that
EN 12811-1 diverges from the main structural Eurocodes to apply an ‘adverse’ partial safety factor of 1.50 instead of
1.35 for self-weight and dead loads in load combinations at the ultimate limit states.
4.1.4 Horizontal supports
Most façade access scaffolds are characteristically slender width-wise and highly reliant on external horizontal
supports provided by multiple anchorages to the permanent structure. These supports are commonly termed ‘ties’
implying tension but they usually also act in compression and shear. Consequently the behaviour of tied façade
scaffolds under wind loading is quite different from most building and plant frames which are free-standing. In tall
tied façade scaffolds the wind load paths to the façade anchorages are shorter and stiffer than the bracing load paths
which take a secondary role. This is true for wind forces both normal and parallel to the façade.
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4.1.5 Foundations
Concrete foundations with mechanical connections designed to resist uplift and overturning are the normal provision
for permanent steel structures but relatively rare in scaffolding. Façade access scaffolds in particular have always
been erected on ‘loose’ baseplates and timber sole boards which provide no resistance to uplift. In structural analysis
the base supports for scaffold standards should be normally considered to be pinned compression-only supports.
Some of them will ‘lift off’ under the tension forces arising under some out-of-service wind load combinations. This
affects the distribution of forces in the structure but should not be considered as a ‘failure’ provided that the structure
as a whole remains stable . This can be taken into account and tested by iterative structural analysis as described in
5.7.3.4. By contrast, those scaffold structures which are free standing frequently require the provision of kentledge or
other means of foundation anchorage to prevent overturning under out-of-service wind load combinations.
4.2 Design loads
The loads (actions) to be considered in the design of access scaffold structures are defined in section 6.2 of
EN 12811-1 in terms of their characteristic or ‘working’ values. As in the main structural Eurocodes, they are classified
as:
a. Permanent loads including the self-weight of the scaffold structure and any cladding applied thereto.
In UK traditional practice these loads are called dead loads.
b. Variable loads which may be subdivided into:

i. Vertical imposed loads applied to the platforms or working areas
ii. Vertical and horizontal imposed loads applied to guardrails, toe boards etc.
iii. ‘Notional’ horizontal loads applied to each working platform level to ensure adequate lateral stability and
robustness in circumstances when wind loads are insignificant.
iv. Wind loads
v. Snow and ice loads
c. Accidental loads.
4.2.1 Permanent (dead) loads
The weights of common scaffolding materials and components may be taken from table 5.1. Refer to BS EN 1991-1-1
Annex A for other materials and components.
The weight of couplers is not insignificant and, if not included individually in structural analysis models, appropriate
allowances should be made. Table 5.2 provides useful data.
4.2.1.1 Overhangs and projections
Due to the practicalities of coupler connections and stock tube lengths, transoms and bracings are always longer than
the net length between coupler centres, sometimes considerably longer. 100 to 200 mm projections are common.
Computer analysis models which do not include members representing these projections will underestimate self-
weight loads unless equivalent allowances are made. For example 100 mm transom overhangs at 1.2 m centres can
be modelled by increasing the self-weight of the supporting ledger by 8.5 %. This does not significantly affect the load
on the ledger but the accumulated effect to the standards is significant. Similarly allowing for the typically greater
projections of bracings connected with swivel couplers leads to 12 to 15 % adjustments to their self-weight.
However it is equally important not to overestimate the dead load in load combinations where it is a ‘favourable load’
or restoring force. A valid case can therefore be made for ignoring the extra load of tube over-length projections
on the basis that it is taken care of in the generous 1.50 partial safety factor for dead load required by EN 12811-1
compared with 1.35 in the main structural code EN 1990.
4.2.2 Variable loads other than wind loads
4.2.2.1 Vertical imposed loads applied to working areas and access routes
4.2.2.1.1 Designation of façade access scaffolds

The 2005 edition of TG20 introduced a convenient short form three digit designation which is retained in this guide
e.g.: 3-5-2.
The first digit designates the scaffold duty or load class as described below. (Load class 3 in the above example).
The second digit specifies the number of main platform boards contained between the standards. (5 × 225 mm
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nominal width scaffold boards in the above 3-5-2 example). This width designation is more suitable to UK usage than
the width classes defined in clause 5.2 of EN 12811-1. Note that the actual net widths between standards are not
fixed multiples of 225 mm because of the permitted tolerances on width and straightness of scaffold boards and the
usual practice of inserting a toe board between the outer platform board and the standard on one or both sides of the
platform. The third digit specifies the number of inside platform boards placed between the inner standards and the
building face supported on transom cantilever extensions or ‘hop-up’ brackets. (2 boards in the above 3-5-2 example).
4.2.2.1.2 Working areas

Clause 6.1.3 of EN 12811-1 Table 3 defines six load classes but does not assign them to any particular usage thus
leaving scope for interpretation at national level. Accordingly previous editions of TG20 have adopted load classes
1 to 4 for access scaffolds as they are roughly consistent with traditional practice as formerly expressed in BS 5973
table 1. This leads to the values given in table 4.1 below:
Table 4.1 – Service loads on working areas
Load Load duty Typical usage Uniform load Concentrated Concentrated Partial area
class load on area on load on area on load
500 × 500 mm 200 × 200 mm
q1 kN/m2 F1 kN F2 kN q2 kN/m2
1 Inspection and Inspection, painting, 0.75 1.50 1.00 n/a
very light duty light cleaning.
2 Light duty Plastering, rendering, 1.50 1.50 1.00 n/a
pointing, glazing
3 General General building work 2.00 1.50 1.00 n/a
purpose including normal brick,
block and stonework.
4 Heavy duty Heavy duty building 3.00 3.00 1.00 5.00
work with large units
Notes:
1. The above design loads are characteristic or unfactored values.
2. Each working area shall be capable of supporting the various loads q1, q2, F1, F2 separately but not in combination.
Generally the uniform loads q1 (and q2 only where applicable) govern the design of the main structure and are carried down to the
foundations. Concentrated loads F1 and F2 govern the design of the platform units/scaffold boards and transoms only.
3. The above loads are deemed to include for normal reasonable storage of materials and light tools. Heavy storage of materials in
stacks and pallets must be restricted to specially designed and designated loading or storage bays. No storage of materials or
tools is permitted on a load class 1 area.
4. Clause 6.2.2.5 of EN 12811-1 states that “all cantilevered portions of a working area shall be capable of supporting the service
load specified for the main area”. This is very onerous for scaffolds with inside boards and inconsistent with successful
traditional practice in the UK which allows inside board areas to be treated as load class 1 on the presumption that they will
be used only for access with no storage allowed. The TG20 compliant scaffold designs assume load class 1 for inside boards
in accordance with traditional practice. If storage or full service loading is required on the inside boards the structure must be
specially designed accordingly.
5. Clause 6.2.2.1 of EN 12811-1 states that “for working scaffolds of load class 1, all platform units shall be capable of supporting
class 2 service load.” This loading is not required to be carried through to the supporting scaffold structure.
6. Refer to section 4.3 of the current volume for details of how the service loads should be combined with partial safety factors and
appropriate reduction factors to test the design of the main scaffold structure by calculation.
4.2.2.1.3 Access routes
BS EN 12811-1 section 6.2.4 states that except for class 1 scaffolds, horizontal access routes shall be capable at least
class 2 service loading.
For stairways, the landings and treads should be designed for the more unfavourable of:
• 1.00 kN/m2 uniformly distributed;

• 1.50 kN concentrated on 200 × 200 mm.
For design of the supporting structure the uniform load shall be applied on treads and landings within 10 m height.
This rule has been applied to the TG20 compliant designs for ladder towers.
89
4.2.2.1.4 Specific loads
Exceptionally it may be necessary to consider the effects of specific loads rather than just applying the EN 12811-1
service loads. Table 5.3 provides some data which may be useful for this purpose. BS EN 1991-1-1 Annex A provides a
wider range.
4.2.2.1.5 Service loads on birdcage scaffolds

BS EN 12811-1 clause 6.2.2.6 states that the load on the supporting components of a birdcage scaffold shall be
calculated by assuming that the uniformly distributed load q1 specified in table 4.1 acts on an area of maximum 6.0 m2
in combination with a load of 0.75 kN/m2 over the remaining area. This provision is clearly intended to allow for the
low probability of the full service load acting over the whole scaffold simultaneously. It obviously does not affect the
design of birdcages for service class 1. It does not affect the design of standards and other members in birdcages as
typically constructed in the UK with scaffold tube ledgers for which the bay sizes do not approach 6.0 m2. It may affect
the design of birdcages with beams instead of tube ledgers.
BS EN 12811-1 clause 6.2.2.4 has a similar rule for the application of the partial area service load q2. However partial
area loads are only applicable to load class 4 and above which is unlikely for a birdcage scaffold.
4.2.2.1.6 Storage loads

The loading allowance requirements for storage and loading bays should be agreed with the client / main contractor
and recorded in the contract documents. BS EN 1991-1-1 Annex A provides data on densities which may be used
to calculate loose or unpacked storage loads. In many cases building materials are delivered in packs and pallets of
defined weight and dimensions. Brick and block pallets are commonly 1.5 tonnes / 15 kN in weight and approximately
1.2 ×1.0 m in plan. Access is normally required between pallets so it may be possible to agree a maximum of one
pallet per scaffold bay. A TG20 compliant design is available on this basis. Other arrangements require special design.
4.2.2.2 Notional horizontal loads
BS EN 12811-1 clause 6.2.3 states that in the absence of wind the working scaffold shall be capable of supporting a
notional horizontal working load representing [unspecified] operations during use acting at all of the levels where the
working level is loaded.
For each bay considered the notional horizontal load shall be not less than 2.5% of the total of the uniformly
distributed load q1 specified in table 4.1 on that bay or 0.3 kN whichever is the greater. The load shall be applied at the
level of the working area and shall be applied separately along the principal horizontal axes.
This requirement is similar to rules in other recent structural codes of practice which seek to provide:
• A minimum level of horizontal strength and stiffness or resistance to sway;

• Allowance for horizontal dynamic effects associated with the movements of personnel and equipment.
However some of these other codes do not relate their notional or minimum horizontal loads to imposed load but
variously to the dead load or to the total load. Accordingly, although one option for calculating the notional horizontal
load for scaffolding is based on a proportion of the imposed load, it is not considered necessary that the imposed
load should always be present simultaneously with the notional load. The notional horizontal loads should also be
considered to act with dead load only. Refer to 4.3 for load combinations.
In a structural model for frame analysis, the notional horizontal load on a bay may be divided between the nodes or
joints at the four corners of the bay, combining the forces for adjacent bays.
4.2.2.3 Snow and icing loads
If the scaffold will definitely not be in place during the UK winter, loads due to snow and icing can be ignored.
If necessary, loads due to snow can be calculated using BS EN 1991-1-3 and the UK national annex thereto.
Careful consideration should be given to the possibility of drifts forming on a platform or fan due to its configuration
in relation to the adjacent building. The possibility of snow sliding off adjacent roofs should also be considered.
These occurrences may be considered as accidental loads with appropriate partial safety factor applied to the load or
enhanced permissible stresses applied to resistance.
Safety issues normally preclude the use of a scaffold in conditions of snow and ice formation so it is not necessary to
consider snow and service loads acting simultaneously. Snow may lay over the top of storage loads but is unlikely to
be a significant increase in the UK.
Failures have occurred due to the increased wind resistance of slender structures due to icing up. This is a potential
hazard for towers and similar structures in exposed locations in the winter.
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4.2.2.4 Imposed loads applied to side protection components
BS EN 12811-1 section 6.2.5 specifies design loads for side protection components which are intended not only to
ensure safe containment of personnel but general robustness in use:
• A downward vertical load of 1.25 kN applied at any point on a principal or intermediate guardrail. This is classified
as an accidental load so that a reduced partial safety factor may be applied in the relevant ULS load combination
or enhanced permissible stress in a ‘working stress’ design;
• A horizontal service load of 0.3 kN applied to any point on a principal or intermediate guardrail or distributed over
300 × 300 mm on grid-type fencing;
• A horizontal service load of 0.15 kN applied to any point on a toe board;
• An upward vertical load of 0.3 kN applied to any component other than a toe board.
The above loads are purely local to the members concerned and their fixings and are not to be applied to the primary
structure.
Guardrails made of scaffold tube connected with right angle couplers to standards at normal bay length spacing are
adequate to resist the above loads. Toe boards consisting of 38 mm thick scaffold boards on edge fixed in accordance
with the TG20 Operational Guide section 6.16 are also adequate without calculation.
4.2.3 Wind loads
4.2.3.1 General
The procedure for calculating wind loads on scaffolds recommended in this guide is given in BS EN 12811-1
section 6.2.7 and annex A. The following text is intended to explain and amplify the EN procedure. It is applicable to
scaffolds which do not have roof cladding. It does not apply to temporary roofs or building enclosures constructed
of scaffolding which behave differently in the wind and are the subject of guidance in BS EN 1991-1-4 and in the
forthcoming EN 16508. These structures are in any case outside the scope of TG20. However in some circumstances
a scaffold may at different stages be roofed or not roofed for significant periods. Generally the roofed condition will
be more onerous because of the possibility of significant internal pressure but this cannot be guaranteed so each
case should be carefully considered.
The wind force acting on any scaffold component including sheeting or debris netting is calculated as:
F = cs × cf × A × qp
where:
F is the resultant force in the direction of wind flow in kN. The force on each component other than cladding
areas is quite small but the cumulative effect of wind on all the components of even a bare scaffold is usually
significant. The other terms in the above equation are discussed in the following sections. It should be noted
that according to BS EN 12811-1 A.3 “for wind acting normal to the plane of the cladding, areas of scaffold
components or objects behind the cladding (sheeting or netting) may not be considered.” The word ‘normal’
here is significant. If the front face of a scaffold is clad but the ends are not, wind parallel to the façade can
impinge on the scaffold components and objects behind the cladding to some unknown extent. However the
effect is unlikely to be more severe than the force resulting from wind on a clad end.
Other terms in the above expression for F are considered in the following sections 4.2.3.2 to 4.2.3.5.
4.2.3.2 Peak velocity pressure qp
qp is the peak velocity pressure of the wind flow in kN/m2 at the location of the component. Peak velocity
pressure may be defined as the theoretical pressure in unobstructed flow corresponding to a wind gust of 1
second duration. The relationship between pressure and velocity is:
q = 0.5 × r × v2 N/m2
where: r = 1.226 kg/m3 the average air density for UK winds blowing from the Atlantic.
hence: q = 0.613 × v2 N/m2

The presence of a structure or component obstructs the wind flow so that it experiences surface pressures and
suctions which are related to the peak velocity pressure by the aerodynamic and location coefficients cf and cs as
noted above.
BS EN 12811-1 clause 6.2.7.4 requires consideration of two intensities of wind loading: ‘working’ and ‘maximum’ as
discussed below.
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4.2.3.2.1 Working velocity pressure
BS EN 12811-1 clause 6.2.7.4.2 specifies the working velocity pressure for an external scaffold as 0.200 kN/m2
corresponding to the gust velocity of 18 m/s at which work should be suspended. For indoor scaffolds which are
not directly exposed to the wind in normal service this guide recommends a minimum working velocity pressure of
0.100 kN/m2. It is assumed that working wind loads can act at the same time as in service imposed loads.
4.2.3.2.2 Maximum velocity pressure

External scaffolds must also be capable of sustaining a maximum velocity pressure which is dependent on the site
location and topographical characteristics and this is always greater than the working velocity pressure. However, the
scaffold will not be in use in a wind storm and so for design purposes it is assumed that the maximum wind loads act
at the same time as out-of-service imposed loads.
The maximum peak velocity pressure may be defined as the theoretical pressure in unobstructed flow corresponding
to the wind gust of 1 second duration having a 0.02 probability of exceedance during the life of the structure. It may
be calculated with varying degrees of complexity (and resultant economy) using the guidance in BS EN 1991-1- 4
as modified by the UK National Annex thereto either by hand calculation or using computer software. However, the
following ‘simple’ procedure provides conservative results which will be adequate for many circumstances.
4.2.3.2.2.1 Simple procedure to calculate maximum velocity pressure

• Ascertain the site location.
• Use figure 4.1 (taken from the UK National Annex to BS EN 1991-1-4 figure NA.1) or related software to get the
UK fundamental basic wind velocity vb,map for the site. This is defined as the 10 minute mean velocity in m/s at
10 m above ground in open country with low vegetation with probability corresponding to a mean recurrence of
50 years normalised to sea level. This value will lie in the range 21.5 to 31 m/s.
• Calculate the most demanding topography factor (Twind) from figure 4.2 by considering all possible wind
directions.
A knowledge of the site location is required to determine whether the terrain is nominally flat, moderately steep,
or steep. Hills and ridges have different factors to those for cliffs and escarpments. (The range will be from 1.0 to
1.26).
• Establish the site altitude A, in metres above sea level, of the surface on which the scaffold will stand. This may
be ground level or the level of a permanent structure on which the scaffold is erected.
• Calculate the altitude factor: calt = 1 + 0.001 × A
For structure or component heights z more than 10 m above ground a less conservative value may be calculated:
calt = 1 + 0.001 × A × (10 / z) 0.2
• Calculate the site wind factor: Swind = Twind × calt × vb,map.

The site wind factor is the 10 minute mean velocity in m/s at 10 m above ground in open country with
low vegetation with probability corresponding to a mean recurrence of 50 years adjusted for site altitude
and topography. This term was introduced in TG20:05 as a measure of the wind exposure of the site and
subsequently adopted in TG20:08 and in BS 5975:2008 + A1:2011. It does not appear in BS EN 1991-1-4 or the
UK national Annex. It is retained here for continuity rather than necessity.
• Determine the probability factor cprob which allows for the short life of most scaffold structures and temporary
works compared with the nominal 50 year life of a permanent structure so as to maintain the same risk of
exceedance. A cprob value of 0.83 is applicable for scaffolding with design life less than 2 years. For longer
design life and different probability refer to BS EN 1991-1-4 clause 4.2 note 4.
• Determine the seasonal factor cseason. If it can be assured that the scaffold will be in place only during months
which have a reduced probability of wind storms this may be taken into account by means of this factor which
may be obtained from the UK National Annex to EN 1991-1-4 table NA.2. Examples of values of the seasonal
factor taken from this table are:
cseason = 0.71 for any two months in May to August;
cseason = 0.84 for the six months April to September inclusive;
cseason = 0.86 for the two months February and March;
cseason = 1.00 for the six months October to March inclusive.
If in doubt adopt cseason = 1.0.
• Calculate vb the basic wind velocity allowing for probability and time of year: vb = cseason × cprob × Swind.
• Calculate qb the (10 minute mean) basic velocity pressure: qb = 0.613 × vb2.
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31
30
30 29
29
28
28
Inverness
27
Aberdeen
30
Oban Dundee 26
29
Perth
25
28 Glasgow Edinburgh
24
27
Londonderry 26 Newcastle
Carlisle
28 Belfast
23 York Kingston
Preston Leeds upon-Hull
25 Liverpool Manchester
Galway Dublin
Sheffield
Stoke
Nottingham
Limerick
22
Leicester
Norwich
Waterford Birmingham
Aberystwyth
Northampton Ipswich
Cork Bedford
23
21.5
Oxford
Swansea
LONDON
Cardiff
Bristol
28 24
27 26 25 Taunton Brighton
Bournemouth
Kilometres
0 40 80 120 160 Plymouth
22
0 20 40 60
Statute miles
80 100
23
Chan lI l d 24 /
Figure 4.1 – The value of fundamental basic wind velocity vb ,map (m/s) before the altitude correction is applied
93
Wind Factor T wind = 1.00 less than 1km
water is longer upwind of water
than 1km
(a) Nominally flat terrain, average slope < 1: 20 water
Wind Factor Twind (a) Sea

1.00 1.09 1.17 1.12 1.00
0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
Lu Lu Ld Ld
Town edge more than 2km upwind

Lu Ld
Permanent obstructions extending

(b) Moderately steep terrain, average slope <1: 5 at least 100m (average roofs at 5m)
Wind Factor T wind

1.00 1.09 1.17 1.16 1.12 1.00
0.25 0.25 0.50 Lu 0.50 Lu 0.50 Lu
Lu Lu Scaffold location considered as a ‘Town’ site
(b) Town
Lu
(c) Moderately steep terrain, average slope <1: 5
Woodland edge more than 2km upwind
Wind Factor Twind

1.00 1.14 1.26 1.18 1.00
Permanent obstructions extending
0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 at least 100m
Lu Lu Ld Ld
Lu Ld Scaffold location considered in woodland as a ‘Town’ site
(d) Steep terrain, average slope >1: 3 (c) ‘Town’ in woodland
Wind Factor T wind

Town edge more than 2km upwind
1.00 1.14 1.26 1.24 1.19 1.00
0.25 0.25 0.50 Lu 0.50 Lu 0.50 Lu
Lu L u
No obstructions within 100m
Lu
(e) Steep terrain, average slope >1: 3

Scaffold location considered as a ‘Country’ site
Lu is the horizontal distance of the slope upwind.

(d) Country
Ld is the horizontal distance of the slope downwind.
Figure 4.2 – Topographical factor (T wind) Figure 4.3 – Town and country diagrams
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Table 4.2 – Exposure factor ce(z) for sites in country terrain and ce(z).ce,T for sites in town
Site in country or up to Site in town, more than
2km into town 2km upwind from the site
Effective
Closest distance to the sea upwind, km Effective Closest distance to the sea upwind, km
Height z Height z
m <_ 0.1 2 10 >
_ 100 m 2 10 >
_ 100
<
_2 1.9 1.6 1.5 1.4 <
_2 1.07 1.01 0.94
5 2.43 2.18 2.05 1.9 5 1.72 1.62 1.5
10 2.82 2.65 2.5 2.32 10 2.33 2.2 2.04
15 3.07 3.02 2.85 2.67 15 2.81 2.65 2.48
20 3.2 3.15 2.98 2.78 20 2.99 2.83 2.64
30 3.42 3.43 3.27 3.04 30 3.4 3.24 3.01
40 3.55 3.56 3.45 3.22 40 3.54 3.43 3.20
50 3.68 3.68 3.62 3.39 50 3.68 3.62 3.39
Note that interpolation may be used in this table
• Determine the combined site exposure factor ce(z).ce,T. The combined exposure factor quantifies the
‘turbulence’ of the wind i.e. the fluctuations causing the peak 1 second gust pressure affecting structures and
components to be considerably higher than the basic 10 minute mean pressure. It takes into account variations
in wind speed due to height above ground, the ground roughness of the terrain upwind of the structure and
whether the structure is in a town environment. In this ‘simple’ procedure the terrain and environment should be
selected to correspond with the upwind direction with least roughness.
ce(z) is the exposure factor for country terrain and depends on the effective height of the structure or
component (z – hdis) and the distance from the shoreline and is plotted in figure NA.7 of the UK NA to BS EN
1991-1-4.
ce,T is a correction factor to allow for the reduction of wind speed in towns plotted in figure NA.7. The factors
are combined in table 15 of BS 5975:2008+A1:2011 which is reproduced here as table 4.2. Note that hdis is the
displacement height allowing for the favourable effect of surrounding buildings in reducing wind speed. It may
be calculated using BS EN 12811-1 A.5 or conservatively taken as zero.
• Finally calculate the peak velocity pressure: qp = ce(z).ce,T × qb.
The simple procedure above is applicable to scaffold structures up to 50 m in height. For taller structures refer to the
main codes of practice mentioned above. Less conservative estimates of wind pressure may be obtained by taking
into account directional effects as described in Appendix A or using calculation software based thereon. For TG20
compliant scaffolds the TG20 Operational Guide chapter 3 provides a method of assessing wind exposure without
calculation by the user. The TG20 eGuide provides a similar but more refined procedure. The background to these is
given in Appendix A.2.
4.2.3.2.2.2 Reference height

In many designs it will be sufficient and conservative to calculate the combined exposure factor and resulting peak
velocity pressure at the height of the top lift of the scaffold and apply this throughout the structure. However in some
cases it may be worthwhile to allow for variation with height above ground. This is feasible when using automated
design software.
For unclad scaffolds the wind force acting on a component may be determined using a reference height equal to the
maximum effective height of the component above ground. Fully clad scaffolds should be treated like clad buildings
so that normally the reference height for all the sheeting or netting will be the height to the top lift. However BS
EN 12811-1 clause 7.2.2 permits tall narrow elevations (height / width > 1.0) to be divided into horizontal strips for
the application of wind loads. The reference height of each strip is the height of the top edge of the strip. This is
applicable generally to cladding on the end of a façade scaffold and worth pursuing for tall scaffolds in high wind
exposure conditions.
4.2.3.2.2.3 Effect of large neighbouring structures

Where a scaffold is to be erected in the vicinity of a building which is more than twice as high as the neighbouring
buildings, reference should be made to BS EN 1991-1-4 Annex A4 for adjustment to the reference height.
4.2.3.2.2.4 Dynamic response factor cd

The UK National Annex to BS EN 1991 clause NA.2.20 gives guidance on calculating the dynamic factor cd which
can be applied to the peak velocity pressure to allow for dynamic response of the structure if applicable. BS
5975:2008+A1:2011 clause 17.5.1.11 suggests that for the majority of falsework structures (presumably including
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access scaffolding), the dynamic factor can be taken as 1.0. Tied access scaffolds and birdcage scaffolds are unlikely
to exhibit significant dynamic behaviour but tall scaffold towers may need special consideration particularly if clad.
4.2.3.2.2.5 Size factor csize

The UK National Annex to BS EN 1991 clause NA.2.20 gives guidance on calculating the size factor cs (here called
csize to distinguish from the site coefficient cs used in BS EN 12811-1) which can be applied to the peak velocity
pressure to allow for the effect of the peak velocity not acting simultaneously on the whole structure (otherwise the
effect of gust size).
Table NA.3 gives coefficients in the range 1.00 to 0.62 which are dependent on:
• the size of the structure or component expressed as b + h where b is the breadth of the loaded area and h is
the length or height of the loaded area.
• the effective reference height z – hdis of the structure or component.
• zones A, B or C which are defined in figures NA.7 and NA.8.
Size factor csize = 1.0 applies to b + h = 5 m and therefore almost all individual scaffold components and cladding
panels.
Conservatively csize = 1.0 can be applied to all overall structure effects (e.g. bracing, standards, foundations).
The loaded areas contributing to individual tie forces in tension and compression are unlikely to warrant application
of csize significantly less than 1.0. However in considering the effects of wind forces parallel to the façade, the ties at
each level acting in shear can share load and so a significant reduction in csize may be justified for long façade access
scaffolds.
4.2.3.3 Reference area A
A is the reference area of the scaffold component in m2 which, in accordance with BS EN 12811-1 clause 6.2.7, is
generally the projected area normal to the wind flow. However for sheeting and debris netting, BS EN 12811-1 A.3
defines the reference area differently as the actual face area of the cladding, the effect of non-parallel wind being
included in the force coefficients for the parallel direction. A method of resolving this inconsistency is described
below.
4.2.3.3.1 Application of reference area

The reference area for a scaffold standard is the tube diameter × length in any horizontal wind flow whereas the
reference area for other scaffold tubes is dependent on their inclination to the flow direction. The reference area for
toe boards, notice boards etc. is similar replacing diameter with height. It therefore follows that:
In a façade scaffold, if the direction of wind flow in the horizontal plane is defined by the angle b and b = 0° when
wind blows normal to the façade, then:
• The reference area of horizontal tubes and board components aligned parallel to the façade is:
b × length × cos b
• The reference area of horizontal tubes and board components aligned normal to the façade is:
b × length × sin b
For tubes b is the diameter in metres. For boards and notional face areas b is the effective width measured vertically
in metres.
The vector resultant force components normal and parallel to the façade (or equivalent if it is not a façade scaffold)
may be obtained by further multiplying by cos b and sin b respectively to get the following wind loads per unit actual
length of the components for input into frame analysis software or manual calculations:
• Vertical tubes (standards):
unit load parallel to façade F= cs × cf × b × q × sin b

unit load normal to façade F= cs × cf × b × q × cos b
• Horizontal tubes and boards aligned parallel to the façade:
unit load parallel to façade F= cs × cf × b × q × cos2 b

unit load normal to façade F= cs × cf × b × q × sin b × cos b
• Horizontal tubes and boards aligned normal to the façade:

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unit load parallel to façade F= cs × cf × b × q × sin2 b

unit load normal to façade F= cs × cf × b × q × sin b × cos b
By applying the above expressions to typical long (e.g. façade) unclad scaffolds it can be shown that:
• The total wind force in the direction normal to the façade is maximum when b = 0 as might be expected.
• The total wind force in the direction parallel to the façade is maximum when b = approximately 70° not 90° as
might be expected.
This result is consistent with wind tunnel tests on model scaffolds carried out by researchers in Germany (4.1, 4.2).
Typically the total wind force parallel to the façade due to wind incident at the critical skew angle is about 16%
higher than when wind blows parallel. However, when carrying out a full frame structural analysis it is not generally
convenient to specifically consider wind incident at skew angles especially if the scaffold is clad in parts and unclad
elsewhere. Ideally only analyses for the two cases producing maximum wind effects normal and parallel to the façade
should be done. This can be achieved with sufficient accuracy as follows:
• The member loads for the case producing maximum wind effects normal to the façade (b = 0) are
straightforward. Tube and board components aligned parallel to the façade are fully loaded. Tube and board
components aligned normal to the façade are not loaded. Cladding components are loaded according to the
plane in which they lie.
• For the case producing maximum wind effects parallel to the façade, the frame is considered as if b = 90° or
270° but with adjustments to the component loads per unit actual length to allow for wind incident at the critical
angle as follows:
For horizontal tube and board components parallel to the façade the normal and axial wind loads in kN per unit
actual length are:
Fun = cs × cf × b × q × sin b × cos b

Fua = cs × cf × b × q × cos2 b
For tube and board components normal to the façade the normal and axial wind loads per unit actual length are:
Fun =
cs × cf × b × q × sin2 b
Fua = cs × cf × b × q × sin b × cos b
and for b= 70°, sin2 b = 0.883; cos2 b = 0.117; sin b × cos b = 0.321.
It may observed that it is quite laborious to apply the above expressions to multiple members of a scaffold frame
especially as the bending effects of wind on unclad members is usually quite small and only the cumulative effect
on the frame as a whole is significant. There is therefore scope for deriving equivalent area or joint loads. This has
been done in section 5.15 to produce expressions for calculating equivalent point loads which can be applied to the
principal nodes of the structural analysis model to represent the effect of wind on the unclad scaffold. Section 5.16
has similar expressions for tie forces.
For a cladding area parallel to the façade the parallel (in-plane) wind load per unit area is:

Fup = cs × cf ∥ × q
For a cladding area normal to the façade (i.e. end of scaffold) the parallel wind load per unit area is:

Fun = cs × cf ⊥ × q

4.2.2.3.2 Effective exposed height at platform edge
The reference area of a toe board is its height × projected length across the wind flow. However BS EN 12811-1
clause 6.2.7.4.1 requires the reference area at the edge of a boarded unclad scaffold to allow for the presence of
materials on the working platforms by means of an effective height above top of the platform of 400 mm for the in-
service wind condition and 200 mm for the out-of-service wind condition. With 225 × 38 mm thick boards this leads to
the following reference heights including the platform itself:
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Table 4.3 – Reference heights for the wind loading of toe boards
In service Out of service

Non-working boarded platform Toe board alongside platform board 0.225 m 0.225 m
Toe board on top of platform board 0.263 m 0.263 m
Working boarded platform Toe board alongside platform board 0.438 m 0.238 m
Toe board on top of platform board 0.438 m 0.263 m
4.2.3.4 Aerodynamic force coefficient cf
cf is the aerodynamic force coefficient for the component in free air flow and depends on its section shape, its end
conditions and in some cases,the nature of the wind flow. BS EN 1991-1-4 section 7 gives information on force
coefficients and allied data from which the following may be derived:
• Scaffold tubes are long cylinders considered in BS EN 1991-1-4 section 7.9.2 in which figure 7.28 shows the
relationship between the force coefficient and Reynolds number for infinitely long cylinders. Adjustments may
be made for ‘free end effects’. However it can be shown that for scaffold tubes the feasible wind speeds in the
UK are such that the flow is always ‘subcritical’ and the force coefficient is constant at cf = 1.20. It can also
be shown that for most scaffold lengths, end effects may be ignored so the basic coefficient cf = 1.20 may be
adopted for all tubes in free flow. This has been confirmed by wind tunnel tests on model scaffolds and full size
tube assemblies (4.2).
The wind effects of normal couplers may be assumed to be included in the overall lengths of scaffold tube.
• When a tube is in contact with a plane surface such as a boarded lift the aerodynamic force coefficient for wind
flows roughly parallel to the surface and perpendicular to the tube is cf = 0.80. (4.3)
• Components such as toe boards appear to qualify as sharp corner rectangular sections to which BS EN 1991-
1-4 section 7.6 and figure 7.23 applies. The force coefficients for these sections are apparently not dependent
on Reynolds number. The coefficient varies from 1.00 for sections like a scaffold board with the narrow edge
obstructing the flow to 2.0 with the wide edge in flow. However BS EN 12811-1 clause 6.2.7.2 states that
the value of the aerodynamic force coefficient shall be taken as 1.30 for all projected areas other than tubes
including platforms, toe boards and the nominal areas mentioned in 6.2.7.4. It must be assumed that this value
is based on tests. Certainly it falls between the extreme values noted above which might apply to a toe board
upper edge (2.0) and the platform and toe board lower edge (1.0).
• For attached rigid components like sign boards refer to BS EN 1991-1-4 clause 7.4.3.
• For flags refer to BS EN 1991-1-4 clause 7.12.
• For sheeting and netting BS EN 12811-1 clause A.2 provides default values for aerodynamic force coefficients:

Table 4.4 – Aerodynamic force coefficients for sheeting and debris-netting from BS EN 12811
Sheeting Netting
Wind force normal to the cladding cf ⊥ 1.30 1.30
Wind force parallel to the cladding cf ∥ 0.10 0.30
However wind tunnel tests were carried out in Germany on numerous netting products (4.4) which indicate that
less onerous values may be assumed for the common high permeability debris nets i.e. netting which leaves
personnel and objects clearly visible on the scaffold. For the design of the TG20 compliant façade scaffolds the
following coefficients were adopted:
Table 4.5 – Aerodynamic force coefficients adopted for TG20 compliant scaffolds
Sheeting High-permeability netting

If low permeability netting is to be used, aerodynamic coefficients should be obtained from the manufacturer or
the EN 12811-1 default values adopted. For sheeting BS EN 12811-1 clause A2.2 gives no scope for adopting cf
values based on tests. However a number of products listed as ‘netting’ in reference 4.9 have coefficients for
wind force parallel to the cladding as low as 0.05.
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It should be noted that the aerodynamic coefficients for wind force parallel to the façade are based on tests in
which the netting sample panels were exposed to a range of angles of incident wind flow and the maximum
values always correspond to skew angles. They therefore take into account not only the roughness of the fabric
but other effects such as curvature under pressure and the vector component of the incident wind at a skew
angle.
• For brick guards no published values of aerodynamic coefficients were found. In developing the TG20 Compliant
designs the following values were calculated based on the aerodynamic properties of the wires:
Table 4.6 – Aerodynamic force coefficients for brick guards for TG20 compliant scaffolds
Plastic brick guards Wire brick guards

Note: these values should be applied to the gross face area of the brick guard. They are provisional subject to physical testing.
4.2.3.5 Site or location coefficient cs
cs is a ‘site coefficient’ dependent on the location of the component relative to an adjacent building which may
provide shielding from the full force of incident wind flow. On the leeward (i.e. downwind) side of an impermeable
building the scaffold benefits from its sheltering or ‘wind shadow’ effect. On the windward side the wind is ‘stalled’
or ‘stagnates’ in front of the building so that objects in front of the building experience lower wind forces than in free
flow conditions.
The extent of wind shielding by adjacent buildings varies and can be total in some leeward situations but for simplicity
EN 12811-1 adopts a value cs = 0.25 for unclad scaffold components near both the windward and leeward faces of
an impermeable building. The same coefficient applies to areas of high permeability netting.
For sheeting and low permeability netting the situation on the windward face only is different and instead of the
building shielding the cladding, the cladding shields the building and so experiences full wind pressure with cs =
1.00. Low permeability netting is defined in BE EN 12811-1 A.4 as having a cf ⊥ value greater than 0.80. The values
of site coefficient given in EN 12811-1 are based on wind tunnel tests on scaffold models of relatively narrow widths
(equivalent to about 1 metre full size). It is not known to what extent an impermeable building shields wider access
scaffolds so further research is desirable to justify the current practice of applying the same factor to façade access
scaffolds up to twice as wide.
4.2.3.5.1 Effect of building permeability

When the adjacent building is permeable it does not shield the scaffold so well. In BS EN 12811-1 clause 6.2.7.3.2,
the permeability of the building is expressed in terms of a solidity ratio:
wB = AB,n
AB,g
where:
AB,n is the net area of façade after deducting openings.
AB,g is the gross area of the façade.
Based on the results of wind tunnel model testing, BS EN 12811-1 figure 6 provides a linear relationship which may
be expressed as:
cs = -0.833 wB + 1.0833 between cs = 1.0 and 0.25 over the range wB = 0.10 and 1.00
with cs = 1.0 for wB < 0.10.
The same relationship is given in BS EN 12811-1 figure A.1 for high permeability netting.
Note that the openings to be taken into account are those which actually allow wind to blow through the building
in normal circumstances during the life of the scaffold. Small randomly placed openings are implied. In some
circumstances where there is a large permanent dominant opening or a building frame that is being progressively clad
or stripped of cladding it may be more realistic to model areas of the façade as permeable or impermeable rather than
averaging the solidity or permeability of the façade.
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cs
1.0
cs

5
B 13
6 12
0.25
0 B
0 0.1 1.0
Figure 4.4 – Variation of the site coefficient cs with the solidity ratio wB
Figure 40. Variation of site coefficient cs with the solidity ratio
B
4.2.3.5.2 Site coefficient for wind forces parallel to the façade

– unclad scaffolds
It is important to note that BS EN 12811-1 clause 6.2.7.3.3 states that for wind forces parallel to the façade on
unclad scaffolds cs ∥ = 1.0. This means that no shelter effects are available when calculating forces parallel to the
façade. The wind tunnel model tests on which the EN relies (4.2) actually demonstrated that significant shielding does
occur when the wind is incident at skew angles from behind the façade but not when incident from the same side
as the scaffold. As it is not generally practicable to differentiate between the two conditions shielding should not be
assumed for wind forces parallel to the façade where the scaffold is unclad.
4.2.3.5.3 Site coefficient for wind forces parallel to the façade – debris netted scaffolds
When the scaffold is clad with high permeability netting, BS EN 12811-1 A.4 states that the site coefficient may be
applied as applicable to the building solidity (e.g. cs = 0.25 if the façade is impermeable). This advice is clearly at
variance with that for unclad scaffolds but is based on wind tunnel model tests by the same research team which
revealed different flow conditions for this case (4.5, 4.6). This applies to the netting parallel to the façade. However the
netting at the end of the façade scaffold is in a different situation being effectively a windward face without a building
behind and so A.4 specifies cs = 1.0 for this case.
4.2.3.5.4 Site coefficient for wind forces parallel to the façade – sheeted scaffolds
When the scaffold is clad with sheeting or low permeability netting, cs = 1.0 for windward faces. This includes the
windward end of scaffolding on a side face itself parallel to the wind. The factor cs = 1.0 also applies to wind forces
acting parallel to the façade due to wind incident on the parallel face at skew angles. However, for the leeward face
and for suction acting normal to side faces themselves parallel to the wind, site coefficients are shown in the trilinear
curve 3 of BS EN 12811-1 A.4 figure A.1 which can be expressed as:
For wB ≤ 0.10, cs = 1.0

For wB 0.10 to 0.70, cs = -0.333 wB + 1.033
For wB 0.70 to 1.00, cs = -1.833 wB + 2.083
The above commentary anticipates an expected amendment to clarify the wording of BS EN 12811-1 A.4
4.2.3.5.5 Site coefficient for wind effects at windward corners

In previous editions of this guide and in the former BS 5973, the site coefficient cs = 2.0 was proposed to model
peak wind suctions which occur on sides parallel to the wind near to the leading windward corners. BS EN 12811-
1 makes no mention of this. However it would be prudent to consider this for checking scaffold members and ties
supporting large notice boards or cladding at scaffold external corners or ends and if the scaffold is very short, the
overall stability also.
4.2.3.6 Effect of boarded lifts
4.2.3.6.1 Horizontal wind forces

BS EN 12811-1 makes no mention of horizontal wind effects on a scaffold due to the presence of platform horizontal
boarding. It only considers wind on toe boards and the reference areas containing them. This is somewhat surprising
as it might be expected that significant friction effects might arise in a long scaffold. However the research report
on which the EN relies records that in the wind tunnel tests on scaffold models and on component sub-assemblies,
the addition of boarding had the effect of slightly reducing the measured horizontal wind force parallel to the façade.
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The reason for this is not explained in the research report but the results were replicated by more than one source (4.2).
One possible explanation is as follows:
Assuming the toe boards shield the upper surface of the platform then the wind force parallel to the façade due to
the platform is the sum of frictional effects on the lower surface of the board with cfr = 0.02 for rough boards (as
noted in BS EN 1991-1-4 table 7.10) and the force on the transoms with cf = 0.8 (instead of 1.2 as noted previously
in 4.2.2.6.4). The result is a little less than the force on the transoms with cf = 1.2 in free flow without boards.
Therefore it may be concluded that either:
• the wind effects on the platform boards can be ignored and the forces on the transoms calculated as if in free
flow with cf = 1.2 (i.e. as in an unboarded lift), or:
• the wind effects on the platform boards can be calculated with cfr = 0.02 on the lower surface only and the
forces on the transoms calculated with cf = 0.8.
4.2.3.6.2 Vertical wind forces

BS EN 12811-1 does not specifically mention wind uplift on platform units but clearly there is a possibility of
scaffold boards and other loose platform units being dislodged in high winds. Reference may be made to BS
5975:2008 + A1:2011 clause 17.5.1.15.3 for guidance intended for soffit formwork which is also relevant to scaffold
platform units. This may be used to select scaffold board clips. Once the scaffold boards have been securely fixed
down to their transoms the effects of wind uplift loading on the supporting tube structure will need to be investigated
only for fans, cantilever platforms and some special structures.
Net pressure coefficients for monopitch canopies are given in BS EN 1991-1-4 section 7.3 and table 7.6 which can
be interpreted for application to fans and platforms generally. As a guide, in the worst case, for a blocked canopy of
slope up to 10°, i.e. one for which the wind flow is blocked at its junction with the building, the maximum value of
the net pressure coefficient is –1.4 (uplift). If the canopy does not block the wind flow, the maximum value of the net
pressure coefficient is –0.9. The maximum coefficient producing downward loading is +0.5. These values are for the
design of the supporting structure of scaffold tubes. For individual scaffold boards, local coefficients as high as -2.7
for 10° slope and -2.2 for 0° are indicated.
4.2.3.7 Wind shielding effects
BS EN 12811-1 clause 6.2.7.1 states categorically that “shielding effects shall not be taken into account”. However
this statement ought to be qualified: “other than the shielding effects of an adjacent impermeable building as
expressed in the site coefficient cs” and: “other than the shielding of components and objects behind cladding as
noted in A.3”.
The shielding referred to here is that provided by windward scaffold components other than cladding to other
components downwind. This effect can be significant in some temporary and permanent works where the
components are of substantial section and densely spaced but scaffold components are generally too narrow
and widely spaced to benefit especially when the wind is incident at even a small angle to the alignment of the
components. Reference may be made to BS 5975:2008 + A1:2011 clause 17.5.1.14 for confirmation.
4.2.3.8 Wind funnelling effects
Where a façade scaffold serves one of two closely spaced buildings, wind flow through the space parallel to the
façade may be significantly accelerated leading to increased suction on the building surfaces and any scaffold
cladding. Unclad scaffolding is not affected. BS EN 12811-1 does not mention this but some guidance may be
obtained by interpretation of UK National Annex to BS EN 1991-1-4 section NA.2.27 notes (d) and (e). The range of
gaps between buildings likely to be affected by funnelling is expressed as e / 4 to e where e is the lesser of the
values of e for each building and for each building e is the lesser of the cross wind breadth of the building and 2 ×
the height of the building.
4.3 Load combinations and ‘limit state design’
4.3.1 General background
BS EN 12811-1 section 10 assumes that structural calculations to verify scaffold designs will adopt limit state
philosophy using partial safety factors and makes reference to other European codes for structural design which
adopt the same design format. The partial safety factor format was first promoted for building structures in the 1960s
in response to concerns that the traditional ‘permissible stress’ or ‘working load capacity’ method did not permit a
consistent rational treatment of both positive and negative variations in loads. By way of example, it may be noted
that the use of the permissible stress approach in the design of the cooling towers at Ferrybridge C power station
was considered to be a significant contributory factor leading to their collapse in 1965.
Limit state design using partial safety factors was subsequently adopted in the British design codes for concrete
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(CP 110:1972), masonry (BS 5628:1978) and steelwork (BS 5950:1985) and is now widely used in the design of
permanent structures using the structural Eurocodes. It is consistent and practical and was used in the development
and design of the TG20 compliant standard scaffolds. However, in response to industry demand the current TG20
Design Guide also presents a design approach in permissible stress terminology using traditional familiar terms
such as “safe working loads and capacities”. These values have been derived from the limit state codes to provide
safe working load capacities to assist designers who currently use permissible stress methods to continue to do so
safely subject to careful consideration of relevant load combinations. In sections 5.8 and 5.9 methods are given for
member and coupler design checks using this approach with recommended capacities. Designers who wish to use
the partial safety factor method can simply multiply the safe working load capacities by 1.50 for use with ultimate
limit state load combinations and force effects. The essential differences between the two design formats lie in their
treatment of safety margins and variations in the magnitude of loads and the resistances of materials and structures
as summarised in the following sections.
4.3.1.1 Permissible stress or working load format
In this format the loads considered to act on the structural design model are estimated as the maximum (or
minimum as relevant) considered likely to occur in service. The designer considers which combinations of loads are
feasible or likely to be critical and calculates the effects of each load combination on the structure in terms of force,
displacement and overall stability.
The force effects may be axial forces, shear forces, bending moments and combinations thereof acting on structural
members and connections (e.g. tubes and couplers). The force effects must be shown to be less than or equal to
the safe working capacities of the members and connections. The safe working capacities or safe loads are obtained
by dividing the characteristic ultimate resistances by a ‘global’ factor of safety which is taken as 1.65 for scaffolding
tubes and couplers. The characteristic ultimate resistances of tubes are calculated from their geometric section
properties, material yield strength (and for axial compression, their effective buckling lengths). The characteristic
ultimate resistances of couplers are obtained by statistical analysis of tests to failure or are given in EN12811-1 or by
the manufacturer. The global factor of safety is intended to cover for adverse variations in both loads and resistances
and simply to ensure that the structure is not operating normally close to failure.
Displacements are deflections or distortions of the members or the structure as a whole and must be shown to be
less than or equal to limiting or permissible values. Limiting displacements are usually related to the member length
or span, or to a relevant structural dimension such as length or height / 200 with an alternative absolute value e.g.
25 mm.
The criterion for overall stability is usually a factor of safety against overturning or sliding of 1.50.
The principal advantage of this format is that structural analysis is carried out at the working load level for all effects
whereas the partial safety factor approach requires separate load combinations for serviceability (displacement)
checks and for ultimate failure checks.
The principal disadvantage of the permissible stress/working load format is that it does not allow automatically for:
• non-linear response of the structure as loads are increased from working to ultimate levels (e.g. due to lift-off at
supports);
• non-linear effect of increasing one adverse load component (e.g. wind) whilst other favourable loads are constant
(e.g. the restoring effect of dead load).
Both of these effects mean that the apparent 1.50 factor of safety may not actually be achieved if one or all of the
load categories are increased by a factor of 1.50. Consider a simple example:
At working loads:
Tension force in a standard or anchorage due to wind or notional horizontal force: Fwt = 5.0 kN
Compression force due to dead load: Fdc = 4.0 kN
Resultant tension/uplift force: Frt = 1.0 kN
Required ultimate anchorage/tension resistance: Fut = 1.5 kN
At ultimate design loads:

Tension force in standard or anchorage due to 1.5 x wind or notional horizontal force: Fwt = 7.5 kN
Compression force due to constant dead load: Fdc = 4.0 kN
Resultant tension/uplift force and required ultimate resistance: Frt = 3.5 kN
Therefore in this example increasing the wind load by 50% produces 250% increase in tension/anchorage force and
the required tension/anchorage resistance is underestimated by 57% if calculated at working load. In order to obtain a
‘correct’ estimate of required tension resistance or overturning stability for a load combination involving opposing load
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effects using analysis at working load it is necessary to ‘unfactor’ the favourable or restoring loads by dividing by 1.5.
4.3.1.2 Partial safety factor format
In this format the ‘global’ factor of safety is divided into partial safety factors on loads and resistance which can be
varied separately for the purpose of checking ultimate strength and stability. Checks on serviceability (displacement)
are carried out on the results of analysis at working load level in the same way as in the permissible stress/working
load method but when checking ultimate strength and stability, load combinations are created with loads multiplied
by relevant partial safety factors typically in the range 0.90 to 1.50. The member and coupler force effects from
the latter ultimate limit state (ULS) load combination analyses must be less than or equal to the ‘design ultimate
resistances’ which are obtained by dividing the characteristic ultimate resistances by the partial safety factor
for resistance which for scaffolding tubes and couplers is 1.10. The criterion for overall stability of a ULS load
combination is that the factor of safety against overturning or sliding must be not less than 1.0.
The principal advantage of the partial safety factor format is that the strength and stability of the structure is actually
tested at the ULS limit state and so any non-linear behaviour of the structure is automatically taken into account
provided that such non-linear effects as support lift-off and formation of plastic hinges are included in the analysis.
Thus spurious factors of safety are avoided.
The main disadvantage is that more load combinations have to be analysed.
4.3.2 Load categories
In order to clearly organise the calculations for verifying a structural design, especially when using computer software,
the individual loads acting on the structural analysis model are usually grouped into load categories. A load category
may be defined as a set of loads which are considered to act together on the structural model with the same partial
safety factor applied. Grouping the loads in this way facilitates the definition of load combinations for analysis
whether the working load/permissible stress format or the limit state/partial safety factor format is adopted. The
following load categories were used in the development of the TG20 compliant designs for tied independent façade
scaffolds:
Load category description Abbreviation

Self-weight of scaffold tubes and couplers (SW)
Dead loads additional to self-weight e.g. platform boards and toe boards (D)
In-service imposed loads (acting in conjunction with working wind or notional horizontal loads) (Iis)
Out-of-service imposed loads (acting in conjunction with maximum wind loads) (Ios)
Notional horizontal loads acting parallel to façade left to right (+Nx)
Notional horizontal loads acting parallel to façade right to left (–Nx)
Notional horizontal loads acting normal to façade near to far (+Nz)
Notional horizontal loads acting normal to façade far to near (–Nz)
Working wind loads acting parallel to façade left to right (+Wix)
Working wind loads acting parallel to façade right to left (–Wix)
Working wind loads acting normal to façade near to far (+Wiz)
Working wind loads acting normal to façade far to near (–Wiz)
Maximum wind loads acting parallel to façade left to right (+Wox)
Maximum wind loads acting parallel to façade right to left (–Wox)
Maximum wind loads acting normal to façade near to far (+Woz)
Maximum wind loads acting normal to façade far to near (–Woz)
A similar set of load categories were used in the development of the TG20 compliant designs for non-façade access
scaffolds with similar names replacing ‘parallel to façade’ with ‘parallel to the X axis’ and replacing ‘normal to façade’
with ‘parallel to the Z axis’.
The abbreviations shown in brackets were found to be useful for defining load combinations in short form.
Additional load categories may be required for special designs. It will be noted that use of computer aided structural
analysis software enables numerous load categories and load combinations to be generated, analysed and design
checked automatically with ease but when using hand calculations the designer will necessarily use engineering
judgement and experience to filter out categories and combinations which are obviously not critical for the current
design. Note that allowance was made for reversal of horizontal loads parallel to the façade (+/- X) because the
bracing arrangements are frequently non-symmetrical causing different responses due to support lift off.
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4.3.3 Load combinations
A load combination may be defined as a set of load categories considered to act together for the purpose of
structural analysis in order to verify a design. At least one load combination needs to be analysed for verification of a
scaffold design using the permissible stress/working load format whereas at least two load combinations are required
when using limit state analyse with partial safety factors – one for the serviceability limit state (SLS) of deflection and
one for the ultimate limit state (ULS) of strength and stability. When using computer software for structural analysis
designers will usually create and examine more load combinations to ensure that all feasible design situations have
been checked. Load combinations which are found to be non-critical can always be deleted to reduce data storage
and printout.
4.3.3.1 Load combinations for limit state design with partial safety factors
The following load combinations were considered in the development of the TG20 compliant designs for tied
independent façade scaffolds using limit state analysis with partial safety factors:
Ultimate limit state load combinations:
Load combinations producing maximum compression in standards:

• 1.5 × (self weight + dead + in service imposed + notional +X)
• 1.5 × (self weight + dead + in service imposed + notional –X)
• 1.5 × (self weight + dead + in service imposed + notional +Z)
• 1.5 × (self weight + dead + in service imposed + notional –Z)
• 1.5 × (self weight + dead + in service imposed + working wind +X)
• 1.5 × (self weight + dead + in service imposed + working wind –X)
• 1.5 × (self weight + dead + in service imposed + working wind +Z)
• 1.5 × (self weight + dead + in service imposed + working wind –Z)
• 1.5 × (self weight + dead + out of service imposed + maximum wind +X)
• 1.5 × (self weight + dead + out of service imposed + maximum wind –X)
• 1.5 × (self weight + dead + out of service imposed + maximum wind +Z)
• 1.5 × (self weight + dead + out of service imposed + maximum wind –Z)
Load combinations producing maximum uplift / tension in standards:

• 1.0 × (self weight + dead) + 1.5 x (notional +X)
• 1.0 × (self weight + dead) + 1.5 x (notional –X)
• 1.0 × (self weight + dead) + 1.5 x (notional +Z)
• 1.0 × (self weight + dead) + 1.5 x (notional –Z)
• 1.0 × (self weight + dead) + 1.5 x (maximum wind +X)
• 1.0 × (self weight + dead) + 1.5 x (maximum wind –X)
• 1.0 × (self weight + dead) + 1.5 x (maximum wind +Z)
• 1.0 × (self weight + dead) + 1.5 x (maximum wind –Z)
Serviceability limit state load combinations:
• 1.0 × (self weight + dead)

• 1.0 × (self weight + dead +in-service imposed)
• 1.0 × (self weight + dead + working wind +X)
• 1.0 × (self weight + dead + working wind –X)
• 1.0 × (self weight + dead + working wind +Z)
• 1.0 × (self weight + dead + working wind –Z)
The in-service load combinations with notional horizontal loads tend to be critical when the wind exposure is low to
moderate.
The out-of-service load combinations with maximum wind tend to be critical when the wind exposure is moderate to
severe.
Load combinations with wind parallel to the façade (+/- X directions) tend to be more critical than +/-Z for unclad and
netted scaffolds except for tie forces normal to the façade. For sheeted scaffolds load combinations normal to the
façade (+/- Z) are also critical.
For birdcage scaffolds and indoor towers the working wind load categories in the SLS load combinations were
replaced by categories containing the corresponding notional horizontal loads.
Note that BS EN 1990 and the UK national annex thereto define load combination factors w which are reduction
factors to allow for the reduced probability of simultaneous occurrence of maximum values of two or more types
of variable load e.g. imposed loads and wind loads. BS EN 12811-1 makes no mention of these factors. Instead it
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provides for two different values each of imposed and wind loads to be combined namely:
• In service imposed load with working wind load;

• Out-of-service imposed load with maximum wind load.
as noted previously. It does not appear valid to apply load combination factors in this context.
4.3.3.2 Load combinations for permissible stress / working load design
The following load combinations may be considered for permissible stress/working load designs:
Load combinations producing maximum compression in standards:

• 1.0 × (self weight + dead + in service imposed + notional +X)
• 1.0 × (self weight + dead + in service imposed + notional - X)
• 1.0 × (self weight + dead + in service imposed + notional +Z)
• 1.0 × (self weight + dead + in service imposed + notional - Z)
• 1.0 × (self weight + dead + in service imposed + working wind +X)
• 1.0 × (self weight + dead + in service imposed + working wind - X)
• 1.0 × (self weight + dead + in service imposed + working wind +Z)
• 1.0 × (self weight + dead + in service imposed + working wind - Z)
• 1.0 × (self weight + dead + out of service imposed + maximum wind +X)
• 1.0 × (self weight + dead + out of service imposed + maximum wind - X)
• 1.0 × (self weight + dead + out of service imposed + maximum wind +Z)
• 1.0 × (self weight + dead + out of service imposed + maximum wind - Z)
Load combinations producing maximum uplift / tension in standards:

• 0.67 × (self weight + dead) + 1.0 x (notional +X)
• 0.67 × (self weight + dead) + 1.0 x (notional - X)
• 0.67 × (self weight + dead) + 1.0 x (notional +Z)
• 0.67 × (self weight + dead) + 1.0 x (notional - Z)
• 0.67 × (self weight + dead) + 1.0 x (maximum wind +X)
• 0.67 × (self weight + dead) + 1.0 x (maximum wind - X)
• 0.67 × (self weight + dead) + 1.0 x (maximum wind +Z)
• 0.67 × (self weight + dead) + 1.0 x (maximum wind - Z)
4.4 Overall structural behaviour of tied façade access scaffolds
Tied independent façade access scaffolds constructed with loose tubes and fittings may be classified into two main
categories:
• Traditional scaffolds with alternate pairs of standards ledger braced. Strictly speaking, ledger bracing does not
comply with the clear access requirements of section 5.2 of BS EN 12811-1. However the method is so firmly
entrenched in UK practice and familiar to the workforce that it is recognised by the industry and the UK Health
and Safety Executive as an acceptable national departure from the Euronorm.
It may be noted that scaffolds with full plan bracing at every tied lift can be designed without ledger bracing so
as to provide clear access but at the time of writing, this method has not yet been fully validated and accepted
for routine use by the industry.
• Scaffolds in which all pairs of inner and outer standards are connected with proprietary ‘system’ transom units
which have integral welded end connections which are bolted or wedged to the standards and ledgers. The
principal feature of this construction category is the partial fixity of the connection between the transom and
the standards which is promoted as being sufficient to permit the omission of ledger bracing thereby facilitating
clear access along the platforms as required by section 5.2 of BS EN 12811-1. A variation of this category is to
combine system transoms with ledger bracing of alternate pairs of standards. This is sometimes done to achieve
greater safe heights than would otherwise be achievable without doubling of standards which is also sometimes
done and which involves doubling the transoms.
Hitherto the use of integral transom units by scaffold engineers has been inhibited by lack of specific structural
design parameters. This is now partly addressed by a program of tests commissioned by the NASC (4.7, 4.8).
Unfortunately, at the time of writing, only one source of Readylok–type transom unit connections has been
tested. Lower-bound structural design parameters have been derived from these tests and are listed in table
5.15. The units that were tested are fixed on site using bolts torqued to 50 Nm. No data is currently available
for transom units fixed on site using hammered wedges. In order to confidently use the data in this guide for
design of scaffolds with system transom units it is necessary to confirm that the product intended for use will
have structural properties at least as good as those listed in table 5.15. This does not preclude the development
of alternative more favourable data based on tests on superior products carried out in accordance with the test
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specification available from the NASC.
The structural behaviour of the main categories of tied independent façade scaffolds is outlined in the following
sections:
4.4.1 Ledger braced tube and fitting scaffolds
The principal feature of ledger braced scaffolds is, of course, the ledger bracing itself. A pair of standards and the
attached ledger braces act as a relatively stiff lattice girder spanning vertically to transmit horizontal loads acting
normal to the façade to the horizontal lines of ties.
4.4.1.1 Behaviour under mainly vertical loading
In load combinations in which the vertical loads are dominant, all the standards remain in compression up to the
ultimate limit state and no lift off occurs at the bases. Assuming that the ledgers and their connections to the
standards are not overloaded, failure occurs by buckling of the standards under their axial compression forces. Due
to the relatively low cruciform stiffness of the right angle couplers connecting the ledgers to the standards bending
moments induced in the standards are quite small even under unsymmetric arrangements.
Section 5.6 gives theory and safe axial load tables for scaffold tubes and 5.7.3 provides information on the effective
lengths of standards whilst 5.8.1 gives the interaction formulae for checking the member design for combined axial
force and moment.
As discussed in more detail in 5.7.3, the effective length of the standards depends on the mode of buckling which
is governed by the tie pattern. Where ties are provided in every lift, the failure mode is by buckling of the non ledger
braced standards in the direction normal to the façade. Where ties are provided at alternate lifts or exceptionally every
third lift, the failure mode is usually by buckling of the inner standards parallel to the façade. The outer standards are
more stable than the inner standards due to the presence of façade bracing.
However the axial forces in the inner and outer standards are usually different. The presence of inside boards and
their loading induces more force in the inner ledgers and standards due to the cantilever and anchor span action
of the board transoms. The load on the outer ledgers and standards is reduced accordingly. Conversely the outer
standards support more guardrails and the toe boards except where it is deemed necessary to provide them on the
inside face.

4.4.1.2 Behaviour under wind normal to the façade
In load combinations including significant wind loading normal to the façade the windward ledger braced standards
may lift off their bases. However the ledger bracing system is usually stiff and strong enough to cantilever below
the lowest line of ties and therefore still effective as a vertically spanning lattice girder. The axial forces in the ledger
bracing due to wind acting normal to the façade are quite small except for sheeted scaffolds in high wind exposure.
The standards, guard rails and ledgers act as a grid frame to deliver the wind loads to the ties. The local bending
effects in the members of this grid are very small if the scaffold is unclad, modest if netting is attached, but can be
severe if sheeting or low permeability netting is attached. The resultant tie forces acting normal to the façade may be
calculated by frame analysis software or by manual methods. Section 5.16.1 provides formulae for manual calculation
which take into account the arrangement of ties. It should be noted that the maximum tie force is always more than
that which might be calculated based on simple tributary areas. This is due to continuity and cantilever effects in the
abovementioned ‘grid’ structure as discussed in 5.15.1 and Appendix G.16.
Scaffolds with sheeting or low permeability netting present a severe problem for scaffold designers. The site
coefficient cs = 0.25 which allows for the wind shelter effects of an impermeable façade increases to 1.0 for the
windward face of a sheeted scaffold as discussed in 4.2.3.5 (however, the factor cs = 0.25 is still applicable to the
suction faces). There are two methods of dealing with the resulting effects on the structure and its ties:
• Plan bracing can be introduced between the ledgers to provide a series of horizontal lattice girders spanning
directly between the façade anchorages. However this solution is then dependent on the push-pull ties being
able to provide compression resistance four times the required tension resistance.
• Additional structural transoms butting the façade can be provided midway between the main push-pull ties. This
has the dual effects of reducing bending in the ledgers so that plan bracing is less likely to be required and to
more evenly distribute the compression forces to the façade.
In most cases it will not be sufficient to rely on allowing all the board transoms to butt the façade if they are
connected with putlog couplers because of their very low slip resistance. Instead butting transoms should be
connected to the ledgers with right angle couplers or band and plate couplers with equivalent slip resistance.
4.4.1.3 Behaviour under wind parallel to the façade
As discussed in 4.2.3.3, maximum horizontal wind force effects parallel to the façade result from wind incident at
skew angles rather than exactly parallel. However structural analysis can be simplified by applying equivalent parallel
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wind loads.
For unclad scaffolds the parallel wind loads are mostly accumulated roughly uniformly along the length of the
scaffold except for the small components from wind on the end toe board transom and guard rails. For clad
scaffolds a substantial component wind force is acquired from the cladding on the windward end with the remainder
accumulated from the cladding on the front face of the scaffold. In both cases the longer the scaffold the larger
the total wind force but this is resisted by more components and more external supports (i.e. the foundations of the
standards and the shear resisting anchorages in the façade). In a tied independent scaffold the following load paths
combine to deliver the parallel wind forces (or notional horizontal forces) to the supports:
• Through the façade bracing delivering to the foundations of the braced standards.
• Semi-rigid frame action of the standards and ledgers delivering to the foundations of all the outer standards.
• By semi-rigid frame action (in the horizontal plane) of the tie tubes, ledgers and board transoms delivering to
the façade anchorages. This may be greatly augmented by plan bracing and triangulation of tie tubes where
necessary.
• Semi-rigid frame action of inner standards and ledgers delivering to the foundations of all the inner standards.
Elastic frame analysis indicates that for tall scaffolds the proportion of the total parallel horizontal force delivered
to the foundations by the façade bracing is much less than for low rise scaffolds. Above 10 m height almost all the
parallel wind force is delivered to the tie anchorages This is because at this level the load path to the façade is much
shorter than those to the foundations. Table 4.7 shows typical proportions for six bay models.
Table 4.7 – Proportion of parallel wind force delivered to shear resisting ties to the façade
Scaffold height Single bay Continuous Single bay bracing with Continuous bracing with
(m) bracing bracing façade brace coupler slip façade brace coupler slip
6 61 % 47 % 80 % 80 %
8 68 % 51 % 85 % 84 %
10 75 % 58 % 89 % 88 %
12 78 % 66 % 90 % 90 %
14 82 % 70 % 92 % 91 %
16 84 % 72 % 93 % 92 %
18 86 % 75 % 94 % 93 %
20 88 % 77 % 95 % 94 %
22 89 % 79 % 95 % 95 %
24 90 % 80 % 96 % 95 %
26 91 % 82 % 96 % 95 %
28 91 % 83 % 96 % 96 %
In load combinations which cause significant wind forces parallel to the façade, the windward standard of each
façade bracing set may lift off its base. If the connected brace is in tension the lowest lift of the bracing thereby
becomes ineffective. If the connected brace is in compression it remains partly effective but deflections increase due
to loss of anchorage of the windward standard. Consequently where more than one set of façade bracing is provided
it is good practice to ensure that consecutive sets slope in opposing directions so as to maximise the number of
braces in compression after lift off and therefore partly effective whatever the direction of loading.
Lift-off is not the only occurrence which can reduce the effectiveness of façade bracing:
• The force in the bracing may exceed the slip resistance of the couplers. In theory supplementary couplers
may be used to augment slip capacity but according to BS EN 12811-1 Annex C1 table C1, doubling couplers
only provides 50% increase in capacity. Additionally couplers are needed both ends of a brace and to cater for
reversal of wind force a supplementary coupler would be required each side of the main coupler. A total of four
supplementary couplers per brace. Obviously this is not a routine solution but may be justified locally in special
scaffolds. Special couplers with shear pins engaging with holes in the joined tubes would appear to offer an
obvious and efficient solution but are rarely seen in the UK.
• The force components induced in a standard by an attached bracing tube are axial and shear. If the bracing is
attached to the standard at the maximum permitted eccentricity of 300 mm above the baseplate the bending
moment induced by the shear component may exceed the plastic resistance moment of the tube section.
If the façade bracing becomes entirely or partly ineffective when resisting wind forces parallel to the façade this does
not necessarily result in collapse of the scaffold provided that the ties to the façade are still capable of providing
sufficient ‘sway’ resistance and the various components of the scaffold can deliver the forces thereto. However
the effective lengths of the standards increase as a result of removing the façade bracing in one or more lifts as
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quantified in table 5.14 f. With low to moderate wind exposure the consequent reduction in load capacity tends to be
balanced by the reduction in imposed load for the ‘out-of-service’ condition assumed when maximum wind load is
applied. For high and extreme wind exposure the out-of-service / maximum wind load combination governs.
These are typical but not necessarily general observations and individual cases need individual analysis. It may be
noted that re-analysing a scaffold frame after removing façade bracing frequently results in coupler failures being
reported. These can be accommodated by downgrading the stiffness of the affected couplers and re-analysing
and recalculating the resulting increased effective lengths. This is essentially a quasi plastic analysis method which
eventually results in failure of standards after some iterations. It is only feasible with automated computer aided
analysis for preparing standard designs. For special designs the engineer will usually settle for a more conservative
approach.

4.4.2 Scaffolds with system transom units
This section mainly considers scaffolds having system transom units without ledger bracing. The effect of adding
ledger bracing is to enhance the vertical load performance. The effect of the ledger bracing is dominant because of
the greater relative stiffness of the ledger braced frames. Consequently the structural behaviour is similar to that of a
traditional ledger braced scaffold and will not be discussed further.
The principal feature of scaffolds having system transoms without ledger bracing is, of course, the vertical semi-rigid
Vierendeel girders formed by the special transoms and the standards. These act similarly to ledger braced frames to
span between horizontal lines of ties. However as all pairs of standards have system transoms there is no variation in
stiffness between consecutive pairs.
It may also be noted that when there are no inside boards, the system transom can and will act as a board bearing
transom. However where inside boards are provided it is usually necessary to add additional board bearing transoms
because the system transoms used at the standard positions are not extendable to support the inside boards. This
does not apply when the inside boards are supported on ‘hop up’ type brackets rather than extended transoms.
For avoidance of doubt it may be noted that the tying requirements for this category of scaffold are the same as for
ledger braced scaffolds including the desirability of connecting tie tubes to both inner and outer ledgers with right
angle couplers except in certain low-rise scaffolds in conditions of low wind exposure.
4.4.2.1 Behaviour under mainly vertical loading
Behaviour under mainly vertical load differs from that discussed in 4.4.1.1 insofar as the buckling mode for all the
standards is always in direction normal to the façade as described in more detail in 5.7.3.1. Effective lengths are a
little greater than for ledger braced scaffolds as given in table 5.14 b for scaffolds with transom couplers having the
structural properties given in table 5.15.
4.4.2.2 Behaviour under wind normal to the façade
Structural behaviour of scaffolds with system transoms under wind loading normal to the façade is similar to ledger
braced scaffolds as described in 4.4.1.2 except that instead of stiffer lines of support at alternate pairs of standards
due to ledger bracing, all pairs of standards are of equal stiffness resulting in more uniform and slightly more
favourable distribution of tie forces.
4.4.2.3 Behaviour under wind parallel to the façade
Structural behaviour of scaffolds with system transoms under wind force effects parallel to the façade is also similar
to ledger braced scaffolds as described in 4.4.1.3
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4.5 Overall structural behaviour of untied scaffolds
4.5.1 Towers
In this guide scaffold towers are defined as having four standards or legs at the corners and five different types
are discussed in section 2.5 of which three are free standing and require special attention to stability. Section
2.5 provides guidance for structural design whilst chapter 15 of the TG20 Operational Guide illustrates normal
construction details.
It is sufficient here to underline that unless free standing towers are anchored into the ground, to an adequate
substructure or provided with sufficient kentledge the critical mode of failure to be designed against will be
overturning following lift-off at two of the four supports. Care is required to identify the critical load combination and
reference may be made to section 4.3 for relevant discussion on this point.
4.5.2 Birdcages
Section 2.3 of this guide provides guidance for the structural design of birdcage scaffolds with particular emphasis
on the different bracing requirements for free standing scaffolds as distinct from those which are tied to an adequate
adjacent permanent structure. Reference should also be made to chapter 13 of the TG20 Operational Guide for
practical construction details most of which are also applicable to special designs as well as to the TG20 compliant
designs provided in chapter 3 thereof and by the TG20 eGuide.
The bracing patterns described in 2.3 of this guide and illustrated in chapter 13 of the TG20 Operational Guide are the
result of analysing many different arrangements for the development of the TG20 compliant designs for free-standing
indoor birdcage scaffolds. Although the bracing arrangements were designed to resist only the notional horizontal
loads required indoors, they will provide useful initial arrangements for external birdcages and other special designs.
Where these are exposed to the natural wind environment kentledge or ground anchors will also be required on some
standards to avoid the de-stabilising effects of lift off.
4.5.2.1 Tied or butted birdcages
If a birdcage scaffold is tied or butted to a permanent structure at the top lift, it will normally be sufficient to provide
single bay bracing in each line of standards. For TG20 compliant birdcage designs bracing should be provided at
maximum 6 bay intervals in each line and the slope direction of alternate sets should reverse. However during
erection and dismantling the scaffold would become potentially unstable when the top lift horizontal restraints are
not present if that is the only level restrained. Therefore it is normally necessary to provide restraints at intermediate
levels also. A method statement should be prepared agreed and implemented to ensure that the scaffold remains
stable at all stages of erection, service and dismantling. As an alternative, the birdcage may be designed as free-
standing. This has the advantage of removing the need for butt or tie connections to the permanent structure and
reduces the likelihood of instability during erection and dismantling. These advantages are achieved at the expense of
more complex bracing arrangements as discussed below.
Note that a birdcage may be tied/butted and free standing in orthogonal directions to suit the availability of walls of
the permanent structure but care must be taken to ensure that the requirements are clearly communicated to the
workforce.
The main structural design issues for a tied or butted birdcage relate to the safe transmission of vertical loads to the
foundations and in particular:
• Bending resistance of transoms;

• Transmission of notional horizontal forces to the external horizontal restraints – note that putlog couplers have
limited slip resistance;
• Bending resistance of ledgers – care is required to determine the critical arrangement of point loads from the
transoms;
• Ledger-to-standard coupler slip resistance;
• Axial load resistance of standards – penultimate standards supporting perimeter bays or ladder bays may be
critical.
4.5.2.2 Free standing birdcages
The structural design issues listed above are also applicable to free standing birdcages except that the notional
horizontal forces must be delivered to the bracing systems rather than to external butts or ties. However the main
issue is stability against notional horizontal loads or wind loads if the birdcage is external. Single bay bracing is
generally inadequate to prevent lift-off and resultant ineffective bracing and consequent large sway deflections.
Research and development for the TG20 compliant birdcage scaffold designs resulted in the following bracing rules
to minimise lift off:
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1. Bracing should be continuous. However this can be made up of shorter lengths of one or two bays as long as
they are roughly in line.
2. In each direction in which the birdcage is freestanding, each line of standards should have at least two sets of
bracing with the braces sloping in opposite directions.
3. At least one set of bracing must be continued up to the top lift. The other set(s) must be continued to the top lift
or until it overlaps or meets with the first set.
4. Generally the minimum two bracing sets should start in either the end or next-to-end bays. However for single lift
birdcages of more than three bays the braces should always start in the next-to-end bays.
5. Where the birdcage is sufficiently long for both sets of bracing to reach the top lift there will be a number of
internal bays without bracing. The maximum number of sequential unbraced internal bays is governed by the
number of lifts:
One lift: 3 bays;

Two or three lifts: 2 bays;
Four or five lifts: 1 bay.
Where these limits would be exceeded an additional set of bracing should be started. Where 3 sets are required
the middle set can face either way. Where four are required they should alternate in direction.
6. Where the scaffold has more lifts than bays the bracing cannot continue in a line to the top lift so it should be
‘wrapped around’ or ‘zigzagged’ across the length of the scaffold until it reaches the top platform.
Typical arrangements following these rules are illustrated in figures 13.8 to 13.11 of the TG20:13 Operational Guide,
which are reproduced in section 2 of this guide as figure 2.17. This information does not preclude the adoption of
other arrangements if they can be justified by analysis. A further option for freestanding birdcages is to provide
kentledge or equivalent anchorage at the braced standards. This may permit simpler bracing patterns to be adopted.
110 This page is intentionally left blank.

Scaffold design data 5 111
5.1 Scaffolding self weights

& dead loads 112
5.2 Vertical imposed

loads 113
5.3 Loads per standard per

lift for façade scaffolds 114
5.4 Section properties of

scaffold boards 116
5.5 Section properties of

scaffold tubes 119
5.6 Axial load capacities of

steel scaffold tubes 120
5.7 Effective lengths of

scaffold tube members 122
5.8 Structural design criteria

for tubular members 130
5.9 Scaffold couplers 132
5.10 Function & load capacity of

scaffold boards 134

scaffold transoms 135

scaffold ledgers 137

tie tubes & sway restraint 140
5.14 Equivalent joint & area

loads 141
5.15 Tie / anchor forces 142

SECTION 5 I Scaffold design data
112 Scaffold design data
5.1 Scaffolding self-weights and dead loads
The weights of common scaffolding materials and components may be taken from the following list. Refer to BS EN
1991-1-1 Annex A for other materials and components.
Table 5.1 – Scaffold component weights

Scaffolding material Configuration Mass Weight
Type 4 galvanised steel scaffold tube 48.3 × 4.0 mm CHS 4.37 kg/m 0.043 kN/m
Type 3 galvanised steel scaffold tube 48.3 × 3.2 mm CHS 3.56 kg/m 0.035 kN/m
Softwood timber scaffold boards 38 mm thick 25* kg/m2 0.25* kN/m2
50 mm thick 33* kg/m 2
0.32* kN/m2
63 mm thick 41* kg/m2 0.40* kN/m2
Profiled metal sheeting 0.5 mm thick 5 kg/m2
0.05 kN/m2
0.7 mm thick 7 kg/m2 0.07 kN/m2
1.0 mm thick 10 kg/m 2
0.10 kN/m2
Debris netting High permeability 0.050 – 0.125 kg/m2
<0.001 kN/m2
Low permeability 0.100 – 0.300 kg/m2 <0.003 kN/m2
Sheeting Reinforced polyethylene 0.160 – 0.400 kg/m 2
<0.004 kN/m2
(LDPE)
Brick guards Plastic 50 × 50 × 5 mm 0.73 kg/m2 0.007 kN/m2
grid × 3 mm thick
Galvanised steel wire 1.6 kg/m2 0.015 kN/m2
50 × 50 × 2.5 mm
Pressed Forged
Steel couplers** Putlog coupler 0.77 kg 1.00 kg
Right angle coupler 0.91 kg 1.25 kg
Swivel coupler 1.03 kg 1.33 kg
* The values for scaffold boards are significantly higher than might be deduced from table A.3 of BS EN 1991-
1-1. They are traditional values taken from table 6 of BS 5973 and may include an allowance for saturation and
accumulation of dirt etc.
** The weight of couplers is not insignificant and, if not included individually in structural analysis models,
appropriate allowances should be made. The following examples may assist:
Table 5.2 – Weights of couplers as % addition to total weight of scaffold tube

Arrangement Pressed couplers Forged couplers
Type 4 tubes:
No inside boards 2 m lift 2 guard rails inside and out 11.0 % 14.5 %
2 inside boards 2 m lift 2 guard rails outside only 10.6 % 14.1 %
2 inside boards 3 m lift 3 guard rails outside only 9.4 % 12.5 %
Type 3 tubes:
No inside boards 2m lift 2 guard rails inside and out 13.5 % 17.7 %
2 inside boards 2m lift guard rails outside only 13.0 % 17.3 %
2 inside boards 3m lift 3 guard rails outside only 11.5 % 15.4 %
113
5.2 Vertical imposed loads on working areas & access routes
For discussion of imposed loads, notional horizontal loads and notes on application refer to section 4.2.2
5.2.1 General imposed loads
Table 4.1 – Service loads on working areas
Load Load duty Typical usage Uniform load Concentrated Concentrated Partial area
class load on area on load on area on load
500 × 500 mm 200 × 200 mm
q1 kN/m2 F1 kN F2 kN q2 kN/m2
1 Inspection and Inspection, painting, 0.75 1.50 1.00 n/a
very light duty light cleaning.
2 Light duty Plastering, rendering, 1.50 1.50 1.00 n/a
pointing, glazing
3 General General building work 2.00 1.50 1.00 n/a
purpose including normal brick,
block and stonework.
4 Heavy duty Heavy duty building 3.00 3.00 1.00 5.00
work with large units
Note: this table is a repeat of that in 4.2.2.1.2 for convenience of reference. The notes in section 4.2.2.1.2 should be observed.
5.2.2 Specific imposed loads
Exceptionally it may be necessary to consider the effects of specific loads rather than just applying the EN 12811-1
service loads. Table 5.3 provides some data which may be useful for this purpose. BS EN 1991-1-1 Annex A provides a
wider range.
Table 5.3 – Mass of men and materials

Item Mass
Man (average) 90 kg
Man with small tools (average) 100 kg
Spot board and mortar 30 kg
Wheelbarrow full of mortar 150 kg
Tarpaulins and fixings 1 kg/m2
Ladders and fixings 8 kg/m

100 bricks 275 kg
Timber (softwood) 500 kg/m3 to 650 kg/m3
180 litres of water or liquids in containers 200 kg
Packaged flooring tiles, ceramic tiles, roofing tiles, slates 1,600 kg/m2
Other loads to be considered in special cases include:
Debris from demolition, boiler and flue cleaning 1,600 kg/m2
20 mm thick ice deposits on scaffold tubes 5 kg/m
Concrete spillage on the ledgers 1.5 kg/m

114
5.3 Loads per standard per lift for façade access scaffolds
The following data may be used for the manual calculation of ‘leg loads’ i.e. the unfactored axial forces acting on the
standards of the lowest lift and delivered to the foundations. A procedure and example calculations are provided in
Appendix B.
5.3.1 General
Gravity loads per standard per lift for various bay lengths and board configurations can be calculated using the data
given in clauses 5.1 and 5.2. In most cases the outer and inner standards are loaded differently. Tables 5.4 and 5.5
always give the worst case.
Table 5.4 - Self weight load per standard in kN of an unboarded 2m high lift
Load per standard in kN from an unboarded 2m high lift
Main Inside 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.0 2.1 2.4 2.7

Designation Boards boards
kN kN kN kN kN kN kN
X-3-0 3 0 0.31 0.36 0.38 0.40 0.40 0.46 0.48
X-4-0 4 0 0.31 0.37 0.39 0.41 0.41 0.47 0.49
X-4-1 4 1 0.32 0.38 0.40 0.42 0.42 0.49 0.51
X-4-2 4 2 0.32 0.39 0.41 0.42 0.43 0.50 0.52
X-5-0 5 0 0.32 0.38 0.40 0.42 0.42 0.49 0.51

X-5-1 5 1 0.32 0.39 0.41 0.42 0.43 0.50 0.52
X-5-2 5 2 0.32 0.40 0.42 0.43 0.44 0.52 0.54
X-6-0 6 0 0.32 0.39 0.41 0.42 0.43 0.50 0.52

X-6-1 6 1 0.32 0.40 0.42 0.43 0.44 0.52 0.54
Notes:
1. The load is for ONE standard, either inside or outside.
2. The load includes one guardrail and one transom for greater than 1.5 m bays.
3. Bold values allow for an additional transom for 2.4 m and 2.7 m bays.
5.3.1.1 Unboarded lifts
Table 5.4 gives the self weight load per 2 m lift on one standard of an unboarded scaffold, taking into account two
standards of lift height, two ledgers, the principal guardrail and one main transom and either one or two board
transoms, a portion of the ledger bracing, a portion of the longitudinal bracing and appropriate fittings.
5.3.1.2 Boarded lifts
The additional dead and imposed load from a boarded lift (w), on the more heavily loaded standard, due to the
platform boards, the toe board, the intermediate guardrail, fittings and the service imposed load on the lift are given
in Table 5.5. They do not include the self-weight of the scaffold, which is given in Table 5.4.
table 5.5 Additional load per standard from a 2 m high boarded lift
with service imposed load
Imposed load Length of Bay (m) 115
main inside
boards boards 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.0 2.1 2.4 2.7
2
Boards kN/m kN/m2 kN kN kN kN kN kN kN
3 0.00 0.00 0.24 0.29 0.34 0.38 0.40 0.45 0.51
3 0.75 0.00 0.54 0.68 0.81 0.90 0.94 1.07 1.20
3 1.00 0.00 0.65 0.80 0.96 1.07 1.12 1.28 1.43
3 1.50 0.00 0.85 1.06 1.27 1.41 1.48 1.69 1.90
3 2.00 0.00 1.06 1.32 1.58 1.75 1.84 2.10 2.36
4 0.00 0.00 0.27 0.34 0.40 0.44 0.46 0.53 0.59
4 0.75 0.00 0.68 0.85 1.02 1.13 1.18 1.35 1.51
4 1.00 0.00 0.82 1.02 1.22 1.35 1.42 1.62 1.82
4 1.50 0.00 1.09 1.36 1.63 1.81 1.90 2.17 2.44
4 2.00 0.00 1.37 1.70 2.04 2.27 2.38 2.72 3.05
4+1 0.00 0.00 0.26 0.32 0.39 0.43 0.45 0.51 0.57
4+1F 0.75 0.75 0.90 1.12 1.34 1.49 1.57 1.79 2.02
4+1 1.00 0.75 1.04 1.30 1.56 1.73 1.82 2.08 2.34
4+1F 1.00 1.00 1.12 1.39 1.67 1.86 1.95 2.23 2.51
4+1 1.50 0.75 1.32 1.65 1.99 2.21 2.32 2.65 2.98
4+1F 1.50 1.50 1.55 1.94 2.33 2.59 2.72 3.11 3.50
4+1 2.00 0.75 1.61 2.01 2.41 2.68 2.81 3.22 3.62
4+1F 2.00 2.00 1.99 2.49 2.99 3.32 3.49 3.98 4.48
4+1 3.00 0.75 2.18 2.72 3.27 3.63 3.81 4.35 4.90
4+1F 3.00 3.00 2.87 3.59 4.30 4.78 5.02 5.74 6.45
4+2 0.00 0.00 0.34 0.42 0.51 0.56 0.59 0.67 0.76
4+2F 0.75 0.75 1.27 1.59 1.91 2.12 2.22 2.54 2.86
4+2 1.00 0.75 1.41 1.77 2.12 2.35 2.47 2.83 3.18
4+2F 1.00 1.00 1.58 1.98 2.37 2.64 2.77 3.16 3.56
4+2 1.50 0.75 1.70 2.12 2.55 2.83 2.97 3.39 3.82
4+2F 1.50 1.50 2.20 2.75 3.31 3.67 3.86 4.41 4.96
4+2 2.00 0.75 1.98 2.48 2.97 3.30 3.47 3.96 4.46
4+2F 2.00 2.00 2.83 3.53 4.24 4.71 4.95 5.65 6.36
4+2 3.00 0.75 2.55 3.19 3.83 4.25 4.46 5.10 5.74
4+2F 3.00 3.00 4.07 5.09 6.10 6.78 7.12 8.14 9.16
5 0.00 0.00 0.31 0.38 0.46 0.50 0.53 0.60 0.68
5 0.75 0.00 0.82 1.02 1.22 1.36 1.42 1.62 1.83
5 1.00 0.00 0.99 1.24 1.48 1.64 1.72 1.97 2.21
5 1.50 0.00 1.33 1.66 1.99 2.21 2.32 2.65 2.98
5 2.00 0.00 1.67 2.09 2.50 2.78 2.92 3.33 3.74
5 3.00 0.00 2.35 2.94 3.52 3.91 4.11 4.69 5.28
5+1 0.00 0.00 0.30 0.37 0.44 0.49 0.52 0.59 0.66
5+1F 0.75 0.75 1.03 1.28 1.54 1.71 1.80 2.05 2.31
5+1 1.00 0.75 1.20 1.50 1.80 2.00 2.10 2.40 2.70
5+1F 1.00 1.00 1.28 1.60 1.92 2.13 2.23 2.55 2.87
5+1 1.50 0.75 1.55 1.94 2.33 2.59 2.72 3.11 3.50
5+1F 1.50 1.50 1.78 2.22 2.67 2.97 3.11 3.56 4.00
5+1 2.00 0.75 1.91 2.38 2.86 3.18 3.34 3.81 4.29
5+1F 2.00 2.00 2.28 2.85 3.42 3.80 3.99 4.56 5.13
5+1 3.00 0.75 2.61 3.26 3.92 4.35 4.57 5.22 5.87
5+1F 3.00 3.00 3.29 4.11 4.93 5.48 5.75 6.57 7.39
5+2 0.00 0.00 0.37 0.46 0.55 0.61 0.64 0.73 0.82
5+2F 0.75 0.75 1.38 1.73 2.07 2.30 2.42 2.76 3.11
5+2 1.00 0.75 1.56 1.95 2.34 2.60 2.73 3.12 3.50
5+2F 1.00 1.00 1.72 2.15 2.58 2.87 3.01 3.44 3.87
5+2 1.50 0.75 1.91 2.39 2.86 3.18 3.34 3.82 4.30
5+2F 1.50 1.50 2.40 3.00 3.60 4.00 4.20 4.79 5.39
5+2 2.00 0.75 2.26 2.83 3.39 3.77 3.96 4.52 5.09
5+2F 2.00 2.00 3.07 3.84 4.61 5.12 5.38 6.15 6.92
5+2 3.00 0.75 2.97 3.71 4.45 4.94 5.19 5.93 6.67
5+2F 3.00 3.00 4.43 5.54 6.64 7.38 7.75 8.86 9.97
6 0.00 0.00 0.41 0.50 0.58 0.63 0.66 0.73 0.81
6 1.00 0.00 1.23 1.52 1.80 1.99 2.09 2.36 2.65
6 1.50 0.00 1.64 2.03 2.42 2.68 2.80 3.18 3.56
6 2.00 0.00 2.05 2.54 3.03 3.36 3.52 3.99 4.48
6 3.00 0.00 2.86 3.56 4.25 4.72 4.95 5.63 6.32
6+1 0.00 0.00 0.41 0.49 0.57 0.63 0.65 0.72 0.80
6+1 1.00 0.75 1.41 1.75 2.09 2.32 2.44 2.79 3.14
6+1F 1.00 1.00 1.48 1.84 2.20 2.44 2.56 2.94 3.30
6+1 1.50 0.75 1.83 2.28 2.72 3.02 3.17 3.63 4.08
6+1F 1.50 1.50 2.05 2.55 3.06 3.39 3.56 4.08 4.58
6+1 2.00 0.75 2.25 2.80 3.35 3.72 3.90 4.47 5.03
6+1F 2.00 2.00 2.62 3.26 3.91 4.34 4.55 5.21 5.86
6+1 3.00 0.75 3.09 3.85 4.61 5.12 5.37 6.15 6.91
6+1F 3.00 3.00 3.75 4.68 5.61 6.23 6.54 7.48 8.41
Notes
1. The load is the maximum value for ONE standard, either the inside or outside.
2. Values in italic indicate that outside standard is critical value.
3. The load allows for the intermediate guard rail and toe board.
4. Loads shown bold require a supplementary coupler to be fitted below the ledger as the value is greater than the capacity of one
scaffold fitting.
5. Scaffold configurations with suffix ‘F’ have the same service loading on the inside boards as on the main boards.
116
5.4 Section properties of scaffold boards and timber beams
5.4.1 Scaffold boards
BS 2482:2009 defines three categories of timber scaffold boards. However only the lowest grade of 38 mm thick
board is regularly used in scaffolds formed with tubes and fittings. When using these 225 × 38 mm scaffold boards
manufactured to BS 2482:2009 – 1.2 m support centre grade in the ‘laid flat’ condition as platform units it will normally
be sufficient to adopt the conventional ‘target spans’ or spacings of supporting board transoms namely:
• 1200 mm for service classes 1 to 3;

• 900 mm for service class 4.
These spans may be increased locally by up to 100 mm tolerance to cater for site variations. These span limits are
sufficient to ensure safe support of the uniformly distributed, concentrated and (for load class 4) partial area loads
in table 4.1 and no calculations are necessary. However where it is necessary to support greater loads for storage or
special equipment or where scaffold boards are used as foundations, structural parameters will be required for use in
calculations. BS 2482:2009 Table A1 gives two values of working resistance moment for its 1.2 m target span grade
board at 27% moisture content and one week load duration:
• 0.50 kNm per board when acting individually to support concentrated loads or the service uniform load
• 0.61 kNm per board when at least four boards act together to support a rigid building product pack or item of
equipment.
Using these values in conjunction with BS 5268-2:2002 the code of practice for the structural use of timber current at
the time BS 2482 was drafted it may be deduced that this timber conforms to Strength Class C24 as defined by BS
EN 338:2009 and the parameters for that strength class may be applied in structural calculations to BS 5268-2 using
the permissible stress method as given below.
5.4.2 Timber strength and stiffness parameters
BS EN 338:2009 table 1 specifies 12 strength classes for softwood species but only two of these are widely used in
the UK, namely C16 and C24.
Table 5.6 below extracts the relevant ‘grade’ stresses and moduli of elasticity for these strength classes from table
8 of BS 5268-2:2002. Tables 5.7.1 to 5.7.5 summarise the relevant modification factors from clauses 2.6 to 2.10 of
BS 5268-2 which should be applied to the grade parameters to get the permissible parameters for design.
5.4.3 Section capacities for common timber sections
The following section capacity calculations are presented in working stress format in accordance with the former
BS 5268-2:2002 which is now officially superseded by the Eurocode BS EN 1995-1-1 which is in partial safety factor
format. This is partly because the important current standard for scaffold boards BS 2482:2009 gives strength
properties consistent with BS 5268-2 and there is currently no direct correlation with the Eurocode.
BS 5268-2:2002 clause 1.6.9 states that for the purpose of calculating the strength of a member at any section, the
effective cross section should be taken as the ‘target size’. This is interpreted as requiring no allowance for minus
tolerances so that a 225 × 38 mm scaffold board section should be taken as read and not the minimum permissible
size after deducting tolerances: 220 × 36 mm. The section properties in the following are calculated accordingly.
Attention is drawn to the importance of load duration in the design of timber members. It is necessary to assess the
likely duration of the various parts of the load combination under consideration and select the factor K8 accordingly.
In table 5.8 K8 = 1.25 for load duration about 6 months is assumed which should be conservative for timber used in
foundations for most scaffolds in which 75% of the load is dead load.
The working load shear capacity of a rectangular timber section may be calculated as follows:
Pv = K2v × K3 × K8 × Kv × fv × Av / 1000 kN
where:
K2v = modification factor on shear stress for external use if applicable.
K3 = duration of load factor.
K8 = factor for load sharing if applicable.
Kv = shear strength enhancement factor (= 1.5) for temporary works (as given by clause 16.4.2.8 of
BS 5975:2008+A1:2011. No explanation or source for this factor is given so it is conservatively
ignored (made = 1.0) in table 5.8.
fv = grade permissible shear stress in N/mm2.
117
Table 5.6 – Grade stresses and moduli of elasticity for service classes 1 and 2 (indoor use at
maximum moisture content 20%)
Timber strength class
C16 C24 Units
Bending parallel to the grain fb 5.3 7.50 N/mm2
Shear parallel to the grain fv 0.67 0.71 N/mm2
Compression perpendicular to the grain (bearing)* fc⊥ 2.20 2.40 N/mm2
Mean modulus of elasticity Emean 8.80 10.80 kN/mm2
Minimum modulus of elasticity Emin 5.80 7.20 kN/mm2
*Note values for bearing assume that ‘wane’ is not permitted in the vicinity of bearings.
Table 5.7.1 – Modification factors K2 for service class 3 (outdoor use at moisture contents greater than 20%)
On bending stress K2b 0.80

On shear stress K2v 0.90
On bearing stress K2c⊥ 0.60
On moduli of elasticity K2E 0.80
Table 5.7.2 – Modification factors K3 for duration of loading
Long term 1.00

1 year 1.20
1 month 1.30
1 week 1.40
Short term (dead + transient imposed loads) 1.50
Very short term (wind load combinations) 1.75
Table 5.7.3 – Modification factor K4 for concentrated bearings more than 75 mm from the end of a member
Length of bearing (mm) Value of K4 Length of bearing (mm) Value of K4
10 1.74 50 1.20
15 1.67 75 1.14
25 1.53 100 1.10
40 1.33 150 or more 1.00
Note: Interpolation is permitted.
Table 5.7.4 – Modification factor K7 for member depth applied to bending stresses only
< 72 mm depth 1.17

75 mm depth 1.16
100 mm depth 1.13
150 mm depth 1.08
175 mm depth 1.06
200 mm depth 1.05
225 mm depth 1.03
300 mm depth 1.00
Table 5.7.5 – Modification factor K8 for load sharing applied to stresses only
(Use mean modulus of elasticity for load sharing conditions unless storage loading)
2 members 1.10
4 members 1.20
118
Av = 0.67 × b × h
= effective shear area in mm2 allowing for parabolic distribution of shear stress.
b = breadth of section in mm.
h = depth of section in mm.
The working load bending moment capacity of a rectangular timber section may be calculated as follows:
Mr = K2b × K3 × K7 × K8 × fb × Z / 1000 kNm
where:
K2b = modification factor on bending stress for external use if applicable.
K3 = duration of load factor.
K7 = factor for section depth.
K8 = factor for load sharing if applicable.
fb = grade permissible bending stress in N/mm2.
Z = b × h2 / 6000
= elastic section modulus in cm3.
Table 5.8 provides safe shear and moment resistance values for timber sections and conditions commonly found in
scaffolding structures.
Table 5.8 – Properties of timber sections and conditions commonly found in scaffolding structures
Basic section Orientation Section Section Strength Working load Working load
area modulus class shear capacity moment capacity
cm2 cm3 kN kNm
225 × 38 mm scaffold Laid flat 85.5 54.15 C24 4.6 0.475
board
225 × 75 mm timber Laid flat 168.7 210.9 C16 8.5 1.297
C24 9.0 1.835
On edge 168.7 632.8 C16 8.5 3.454
C24 9.0 4.888
225 × 100 mm timber Laid flat 225 375.0 C16 11.4 2.246
C24 12.0 3.178
On edge 225 843.8 C16 11.4 4.606
C24 12.0 6.518
C24 8.0 1.631
On edge 150 500.0 C16 7.6 2.783
C24 8.0 3.938
150 × 75 mm timber Laid flat 112.5 140.6 C16 5.7 0.864
C24 6.0 1.223
On edge 112.5 281.3 C16 5.7 1.610
C24 6.0 2.278
C24 2.7 0.365
On edge 50 83.3 C16 2.5 0.499
C24 2.7 0.706
Note the above values of working shear and moment capacities assume:
1. Service class 3 outdoor use;
2. Load duration 6 months;
3. No load sharing.
Values for other conditions may be obtained by calculation pro rata to the relevant modification factors in tables 5.7.1,
5.7.2 and 5.7.5.
119
5.5 Section properties of scaffold tubes
Table 5.9 lists the principal section properties and safe working capacities for the steel scaffold tube types commonly
used in the UK.
For properties of aluminium tubes refer to Appendix C table C.1.
In accordance with previous practice data is provided for both the ‘as new’ and ‘used’ conditions. Galvanised tubes
in good condition are normally considered to be ’as new’ even though they may have been used many times without
significant degradation. The section properties for the ‘used’ condition follow previous practice in applying 10%
reduction in thickness externally. In practice this amount of corrosion implies loss of the galvanised coating and would
render the scaffold tube unacceptable for use. Internal corrosion is much more likely. However as the figures are
merely a notional allowance for deterioration a change in approach has not been justified.
Table 5.9 – Section properties of scaffold tube
Outer Nominal Unit Section Second Radius Plastic Characteristic Safe Safe
diameter thickness mass area moment of section yield stress working working
of area gyration modulus moment shear
D (mm) t (mm) (kg/m) Ag (cm2) I (cm4) r (cm) S (cm3) fy (N/mm2) Mr (kNm) Vr (kN)
Type 4 steel tube to BS EN 39:2001 (as new)
48.3 4.0 4.37 5.57 13.8 1.57 7.87 235 1.12 29.1
Type 4 steel tube to BS EN 39:2001 (used, with 10% corrosion allowance)
47.5 3.6 4.37 4.96 12.04 1.56 6.95 235 0.99 25.9
Type 4 steel tube to BS 1139:1982 (as new)
48.3 4.0 4.37 5.57 13.8 1.57 7.87 210 1.00 26.0
Type 4 steel tube to BS 1139:1982 (used, with 10% corrosion allowance)
47.5 3.6 4.37 4.96 12.04 1.56 6.95 210 0.88 23.2
48.3 × 3.2 mm galvanised steel tube grade S 355 to BS EN 10210 or BS 10219 (as new)
48.3 3.2 3.56 4.53 11.6 1.60 6.52 355 1.40 35.8
48.3 × 3.2 mm galvanised steel tube grade S 355 to BS EN 10210 or BS 10219 (used, with 10% corrosion allowance)
47.7 2.9 3.56 4.08 10.3 1.59 5.83 355 1.25 32.2
Notes:
1. Young’s modulus of elasticity is the same for all steel tubes E = 210 000 N/mm2
2. Safe working moment Mr = Mk / 1.65, where Mk is the characteristic resistance moment. Mk = fy × S
3. Safe working shear Vr = Vk / 1.65, where Vk is the characteristic shear resistance: Vk = pkv × Av
where: pkv is the characteristic ultimate shear stress pkv =0.577 × fy
and Av is the effective shear area. For circular hollow sections Av = 2 × Ag / p = 0.637 × Ag
4. The safe working values of shear and moment may be multiplied by 1.50 for use in design at the ultimate limit state using partial
safety factors.
120
5.6 Axial load capacities of steel scaffold tubes

The axial load capacity of a scaffold tube is dependent on the section area, material strength and the effective buckling
length.
Using the provisions of Eurocode 3 ( BS EN 1993-1-1:2005) the characteristic compressive strength, N, of a tubular strut
with an effective length L E is given by:
N = x A fy
where:
1
x = -----------------------------------------
2 ---- 2 0.5
f f – l ( )
---- ----
2
f = 0.5 1 ( a (l -- 0.2) l )
---- l
l= ------------------------
p2E
-----------
fy
LE
l = ------
r
A is the cross sectional area of the standard
l is the slenderness ratio

r is the radius of gyration
E is the elastic modulus = 210 000 N/mm2
fy is the yield stress
a is the imperfection factor (a = 0.49 for cold formed tube; a= 0.21 for hot finished tube).
In BS EN 12811-1, for limit state design using the partial safety factor format the partial safety factor loads is gf = 1.5
and the material factor, gf = 1.1. This is equivalent to a ‘global’ safety factor = 1.5 ×1.1 = 1.65 so that the safe
working load in axial compression for use in the permissable stress / working load design format may be written as:
N
Pc = ---------
1.65
Values of the safe axial load for a range of effective lengths are given in Table 5.10 for type 4 tubes to BS EN 39 in ‘as
new’ and ‘used’ conditions with fy = 235 N/mm2. The values for the ‘used’ condition include an allowance for corrosion
amounting to 10% reduction in section thickness. This table may also be used for type 4 tube manufactured to the now
obsolete BS 1139-1:1990 which has practically the same properties.
Corresponding values of safe axial load are given in Table D.1 for type 4 tubes to the former standard BS 1139:1982
which specified a lower minimum yield stress fy = 210 N/mm2.
Corresponding values of safe axial load for 48.3 × 3.2 mm grade S 355 cold formed tube to BS EN 10219-1:2006 are
given in table 5.10 a. These values may be used conservatively for 48.3 × 3.2 mm grade S 355 hot finished tube to BS
EN 10219-1:2006 which has a more favourable imperfection factor.
Corresponding values for aluminium tube are given in Table C.2.
Values of design ultimate axial buckling resistance for use in the limit state partial safety factor design format may be
obtained by multiplying the values in the tables 5.10, 5.10 a, C.2 and D.1 by 1.50.
Reference should be made to section 5.7 to determine the relevant effective length because the effective lengths of
some scaffold members are not the same as the length between intersections with other members. e.g. The effective
lengths of standards are not usually the same as the lift height.
121
Table 5.10 - Safe axial loads for Type 4 steel scaffold tubes manufactured in accordance with BS EN 39
“As new” tubes “Used” tubes
Effective Length Slenderness ratio Safe axial load Effective Length Slenderness ratio Safe axial load
LE l Pc LE l Pc
mm kN mm kN
200 12.7 79.3 200 12.8 70.6
400 25.4 76.5 400 25.7 68.0
600 38.1 70.9 600 38.5 63.0
800 50.8 65.0 800 51.3 57.7
1000 63.5 58.6 1000 64.2 51.9
1 200 76.5 51.9 1 200 77.0 45.9

1 400 88.9 45.3 1 400 89.9 39.9
1 600 101.7 39.2 1 600 102.7 34.5
1 800 114.4 33.7 1 800 115.5 29.6
2 000 127.1 29.1 2 000 128.4 25.6
2 200 139.8 25.3 2 200 141.2 22.1

2 400 152.5 22.0 2 400 154.0 19.3
2 600 165.2 19.3 2 600 166.9 16.9
2 800 177.9 17.1 2 800 179.7 14.9
3 000 190.6 15.2 3 000 192.5 13.3
3 200 203.3 13.6 3 200 205.4 11.9

3 400 216.0 12.2 3 400 218.2 10.7
3 600 228.7 11.0 3 600 231.1 9.6
3 800 241.4 10.0 3 800 243.9 8.7
4 000 254.1 9.1 4 000 256.7 8.0
4 200 266.8 8.3 4 200 269.6 7.3

4 400 279.5 7.7 4 400 282.4 6.7
4 600 292.2 7.1 4 600 295.2 6.2
4 800 305.0 6.5 4 800 308.1 5.7
5 000 317.7 6.0 5 000 320.9 5.3
5 200 330.4 5.6 5 200 333.7 4.9

5 400 343.1 5.2 5 400 346.6 4.6
5 600 355.8 4.9 5 600 359.4 4.3
5 800 368.5 4.6 5 800 372.3 4.0
6 000 381.2 4.3 6 000 385.1 3.8
Note - It is recommended that for struts and braces designed to carry wind loads and lateral forces, λ < 271.
Table 5.10 a – Safe axial loads for S 355 48.3 × 3.2 mm cold formed tube (“as new”)
Effective length Slenderness ratio Safe axial load Effective length Slenderness ratio Safe axial load
LE (mm) l Pc (kN) LE (mm) l Pc (kN)
200 12.5 99.3 3200 200.1 11.9
400 25.0 91.9 3400 212.6 10.6
600 37.5 82.6 3600 225.1 9.6
800 50.0 73.3 3800 237.6 8.7
1000 62.5 63.4 4000 250.2 7.9
1200 75.0 53.6 4200 262.7 7.2
1400 87.6 44.9 4400 275.2 6.6
1600 100.1 37.5 4600 287.7 6.1
1800 112.6 31.5 4800 300.2 5.6
2000 125.1 26.7 5000 312.7 5.2
2200 137.6 22.9 5200 325.2 4.8
2400 150.1 19.7 5400 337.7 4.5
2600 162.6 17.2 5600 350.2 4.2
2800 175.1 15.1 5800 362.7 3.9
3000 187.6 13.3 6000 375.2 3.7
122
5.7 Effective lengths of scaffold tube members
In order to calculate the axial compression resistance of any structural member it is necessary to first ascertain its
effective buckling length – usually abbreviated to ‘effective length’. The effective length of a structural member may
be defined as the length of a pin-ended member of the same section which would have the same elastic buckling
load as the actual member has when incorporated into the whole structure. By ‘pin-ended’ we mean that the ends
of the member are held in position in space by restraints but free to rotate around these restraints. It is sometimes
convenient to refer to effective length factors rather than actual lengths whereby:
LE = KE × L
where:
LE is the effective length.

KE is the effective length factor.
L is the actual length between restraints/connections.
Table 5.11 illustrates the effective length factors which are used and interpolated by engineers in the design of
conventional structures. However it must be emphasised the end condition ‘effectively restrained in direction’ used in
the table is rarely applicable to scaffold structures.
A tube member subject to compression in a scaffold structure may buckle either parallel or normal to the longitudinal
axis (e.g. the façade) or possibly in some intermediate direction. The direction of buckling will be the one which
affords the least resistance / least end restraint. When assessing the effective length of the scaffold standards it is
necessary to consider three possible conditions for each of the two principal directions:
• Scaffolds effectively braced. i.e. no lift-off at any support either because the bases can resist tension or are
always in compression due to sufficient vertical loading;
• Untied scaffolds with ineffective bracing;
• Scaffolds tied to a permanent structure.
These three cases of increasing complexity are considered below:
5.7.1 Fully braced and vertically anchored scaffolds
When the ends of structural members are held in position in both directions by bracing or by external restraints
with all members intersecting concentrically at the node points it is safe to take the effective lengths as equal to the
lengths between nodes i.e. KE = 1.0. This is the case of the standards in the middle lift of the scaffold illustrated in
m 1L 1
L1
L3
L2
m2 L2
Figure 5.1 – Effective lengths in fully braced and vertically anchored tube and fitting scaffolding.
Figure 44. Effective lengths in tube and fitting scaffolding

123
table 5.11 Nominal effective length LE for a compression member of length L
a) Non-sway mode
Diagrammatic
Restraint in the direction under consideration LE representation
by other parts of the structure of deformation
(1)
Effectively Effectively restrained in 0.7L
held in direction at both ends L
position
at both ends
(1)
Restrained in 0.85L
direction at one end L
Not restrained in 1.0L

direction at either end L
b) Sway mode
Diagrammatic
One end Other end LE representation
of deformation
Effectively Not held in position

1.5L
held in Partially restrained in direction L
position and
restrained
in direction
Not held in position

Not restrained in direction 2.0L
L
(1) Not normally appropriate for use in tube and coupler structures. Note - Key to end condition code in table 37
Rotation fixed and position fixed Rotation fixed and position free
Rotation free and position fixed Rotation free and position free
124
figure 5.1 where LE = L3 and KE3 = 1.0.
However in tube and fitting scaffolding the joints are not concentric. Analytical studies indicate that where swivel
couplers are used to connect the bracing tubes at the maximum permitted 300 mm eccentricity from the node points,
the effective length factor for the standards should be taken as KE = 1.10 applied to the lift height. Where bracings
are connected to ledgers and transoms immediately adjacent to the node points, the effective length factor for the
standards is closer to unity. Similarly the effective lengths of the horizontal and the bracing members In figure 5.1 can
all be taken as equal to the actual lengths between intersection / node points.
Figure 5.1 also illustrates cases where the standards have unbraced or free cantilever projections (e.g. lengths m1
L1 and m2 L2). In these circumstances the cantilever and the adjacent anchor span should be considered together as
one buckling length, i.e. LE1 = L1 + 2 m1 L1 and LE2 = L2 + 2 m2 L2.
Where both ends of the projecting member are effectively held in position relative to one another, the member is
not a cantilever and can be treated as having effective length factor KE = 1.0 so the effective lengths of the braced
projections become 1.0 m1 L1 and 1.0 m2 L2. This can be achieved by providing external ties resistant to movement
in both axes at the top level and at foot lift level or by continuation of the bracings to the top level and to the base
level respectively.
5.7.2 Unbraced untied scaffolds
Free-standing scaffolds should never be constructed without complete bracing for the obvious reason that normal
couplers can provide only a small degree of joint fixity for frame resistance to sway. However if wind or other
horizontal loads are sufficient to cause uplift at one of the bases of the braced standards the lowest lift of bracing
will become partly or fully ineffective depending on bracing direction. Where the scaffold is only one bay wide it is
particularly vulnerable because base uplift results in overturning and collapse. Where there is more than one bay,
uplift of the base to which a tension brace is connected renders that brace entirely ineffective and, if there is no
other remaining effective bracing, the lowest lift becomes an unbraced sway frame with resultant large horizontal
deflections. When the forces act in the opposite direction the same brace is in compression and is partially effective
but deflections are also increased as are the effective lengths of all the standards in the lowest lift.
The consequences of loss of effective bracing are not normally acceptable in a free standing scaffold so there is
no point in tabulating effective length factors for the unbraced condition. Instead the following measures may be
considered to deal with the problem:
• Provision of kentledge or ground anchors to prevent uplift at the bases of braced standards. This is the only
solution for single bay scaffolds which are exposed to significant wind loading.
• Improve the bracing arrangement. Providing continuous bracing across the width and height of a multi-bay
scaffold will reduce the bracing forces. Provision of bracings of opposing slope in the lowest lift will ensure that
at least one brace is in compression and therefore capable of delivering force to its base. Finally analyse the
improved braced frame to confirm that there is no uplift.
5.7.3 Tied scaffolds
Traditional façade access scaffolds are attached to the façade with ties and also provided with partial bracing but
the standards are not anchored vertically at their bases. This means that the various members and especially the
standards can have different end restraint conditions and consequent effective buckling lengths and these can
change if base uplift occurs. The structural behaviour is therefore quite complex and it will be helpful to consider
separately conditions before and after base uplift. Furthermore tied scaffolds may be constructed either with ledger
bracing on alternate pairs of standards or with proprietary prefabricated transom units fitted to every pair of standards
so as to provide unobstructed access. These forms of construction require separate consideration. Finally brief
consideration will be given to putlog scaffolds although these are now rarely if ever used for heights much above six
metres.
5.7.3.1 Tied ledger braced scaffolds with no base uplift
Under mainly vertical overloading the standards of an independent tied scaffold may buckle either parallel or normal
to the façade as illustrated in figure 5.2. Generally the buckling loads in the two directions are not the same and the
lower buckling load associated with the greater effective length governs the design. The positions of ties and the
presence of bracing members are both important factors in determining the buckling loads for a tied scaffold. In the
following sections about effective lengths, the scaffold is assumed to have ties to alternate standards and the lift
heights are always 2.0 m. However the results may be used where the first lift is a pavement lift of 2.7 m, provided
alternate standards are tied at the first lift or equivalent restraint is provided. This is true for scaffolds with full ledger
bracing whether the lines of ties are at every lift or at alternate lifts.
In the case of buckling parallel to the façade, the front face of the scaffold is fitted with bracing which provides
positional restraint to the standards at every lift so that the effective length is approximately equal to the lift height
125
= Tie position = Tie position

Façade brace
Façade brace
Tie
Tie
interval
Tie interval
Tie
interval
interval
Tie
Bay length Bay length
Tie
interval
interval
(i) Lines of ties at alternate lifts. (ii) Lines of ties at every lift
Figure 5.2 (a) – Buckling modes parallel to the façade (Note - Ledger bracing not shown for clarity)

Tie
Tie
interval
Tie interval
Tie
interval
interval
Bay length Tie Bay length
Bay length Tie
interval Bay length
interval
Figure 5.2 (b) – Buckling modes normal to the façade (Note - Façade bracing not shown for clarity)
Figure 5.2 – Elastic buckling modes for an independent tied scaffold
if the façade bracing is connected to structural transoms. If the façade bracing is connected to the standards with
swivel couplers at the maximum permitted 300 mm eccentricity, the effective length is 1.10 × the lift height. For the
rear face the effective length is equal to the lift height if shear resisting ties are provided at every lift. If the ties are
provided at alternate lifts or (rarely) every third lift, the effective length cannot be greater than two or three lift heights
respectively. However there are additional restraints which act to reduce these latter effective lengths:
• The cruciform stiffness of the right angle couplers joining the ledgers and standards;
• The cruciform stiffness of the putlog couplers joining the transoms and ledgers.
These stiffnesses are listed in table 5.15. The values for class A right angle couplers and putlog couplers have been
incorporated in structural analysis models which were subjected to second order analysis to determine the effective
lengths for buckling parallel to the façade provided in table 5.12 for scaffolds with 2.0 m lift heights. Values for other
lift heights may be determined by second order analysis as explained in Appendix F.3.
For buckling normal to the façade alternate standards may buckle inwards and outwards and for the worst case,
where the ledger braced standards are tied, the effective lengths for 2 m lift heights are provide in table 5.13. Here it
may be noted that the ledger braced standards are fully braced against buckling normal to the façade and therefore
Table 5.12 - Effective lengths, L E, for ledger braced independent tied scaffolds with 2.0 m lifts,
buckling parallel to the façade
Vertical interval between lines of ties All bay lengths
2m 1.9
4m 3.2
6m 4.0
Table 5.13 - Effective lengths, L E, for ledger braced independent tied scaffolds with 2.0 m lifts,
buckling normal to the façade
Bay length (m) 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.0 2.1 2.4 2.7
Effective length (m) 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.9 3.2
126
Table 5.14 - Effective lengths, L E , for ledger braced independent tied scaffolds with 2.0 m lifts
Vertical interval
between lines of ties Bay length (m)
1.2 1.5 1.8 2.0 2.1 2.4 2.7
2 m (1) 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.9 3.2
4 m (2) 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2
6m 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0
Notes
(1) As in figure 7.6 (d) and (e) of the TG 20 Operational Guide.
(2) As in figure 7.6 (a) and (b) of the TG 20 Operational Guide.
have effective lengths 1.0 or 1.1 × the lift height depending on whether the ledger bracing is connected to the
ledgers with right angle couplers or to the standards with swivel couplers at maximum 300 mm eccentricity. The non
ledger braced standards receive only indirect restraint provided by the ledgers and guardrails spanning horizontally
between the ledger braced standards.
The result of the above is that for 2.0 m lift heights:
• For ties at every lift the critical buckling mode is normal to the façade involving the non-ledger braced standards;
• For ties at alternate lifts or every third lift the critical buckling mode is parallel to the façade involving the rear face
standards.
The resultant effective lengths for the critical standards are summarised in table 5.14. For simplicity and
conservatively these values may be used for all the standards but when necessary and valid, higher loads in the non-
critical standards can be justified using their more favourable effective lengths.
Note that the effective lengths for scaffolds with ties at alternate lifts or every third lift can be reduced by providing
façade bracing on the rear face. This inhibits buckling parallel to the façade and permits the values for buckling normal
to the façade to be adopted although this is rarely done in practice.
For scaffolds with storey height lifts of 3.0 m, and ties at every lift, the critical buckling mode is normal to the façade
involving the non-ledger braced standards. The effective length of the non ledger braced standards is 3.0 m for bay
lengths up to 2.4 m and 3.05 m for 2.7 m bay length.
For scaffolds with storey height lifts of 3.0 m, and ties at every lift, the critical buckling mode is normal to the façade
involving the non-ledger braced standards. In this case the effective lengths of the ledger braced standards are only
slightly more favourable so it is not worth differentiating. The effective lengths are summarised in table 5.14 a.
Table 5.14 a – Effective lengths, L E, for ledger braced independent tied scaffolds with 3.0 m lifts
(buckling normal to the façade)
Vertical interval between lines of ties Bay length (m)

2.4 2.7
3m 2.99 3.05
5.7.3.2 Tied scaffolds with prefabricated transom units – no uplift
The following information assumes that every pair of scaffold standards will be fitted with structural transom units
with integral connections of the Readylok type having stiffness properties at least equal to those given in table 5.15.
Table 5.14 b – Effective lengths, L E, for unbraced independent tied scaffolds with 2.0 m lifts and
structural transom units (buckling normal to the façade)
Vertical interval Bay length (m)

between lines of ties
1.5 1.8 2.0 2.1 2.4 2.7
2 m (1) 2.75 2.90 3.0 3.01 3.07 3.1
4m (2)
3.38 3.38 3.38 3.38 3.37 3.35
6m 4.32 4.32 4.32 4.3 4.28 4.23
127
For 2.0 m lifts the critical buckling mode is consistently normal to the façade involving all pairs of standards deforming
in parallel S-curves inflecting at the tied lifts. Resultant effective lengths are given in table 5.14 b.
Corresponding information for 3.0 m storey height lifts is provided in Table 5.14 c.
Table 5.14 c – Effective lengths, L E, for unbraced independent tied scaffolds with 3.0 m lifts and
structural transom units
Vertical interval Inside boards Bay length (m)

between lines of ties
2.1 2.4 2.7
3m No inside boards 2.85 (1)
2.85 (2)
2.94 (2)
1 or 2 inside boards 2.95 (1)
2.95 (1)
2.95 (2)
(1)
Buckling parallel to the façade.
(2)
Buckling normal to the façade.
5.7.3.3 Putlog scaffolds – no uplift
In Figure 5.3 a putlog scaffold is shown in front and end elevations. On the front elevation, the buckling mode parallel
to the façade is shown. Because the scaffold has façade bracing restraining every standard at each lift the effective
length for the standard is equal to the lift height. Buckling is also possible in the direction normal to the façade. The
buckled shape is strongly influenced by the tie positions. In Figure 5.3 the buckled mode is shown for ties at 4 m
intervals. The effective length is then 4.0 m.
Table 5.14 d - Effective lengths, L E, for putlog scaffold standards with 2.0 m lifts,
buckling normal to the façade
Vertical interval Effective lengths in m for buckling normal to the façade

between lines of ties Bay length (m)
1.2 1.5 1.8 2.0 2.1 2.4 2.7
2m 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.9 3.2
4 m 4.0 for all bay lengths
6 m 6.0 for all bay lengths
Tie
LE
LE
Front elevation End elevation
Figure 5.3 – Elastic buckling modes for a putlog scaffold

Note - Lines of ties are on alternate lifts as in Figure 7.6 (a) of the TG 20 Operational Guide.
128
In Table 5.14 d the effective lengths are given for other tie intervals; it can be seen from these figures that unless ties
are fitted at every level, the effective length is equal to the tie interval. Note that the figures in Table 5.14 d apply only
to rectangular tie patterns.
For putlog scaffolds therefore, the effective length to be used in design is either the value given in Table 5.14 d or the
vertical tie interval, whichever is the larger.
5.7.3.4 Tied scaffolds subject to uplift
The consequences of a braced standard lifting off its base due to wind or notional horizontal loads is not so severe
in a tied scaffold as compared with a free standing structure. It should nevertheless be taken into account when
structural analysis indicates that it can occur.
Ledger braced standards may lift off due to horizontal forces acting normal to the façade. Due to the presence of
the ties, stability is not reduced and the bracing is still capable of functioning. The effect of uplift on façade braced
standards due to wind forces parallel to the façade is more significant. As discussed in section 5.7.2, uplift of the
base to which a tension brace is connected renders that brace entirely ineffective. When the forces act in the
opposite direction the brace is in compression and is partially effective. It may be noted that there are other reasons
why a brace may become fully or partially ineffective:
• The force in the brace may exceed the buckling resistance of the brace (only likely with large bay lengths and lift
heights);
• The force in the brace may exceed the slip capacity of its end couplers;
• The bracing force may cause a plastic hinge to form in the standard due to an eccentric connection above the
base plate.
As discussed in 5.7.2 above, consideration may be given to improve the bracing arrangement. Providing continuous
bracing across the width and height of a multi-bay scaffold will reduce the bracing forces. Provision of bracings
of opposing slope in the lowest lift will ensure that at least one brace is in compression and therefore capable of
delivering force to its base. If it is not possible to avoid the lowest lift façade bracing becoming ineffective under
wind forces parallel to the façade, the resultant change in effective length of the lowest lift standards should be taken
into account.
After effective removal of the façade bracing in the lowest lift, the outer frame does not revert to a completely
independent sway frame because the transoms, ledgers, tie tubes and their connections at the first and second lifts
provide some resistance to horizontal movement. This may be limited by the cruciform moment capacity of the putlog
couplers if plan bracing is not present. Following this process is only practical with the assistance of an automated
incremental frame analysis program. It is not feasible to produce tables of ‘deteriorated’ effective lengths for a wide
range of scaffold configurations but tables 5.14 f and 5.14 g may serve to show the trend for a typical example.
5.7.3.5 Effective lengths of double standards
The effective lengths of double standards in tied independent scaffolds are inferior / greater than for normal single
standards. This is because the restraint provided by the connected members is shared between two standards.
Table 5.14 e provides example data for scaffolds with 2.0 m lifts, 2.0 m bay lengths with 5 main and 2 inside boards
comparing effective lengths for single and double standards and the effect of measures to improve performance.
Table 5.14 e – Effective lengths, L E, for independent tied scaffolds with 2.0 m lifts, 2.0 m bays and
double standards
Description Inner standard Outer standard
Single standards 3.2 m 2.2 m
Double standards with guard rails connected only to the principal standard 3.4 m 2.6 m
Double standards with guard rails connected to both standards 3.39 m 2.5 m
With foot lift connected to both standards 3.3 m 2.2 m
5.7.3.6 Effective lengths of other components in tied independent scaffolds
The effective lengths of the bracing members in figure 5.2 may be assumed equal to the length between node points,
Reference may be made to Appendix G.26 for supporting evidence.
The effective length of ledgers may be assumed equal to 1.15 × the bay length as noted in Appendix G.27. If plan
bracing is present in the same bay, the effective length of a ledger may be assumed equal to the bay length.
The effective length of tie tubes is only likely to be relevant in the case of clad scaffolds under severe windward
pressure causing compression force. In this situation the scaffold will probably be strengthened by adding
intermediate butted transoms or by plan bracing. Refer to 5.13 for further guidance.
129
Table 5.14 f – Deteriorated effective lengths, L E, for ledger braced independent tied scaffolds with
2.0 m lifts and 2.0 m bays subject to wind uplift
4 m vertical interval between ties (pattern A):

Case Ties to both outer and inner Ties to both outer and inner ledgers
ledgers plus fully effective additional sway
restraint (triangulation)
No coupler slip 3.2 m for inner standards 3.2 m for inner standards
2.2 m for outer standards (1) 2.2 m for outer standards (1)
Façade brace coupler slip in lowest 3.25 m for inner standards 3.2 m for inner standards
lift 2.65 m for outer standards (1) 2.2 m for outer standards (1)
Façade brace coupler slip in lowest 3.42 m for inner standards 3.35 m for inner standards
lift; putlog coupler cruciform 2.96 m for outer standards (1) 2.6 m for outer standards (1)
stiffness reduced by 41 % and
tie tube RA coupler cruciform
stiffness reduced by 55 %
2 m vertical interval between ties (pattern D):

Case Ties to both outer and inner Ties to both outer and inner ledgers
ledgers plus fully effective additional sway
restraint (triangulation)
No coupler slip 2.45 m for non-ledger braced 2.45 m for non-ledger braced standards
standards 2.25 m for ledger braced standards (2)
2.25 m for ledger braced standards (2)
Façade brace coupler slip in lowest 2.75 m for outer standards 2.45 m for non-ledger braced standards
lift 2.15 m for inner standards (1) 2.25 m for ledger braced standards (2)
Façade brace coupler slip in lowest 3.0 m for outer standards 2.45 m for non-ledger braced standards
lift; putlog coupler cruciform 2.15 m for inner standards (1) 2.25 m for ledger braced standards (2)
stiffness reduced to 50% and
stiffness reduced to 62%
Façade brace coupler slip in lowest 3.15 m for outer standards 2.51 m for outer standards (1)
lift; putlog coupler cruciform 2.15 m for inner standards (1)
stiffness reduced to 37% and
stiffness reduced to 46%
(1)
Buckling parallel to the façade.
(2)
Buckling normal to the façade.
Table 5.14 g – Effective lengths, L E, for unbraced independent tied scaffolds with 2.0 m lifts and
transom units subject to wind uplift
4 m vertical interval between ties (pattern A):

Case Ties to both outer and inner ledgers
No coupler slip 3.38 m for all standards
Façade brace coupler slip in lowest lift 3.4 m for inner standards
2.71 m for outer standards
Façade brace coupler slip in lowest lift; putlog coupler 3.45 m for inner standards
cruciform stiffness reduced to 50 % and tie tube RA 2.86 m for outer standards
coupler cruciform stiffness reduced to 62 %
2 m vertical interval between ties (pattern D):

Case Ties to both outer and inner ledgers
No coupler slip 2.97 m for all standards
Façade brace coupler slip in lowest lift 2.97 m for all standards
Façade brace coupler slip in lowest lift; putlog coupler 3.01 m for all standards
cruciform stiffness reduced to 50 % and tie tube RA
coupler cruciform stiffness reduced to 62 %
130
5.8 Structural design criteria for scaffold tube members
In order to justify the safety of a scaffold design it is necessary to demonstrate that the overall structural frame and
all its structural members and connections have adequate strength to support the feasible combinations of loads (the
ultimate limit state) and that the movements of the structure under working loads are not excessive (the serviceability
limit state). Nowadays an exhaustive check on both of these criteria can be done using computer software to
analyse and design check all the members and joints of a structural model representing the real scaffold. However
there are many circumstances where it may be necessary or preferable to carry out ‘hand calculations’ – not least to
understand how the structure works or to verify a computer result. Fortunately, in practice an experienced scaffold
designer will usually be able to identify the critical load combinations and members and restrict attention to these.
5.8.1 Design check for member strength
In nearly all cases the critical design check for a scaffold tube member resolves to an assessment of the interaction of
bending moment and axial force. Shear effects are almost always insignificant.
BS EN 12811-1 clause 10.1.2.1 requires that the design of steel members shall be in accordance with ENV 1993-
1-1 which has since been superseded by BS EN 1993-1-1:2005. The verification of ultimate strength is covered
in section 6 of this code and at first sight the provisions are lengthy and complex. However there are important
characteristics of scaffold tube that permit a much simplified approach namely:
• Class 1 sections require no allowance for local buckling;

• Bi-symmetrical sections allow easy resolution of moments;
• Bi-symmetrical sections preclude lateral-torsional buckling due to moments.
The result is simplified interaction formulae which can be used for verification at either the ultimate limit state (ULS)
or at working load provided that the correct values are assigned to the variables:
For compression: For tension:
where: where:
Fc is the axial compression force in the member. Ft is the axial tension force in the member.
Pc is the safe axial compression load or 1.5 × this Pt is the safe axial tension load = fy × Ag / 1.65
value for ULS. or 1.5 × this value for ULS.
M is the maximum moment in the member as appropriate to working load or ULS analysis.
Mr is the safe working moment (from table 5.9) or 1.5 × this value for ULS.
Note:
1. Where the member is subject to bi-axial bending the resultant moment should be used:
M = Mv2 + Mh2
2. Where the member is in compression and subject to a uniaxial moment varying along its length an equivalent
uniform moment Me = Cm × M may (if necessary) be substituted in the interaction formula where Cm is a
uniform moment factor.
For linear moment distribution:
Cm = 0.60 + 0.40 × M1 / M2 ≥ 0.40

where M1 is the lesser and M2 is the greater end moment and reversal is signified by moments of different
sign.
Values for non linear moment diagrams may be obtained from Table B.3 in BS EN 1993-1-1
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5.8.2 Design check for deflection
BS EN 12811-1 clause 6.3 ‘Deflections’ provides limiting deflections only for platform units, guardrails and fencing.
There is no guidance for the main structure. In the design of permanent structures the guidance also tends to be
ambiguous. However it may be noted that the UK National Annex to BS EN 1993-1-1 NA 2.23 suggests the following
under variable loads only:
• Cantilevers: length / 180;

• Beams without sensitive finishes: span / 200;
• Horizontal deflections of multi storey frames: storey height / 300.
In the development of the TG20 compliant standard designs it was considered that deflection limits for permanent
structures were far too severe to be adopted for scaffolding and that users would accept much greater flexibility in
scaffold structures. Note was taken that BS EN 12811-1 clause 6.3 considers that the deflection of platform units
should be limited to span / 100 and relative deflection between units 25 mm. Accordingly it was decided to apply
similar limits to the main scaffold structure:
• Member normal or lateral deflections: greater of span / 100 and 25 mm;

• Sway deflections: greater of height / 100 and 25 mm.
Only the following (SLS) load combinations were checked:
• Dead load only;

• Imposed load only;
• Dead + working wind in +X direction;
• Dead + working wind in –X direction;
• Dead + working wind in +Z direction;
• Dead + working wind in –Z direction.
Maximum wind loads occurring out-of-service were not included.
With these criteria no deflection violations were recorded for tied façade scaffolds which is perhaps why BS EN
12811-1 does not require any checks and implies that the main scaffold structure can be designed without checking
deflections except insofar as they are incorporated in allowances for second order instability. Deflection checks
should be reconsidered for special scaffolds and untied scaffolds.
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5.9 Structural properties and design criteria for couplers
Table 5.15 lists the structural properties of scaffold couplers commonly used in the UK. These properties apply
when the couplers are in good condition with only the screw threads lubricated and tightened to at least 50 Nm or
as recommended by the manufacturer. Lubricant must be restricted to bolt threads and not allowed on the contact
surfaces between tube and coupler.
Table 5.15 – Working load design parameters for scaffold couplers on steel and aluminium (11) tubes
Coupler type Parameter Symbol Value Units
Right angle coupler class A Slip force Fs 6.1 (1) kN
Cruciform stiffness Cf 1 10.0 (2)
kNm/radian
Cruciform moment MB1 0.32 (2) kNm
Rotational stiffness Cf T 5.0 (3)
kNm/radian
Rotational moment MT1 0.053 (3) kNm
Right angle coupler class B Slip force Fs 9.1 (1)
kN
Cruciform stiffness Cf 1 15.0 (1)
kNm/radian
Cruciform moment MB1 0.48 (1) kNm
Rotational stiffness Cf T 7.5 (1)
kNm/radian
Rotational moment MT1 0.079 (1) kNm
Swivel coupler class A Slip force Fs 6.1 (1)
kN
Swivel coupler class B Slip force Fs 9.1 (1) kN
Putlog coupler Slip force along transom FsT 0.63 (4)
kN
Slip force along ledger FsL 3.9 (5)
kN
Cruciform stiffness Cf 1 2.5 (6) kNm/radian
Cruciform moment MB1 0.056 (6)
kNm
Parallel coupler class A Slip force Fs 6.1 (1) kN
Parallel coupler class B Slip force Fs 9.1 (1)
kN
Friction type sleeve coupler class A Slip force Fs 3.6 (1)
kN
Bending moment MB1 0.57 (7) kNm
Friction type sleeve coupler class B Slip force Fs 5.5 (1)
kN
Bending moment MB1 0.85 (1) kNm
Internal joint pin Slip force Fs 0.00 (8)
kN
Readylok type transom unit coupler (9) Slip force down standard Fsy 6.1 kN
Slip force along ledger Fsx 1.2 kN
Transom to standard: rotation about ledger axis
- bending stiffness Cfsx1 22.5 kNm/radian
- bending moment MBsx1 1.15 kNm
Transom to standard: rotation about transom axis
- bending stiffness Cfsz1 24.0 kNm/radian
- bending moment MBsz1 1.15 kNm
Transom to ledger: rotation about standard axis
- bending stiffness Cfly1 2.5 kNm/radian
- bending moment MBly1 0.18 kNm
Transom to ledger: rotation about transom axis
- bending stiffness Cflz1 14.0 kNm/radian
- bending moment MBlz1 1.03 kNm
Band and plate ‘double’ coupler Slip force
- parallel to saddle Fs ∥ 6.1 (10) kN
- perpendicular to saddle Fs ⊥ 6.1 (10) kN
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Notes
General: The safe working values of slip force and bending moment may be multiplied by 1.50 for use in design at
the ultimate limit state using partial safety factors. The stiffness values must not be factored up.
1. These figures are based on BS EN 74:2005.

2. These figures are based on tests commissioned by the NASC reported by MHR Godley and RG Beale of Oxford
Brookes University (5.1, 5.2). Values are subject to evidence of verification by the manufacturer.
3. These figures assume that the rotational properties of class A right angle couplers are 0.67 × the values for class
B i.e. pro rata to the slip capacities as justified for the cruciform properties by the above tests.
4. The safe slip force along the transom for a putlog coupler is taken from BS 1139-2.2:2009 table B.1.
5. The safe slip force along the ledger for a putlog coupler is based on tests commissioned by the NASC reported
by MHR Godley of Oxford Brookes University (5.3).
6. The cruciform stiffness and strength of putlog couplers is based on tests commissioned by the NASC reported
by MHR Godley and RG Beale of Oxford Brookes University (5.3). Values are subject to evidence of verification by
the manufacturer.
7. The safe bending moment of class A sleeve couplers is assumed to be 0.67 × the value for class B i.e. pro rata
to the slip capacities as justified for right angle couplers (note 2).
8. Internal joint pins are intended for use only with standards which are never subject to tension. Therefore the safe
slip force is taken to be zero.
9. The structural parameters listed for Readylok-type transom to standard couplers are based on tests
commissioned by the NASC on samples of a particular proprietary prefabricated transom product. The bending
and horizontal slip tests were carried out at Oxford Brookes University and reported by MHR Godley in 2013. The
vertical slip tests were carried out at Lloyds British Testing Ltd in March 2013. Whilst it is believed that the
figures given here are conservative lower bound values, this cannot be guaranteed and designers should seek
verification from the supplier that the intended product can achieve the test results specified in table 5.15.
10. There is no current British or European standard for band and plate couplers. The safe slip forces are based
on manufacturers’ data and long established practice. No published data is available for cruciform stiffness
and strength but informal evidence suggests that band and plate connections exhibit much greater looseness
and flexibility than the ‘hinged gate’ right angle couplers covered by BS EN 74. Therefore it would be prudent
not to rely on any cruciform stiffness at ledger to standard connections. Consequently the effective lengths of
standards connected with band and plate couplers will be significantly greater than for scaffolds using BS EN 74
RA couplers with the same arrangement of ties.
11. The values for aluminium and steel couplers on aluminium tube are the same as for steel couplers on steel tube
except that the values of cruciform bending stiffness should be reduced by 14%.
If it is intended to use proprietary couplers outside the scope of the relevant standards their structural parameters
should be verified by testing either:
• In conformance with BS EN 12811-3 using the statistical method of evaluation given therein. Safe working values
of forces and moments may then be obtained by dividing the relevant nominal characteristic strength value by
1.65.
• Taking the lowest strength result from 5 samples and dividing this by 2.0 to obtain a safe working value.
When it is intended to increase the safe working capacity of a joint by the use of supplementary couplers to back up
the main coupler, the information required regarding the strength of the proposed arrangement should be obtained
from the manufacturer or supplier. However BS EN 12811-1 Annex C table C1 implies that the combined slip
resistance of two class A right angle couplers should be assumed as 1.5 × the slip resistance of a single coupler and
the combined slip resistance of two class B right angle couplers should be assumed as 1.67 × the slip resistance of a
single coupler.
Where the main coupler is a swivel coupler, no more than one supplementary coupler should be used unless butt
tubes are used to give additional support.
The resistance of couplers rotating round a tube is small and should not normally be used in the design of a scaffold
unless the information regarding the characteristic strength of the arrangement is available from the coupler
manufacturer or supplier. This is particularly relevant to the case of tie tubes connected only to the inner face of a
façade access scaffold. Where the tube is set at right angles to the façade a right angle coupler connection to the
standard would provide very little resistance to movement parallel to the façade.
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5.10 Function and load capacity of scaffold boards and other

platform units
5.10.1 General
The function of scaffold boards and other platform units is obviously to provide a surface for personnel access and
temporary storage of equipment and materials. They are required to span between supporting board transoms to
support the nominal loads designated for the scaffold duty class or specific storage loads. Reference may be made to
section 6.15 of the TG20 Operational Guide for good construction practice and to section 2.1.8.2 of this design guide
for introductory remarks on structural design.
Current practice in the UK for platform units in tube and fitting scaffolds in nearly all cases, is to use timber scaffold
boards of 225 × 38 mm section to the lowest (1.2 m target span) grade of BS 2482:2009 clauses 1a(1) and 7.2. Boards
complying with the higher grades in BS 2482 may also be used and longer spans between supporting transoms may
be justified for service load classes 1 to 3.
Proprietary board products manufactured with plastic, laminated veneer lumber (LVL) or pressed aluminium are
also available. Plywood decking may also be used and is especially useful for non rectangular areas. All these other
decking products should be justified by structural calculations in accordance with the relevant code of practice and/
or manufacturers’ validated data. It should be noted that the TG20 compliant designs for tied independent façade
scaffolds assume 1.2 m transom spacings for service load classes 1 to 3 and 0.9 m for class 4. They are not valid for
wider transom spacings. Similarly the effective length tables in section 5.7.3 of this design guide assume the same
transom spacings and should not be relied on for wider spacings without validation by second order frame analysis as
described in Appendix F.3.
5.10.2 Structural design
5.10.2.1 General and loading
The relevant design imposed loads for access scaffold platforms required by BS EN 12811-1 are summarised in table
4.1 of this guide and discussed in section 4.2.2.1. Timber scaffold boards to BS 2482:2009 lowest grade as noted
above are adequate to support service load classes 1 to 3 if supported by transoms at target spacing 1.2 m or 0.9 m
for class 4 and no calculations are necessary. All plywood and proprietary boards and decking units are subject to
manufacturers’ design or calculations by the scaffold designer.
Where it is necessary to provide a platform for significant storage or other abnormal loading, design calculations
should be prepared to demonstrate that the platform units or boards are strong enough to safely support the relevant
uniform, partial and concentrated loads over the span between transoms with in service deflections limited in
accordance with clause 6.3.1 of BS EN 12811-1 to the greater of:
• Span / 100;
• 25 mm.
Platform units are also subject to wind uplift loading. This is never significant for strength design but in certain
conditions lift-off can occur and can be prevented by use of proprietary clamps as described in section 6.15 of the
TG20 Operational Guide. Clamps are also required where it is necessary to use boards shorter than 2.15 m to prevent
tipping and general movement under foot traffic. Refer to section 4.2.3.6.2 of this guide for information on wind uplift
forces.
5.10.2.2 Section properties
For structural design parameters of scaffold boards to BS 2482 and other timber sections refer to section 5.4 of
this guide. Table 5.8 gives working moment and shear capacities for load duration 6 months, outdoor exposure
and no load sharing in accordance with BS 5268-2:2002. These values may be adjusted for other conditions by pro
rata calculation using the modification factors in tables 5.7.1, 2 and 5. Structural design parameters and shear and
moment capacities for other decking sections should be obtained from the manufacturer or relevant code of practice.
5.10.2.3 Structural analysis
Normal full length scaffold boards are usually continuous over several spans. However it is not generally considered
safe to allow for the favourable effects of continuity and so design calculations are normally based on simply
supported spans between transoms. This is because a span may be fully loaded whilst the adjacent span(s) are
unloaded and clamps may not be present to tie down the unloaded spans.
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5.11 Function and load capacity of scaffold transoms
Reference should be made to section 2.1.6 of this design guide or to section 6.8 of the TG20 Operational Guide for
good practice guidance and details of construction of transoms in façade scaffolds. For birdcage scaffolds refer to
section 2.3.6 of this guide or to section 13.2 of the TG20 Operational Guide.
There are basically five types or functions of transoms:
• Board bearing transoms;

• Tie tube transoms;
• Butting transoms;
• System structural transoms;
• Birdcage structural transoms.
In certain circumstances some of these functions may be combined in one member as discussed below
5.11.1 Board transoms
The principal function of board transoms is obviously to support the scaffold boards or platform units and to transmit
the platform loads to the supporting ledgers. In this function a transom may operate as:
• A simply supported span as in a façade scaffold with no inside boards or in a tower;

• Cantilever and anchor span as in a façade scaffold with inside boards;
• Two or more continuous spans as in the top lift of a birdcage scaffold.
5.11.1.1 Simply supported spans
Maximum bending moment at midspan:

M = 0.125 × W × L kNm
Maximum deflection at midspan:

1302 × Wi × L 3
d= mm
E×I
where:
W is the total uniformly distributed load on the span in kN;
Wi is the uniformly distributed load on the span for deflection which can be just the imposed load;
L is the span between centres of ledgers in metres;
E is the modulus of elasticity of steel [210 kN/mm2];
I is the second moment of area of the tube section [13.8 cm4 for type 4 tube].
For board transoms at normal spacings in façade access scaffolds up to 6 boards wide no calculations are required
because moment and deflections are well within limits. In birdcages and towers the transom spans are usually longer
and in loading and storage bays the loads are higher so the above calculations are required. The maximum moment
is to be compared with the relevant moment capacity from table 5.9 and the maximum deflection with the deflection
limit for which refer to section 5.8.2. Generally the greater of span / 100 and 25 mm may be considered a reasonable
limit for temporary scaffolding structures. These checks may lead to closer transom spacings than 1.2 m.
5.11.1.2 Cantilever and anchor spans
Maximum bending moment at cantilever support:

Mc = 0.5 × Wc × Lc kNm
Maximum deflection at end of cantilever:

Wci × Lc 2 × 105 × (0.167 La + 0.125 Lc)
dc = mm
E×I
Where:
Wc is the total uniformly distributed load on the cantilever span in kN;
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Wci is the uniformly distributed load on the cantilever for deflection which can be just the imposed load;
La is the anchor span between centres of ledgers in metres;
Lc is the cantilever span beyond the centre of the nearest ledger in metres;
For simplicity and conservatively the deflection formula above ignores the favourable restraint effect of any loads that
may be present on the anchor span. The anchor span itself should be checked as a simply supported span neglecting
the cantilever following 5.11.1.1. For board transoms at normal spacings in façade access scaffolds up to 6 boards
wide with up to 2 inside boards no calculations are required because moment and deflections are well within limits.
5.11.1.3 Continuous spans
The design check for strength of continuous transoms may be based on the formation of a plastic collapse
mechanism in the end span:
Bending moment at penultimate support and maximum in span:

M = 0.086 × W × L kNm
Maximum deflection in span:
900 × Wi × L 3
d= mm
E×I
Where the variables are as defined in 5.11.1.1. The deflection formula is approximate for an end span condition.
The moment check assumes that no sleeve coupler is present in the span or near the support in the adjacent span.
As a class A sleeve coupler has only half the moment resistance of a type 4 scaffold tube it is necessary to place
restrictions on the position of sleeve couplers if the transom is to be fully loaded. However where not more than two
thirds of the full capacity of the transom is required the position of couplers need not be controlled. Refer to 5.12 for
guidance for the similar situation for ledgers.
5.11.2 Tie tube transoms
The preferred and usual method of connecting a façade scaffold to the tie anchorages in the façade is by means of
tie tubes connected to the inner and outer ledgers with right angle couplers. [Putlog couplers have insufficient slip
resistance and band-and-plate couplers have insufficient cruciform stiffness.] Unfortunately right angle couplers do
not permit scaffold boards to be laid over them to form a level platform surface so there are two options:
• Lay the boards between the couplers. Where inside boards are required this causes a gap in the platform which
combined with the standard is of sufficient width to require cover strips be fitted.
• Fix the tie tubes below the ledgers as ‘underslung transoms’. In this case the tie tube cannot act as a board
bearing transom but the arrangement allows the board bearing transoms to be fixed to suit the board lengths
without reference to the positions of the standards.
The second option is usually adopted. The tie tube structural functions are described in section 5.11.14 of this guide.
5.11.3 Butting transoms
Traditional practice expressed in clause 5.1.1 of TG20:08 is to assume that “under wind pressure the ends of
the [board] transoms will normally move into bearing with the face of the building and in combination with the
compressive resistance of the ties (if any) provide sufficient restraint to resist the effects of wind pressure. For this
process to be effective the ends of such transoms should be positioned no more than 50 mm from the face of the
building.” Whilst this is still valid for unclad scaffolds, the following points should be noted:
• 50 mm service gap is insufficient or inconvenient for many façade finishing operations.

• Some façades may suffer unacceptable damage from general butting.
In these circumstances it is preferable to minimise the number of contacts with the façade by arranging for the ties to
have push/pull capability as discussed in sections 6.8 and 7.4 of the TG20 Operational Guide. In this case, for unclad
scaffolds and scaffolds clad with high permeability netting the design compression and tension forces in ties are
the same so the anchorages must be rated accordingly. However for sheeted scaffolds and scaffolds clad with low
permeability netting, the effects due to pressure on the windward face are up to four times the effects on the suction
faces and some intermediate butting transoms may be unavoidable. The compression forces in the butting transoms
of sheeted scaffolds generally exceed the slip resistance of putlog couplers so right angle or band-and-plate couplers
will be required.
137
5.11.4 System transoms
The overall behaviour of scaffolds with ‘system’ transoms is discussed in section 4.4.2 of this guide. When acting
as board transoms to support dead and imposed loading their performance is at least as good as normal board
transoms and no calculations are necessary for the usual range of spans for up to 6 boards and load classes 1 to 4. In
the unlikely case of use for heavy storage and loading bays, calculations will be required as for normal transoms and
supplementary couplers may be required to transmit the whole bay load to the standards.
In order to resist wind loading normal to the façade, moments are generated in the couplers to the standards and
should be checked against the moment capacity given in table 5.15 or equivalent manufacturer’s data.
5.11.5 Birdcage structural transoms
Unlike façade scaffolds and towers, the transoms in a birdcage scaffold extend over several bays or spans. Their
function as board bearing transoms in the top lift and in the perimeter access bays (if any) of a birdcage are discussed
above in 5.11.1. ‘Structural’ transoms are required to be provided in the lower lifts of all birdcages and in the top lift
of free standing birdcages. They act in conjunction with the bracing to provide lateral stability against buckling or
excessive movement in the direction parallel to the transoms. They should be connected directly to the standards
with right angle couplers. This is to ensure residual sway stability if the bracing becomes ineffective due to lift off,
accident or unauthorised removal.
5.12 Function and load capacity of scaffold ledgers
The principal function of the ledgers is obviously to support the board bearing transoms and deliver the platform loads
to the supporting standards. The ledgers also have other functions which may be more or less important according to
circumstances namely:
• Ledgers act in bending in the horizontal plane to deliver wind and other out-of-plane horizontal loads (e.g. normal
to the façade if present) to out-of-plane bracing systems (e.g. ledger braced frames and ties in façade scaffolds
and transverse bracing in birdcages and towers.) This bending may be critical in sheeted scaffolds.
• Ledgers act axially and in bending in conjunction with the standards and in-plane bracing sets (e.g. façade
bracing) to resist all or part of wind and other in-plane horizontal loads and deliver them to the foundations of the
standards.
• Ledgers act axially and in bending in conjunction with structural and board transoms and tie tubes and plan
bracing (if any) to deliver part of wind and other horizontal loads and deliver them to the façade anchorages (if
any).
These functions are considered in more detail in the following sections:
5.12.1 Ledgers subject to vertical loading
The inner ledgers of façade scaffolds with inside boards supported by cantilever extensions of the board transoms are
subject to increased loading due to cantilever – anchor span action. The point loads delivered to the ledgers by the
transoms in façade scaffolds may be calculated as follows:
Load due to the main / anchor span on both ledgers:

FMI = FMO = 0.5 Wa
Load on inner ledger due to cantilever:
FCI = [ La + 0.5 Lc ] × Wa / La
Load on outer ledger due to cantilever:

FCO = – 0.5 Wc × Lc / La [i.e. uplift]
Where:
Wa is the total uniformly distributed load on the transom main/anchor span in kN;
Wc is the total uniformly distributed load on the transom cantilever span in kN;
La is the transom main/anchor span between centres of ledgers in metres;
Lc is the loaded transom cantilever span beyond the centre of the nearest ledger in metres.
Ledgers usually act as continuous beams in façade and birdcage scaffolds but in towers and in curved façade
scaffolds they will be simply supported. Where a ledger is found to be inadequate to support the required loading
138
over the span between standards there are various options to be considered:
• Use a proprietary beam instead of a scaffold tube;

• Reduce the span / bay length between standards;
• Introduce puncheons (vertical props) to share loads between the ledgers in two or more lifts;
• Introduce twin braces to prop the ledger at midspan (dividing the span in two) or third points (dividing the span
by three) and connected to the standards just above the ledger in the lift below.
For simplicity and conservatively all ledgers supporting predominantly vertical loads may be checked against the safe
loads for simply supported ledgers in table 5.16. If necessary improved performance may be obtained by relaxing
the deflection limit to span / 100 or whatever is deemed acceptable and calculation by analysis from first principles or
using the following formulae
Table 5.16 - Safe loads for Type 4 tube to BS EN 39 as simply supported ledgers
Centre point load Uniformly distributed load
Span of ledger “as new” tube “used” tube “as new” tube “used” tube
m kN kN kN kN
1.2 3.74 3.30 7.47 6.60
1.5 2.99 2.64 4.95 4.32
1.8 2.15 1.87 3.44 3.00
2.0 1.74 1.52 2.78 2.43
2.1 1.58 1.38 2.52 2.20
2.4 1.21 1.05 1.93 1.69
2.5 1.11 0.97 1.78 1.55
2.7 0.95 0.83 1.53 1.33
Note
The limits of safe load are either bending strength or deflection limited to span / 200
5.12.1.1 Simply supported spans
Single point load at midspan
Maximum bending moment at midspan:

M = 0.25 × P × L kNm
2083 × Pi × L 3
d= mm
E×I
where:
P is the point load at mid span in kN;
Pi is the point load at mid span for deflection which can be just the imposed load;
L is the span between centres of supports in metres;
Two point loads at quarter span
Maximum bending moment under load:

M = 0.25 × P × L kNm

139
2865 × Pi × L 3
d= mm
E×I
where:
P is the point load at each quarter point in kN
Pi is the point load at each quarter point for deflection.

Note that two point loads at quarter points produce almost the same effects as if the two loads were uniformly
distributed.
5.12.1.2 Continuous spans
The design check for strength of continuous ledgers may be based on the formation of a plastic collapse mechanism
in the end span:
Single point load on span
Bending moment at penultimate support and maximum in span with point load at midspan:
M = 0.167 × P × L kNm
Bending moment at penultimate support and maximum in span with point load at most adverse position [0.414 ×
span from simply supported end]:
M = 0.172 × P × L kNm
Maximum deflection in span:
1400 × Pi × L 3
d= mm
E×I
Where the variables are as defined in 5.12.1.1. The deflection formula is approximate for an end span condition.
Two point loads at quarter span points
Maximum bending moment at penultimate support and under outer load :

M = 0.200 × P × L kNm
1900 × Pi × L 3
d= mm
E×I
where:
P is the point load at each quarter point in kN;
Pi is the point load at each quarter point for deflection.

Note that two point loads at quarter points produce almost the same effects as if the two loads were uniformly
distributed.
The moment check assumes that no sleeve coupler is present in the span or near the support in the adjacent span.
As a class A sleeve coupler has only half the moment resistance of a type 4 scaffold tube it is necessary to place
restrictions on the position of sleeve couplers if the ledger is to be fully loaded. However where not more than two
thirds of the full capacity of the ledger is required the position of couplers need not be controlled.
5.12.2 Ledgers subject to bending in the horizontal plane
The ledgers (and guard rails) span horizontally under wind loading acting on the vertical face of the scaffold (normal
to the façade in a façade access scaffold). Where the scaffold is unclad, the bending moments are very small except
near to tie positions especially if the tie is positioned at the maximum eccentricity of 300 mm from the nearest ledger
braced frame. If the maximum eccentricity is exceeded calculations should be done and it may be necessary to
strengthen the lift with plan bracing or ladder beams fixed ‘on the flat’.
Where the scaffold is clad and especially if sheeted or fitted with low permeability netting, bending of the ledgers
under high wind pressure will become critical unless plan bracing or additional butting structural transoms are
introduced as discussed in 4.4.1.2.
140
5.12.3 Ledgers as members of scaffold frames in the vertical planes
The ledgers are horizontal members of frames in the vertical planes acting in conjunction with the standards and
bracing to resist wind and other forces acting in-plane. The principal force effect is axial but small bending moments
are also generated and these increase if the braced standards lift-off and force the frame to act as a sway frame in
bending. Generally the effects are small relative to the tube section capacities. However they have to be transmitted
through the right angle couplers and any sleeve couplers both of which have much smaller capacities than the tube
section. If sets of bracing are spaced too far apart the resulting tensile forces can exceed the slip capacity of any
sleeve coupler under high wind loading. The slip capacities of system transoms in the horizontal direction are also
limited and should be checked.
5.12.4 Ledgers as members of scaffold frames in the horizontal plane of each lift of a tied
independent scaffold
The ledgers also act in conjunction with the transoms, tie tubes and plan bracing (if present) as members of frames in
the horizontal plane of each lift of tied independent scaffolds to transmit wind and other forces parallel to the façade
to the façade anchorages. The principal force effect is axial but small bending moments are also generated in the
horizontal plane if there is no plan bracing. The effects are very small relative to the section capacities but the putlog
and right angle couplers may be critical. If shear resisting ties are spaced too far apart the resulting tensile forces can
exceed the slip capacity of any sleeve coupler under high wind loading.
5.13 Function and load capacity of tie tubes and additional

sway restraint
The tie tube is subjected to axial compression and tension forces due to wind blowing normal to the façade. Only in
the case of sheeted scaffolds in the windward condition are these axial forces remotely significant compared to the
axial capacity of the tube. In this case the effective buckling length of tie tubes of the tie tubes may be calculated as
follows:
• For tie tubes set at right angles to the façade connected to both ledgers with no triangulation between the
façade and the inner ledger and no plan bracing in the lift:
LE = 1.213 LC + 2.055 LA
where:
LE is the effective length;
LC is the length between the centreline of the inner ledger and the effective point of anchorage in the façade;
LA is the length between the centrelines of the inner and outer ledgers.
• For tie tubes set at right angles to the façade connected to both ledgers with no triangulation between the
façade and the inner ledger but with at least one bay of plan bracing every 6 bays in the lift:
LE = 2 LC + LA
• For tie tubes set at right angles to the façade connected to the inner ledger only with no triangulation between
the façade and the inner ledger with 120 mm clearance off the façade:
No inside boards: LE = 4.05 m

One inside board: LE = 6.23 m
Two inside boards: LE = 7.85 m
• For tie tubes set at right angles to the façade with triangulation between the façade and the inner ledger:
LE = LC
However the tie tubes are also subject to shear and bending moments in the horizontal plane due to wind forces
parallel to the façade. As discussed in 4.2.3.3, these effects are maximum when the wind is incident at angles about
70 ° to normal to the façade. The shear forces acting on the tie anchorages may be obtained from computer aided
structural analysis of the relevant load combinations or by manual calculations using the formulae in 5.16.2. If the
connection of the tie tube to the anchorage is effectively pinned, the resultant bending moment in the tie tube at the
inner ledger is equal to the shear force multiplied by the distance from the inner ledger centre line to the effective
point of anchorage. In conditions of high wind exposure particularly when the scaffold is clad and fitted with inside
boards increasing the lever arm, this bending moment can exceed the moment capacity of the tube section. In this
141
situation it is necessary to provide ‘additional sway resistance’ as it is termed in section 7.9 of the TG20 Operational
Guide. There are several methods of providing additional sway resistance:
• Doubling the tie tubes as illustrated by fig 7.27 of the TG20 Operational Guide. Obviously this increases the sway
resistance in proportion to the number of doubled tie tubes;
• Providing a connection to the façade which is effectively fixed in the horizontal plane e.g.:
a. a heavy duty box tie as shown in figure 7.29 of the TG20 Operational Guide;
b. a heavy duty T-tie to the façade designed to transmit the resistance moment of the tube to the façade using
a stiffened plate , angle or box section.
• Providing additional sway transoms connected to both ledgers and wedged into recesses in the façade so as
to provide shear resistance in both directions. The increase in sway resistance is proportional to the number of
additional sway transoms and inversely proportional to the distance between the inner ledger and the effective
point of support in the façade.
• Triangulation of all or selected tie tubes as illustrated in figures 7.25 and 7.26 of the TG20 Operational Guide.
The triangulated ties will attract nearly all the horizontal force parallel to the façade because of their greater
stiffness. The shear capacity of the anchorages should be checked especially if only a proportion of the ties are
triangulated. Also if only a proportion of the ties are triangulated significant axial tension may be generated in the
ledgers between ties which may exceed the capacity of any sleeve coupler.
• Fixing ties at alternately opposing skew angles in the horizontal plane. This has the same effect as triangulation.
Note that when sufficient triangulation is provided the ties will not be subject to significant bending and the critical
design parameter is likely to be shear of the anchorage.
5.14 Equivalent joint and area loads
For clad scaffolds wind load effects may be calculated relatively easily especially when using structural analysis
software which allows area or panel loads to be applied in kN/m2 and automatically distributes to the supporting
members. However it can be very tedious to input wind loads acting on individual members of an unclad scaffold.
In order to simplify the input of loads for analysis of wind effects on an unclad scaffold the following approximate
formulae may be used to calculate equivalent area and joint/node loads. The equivalent area loads (where applicable)
can be applied to the face of the scaffold structural model. Alternatively the equivalent joint loads may be applied to
the principal nodes where standards and ledgers meet:
5.14.1 Wind loads normal to the façade
These formulae are for the outer face internal nodes. No load need be applied to the inner face nodes. For edge and
corner nodes apply appropriate reductions.
For unboarded lifts:

Fn a = qp × cs × cft × Ket kN/m2
Fn j = Fn a × Hl × Lb kN
For boarded lifts:

Fn a = qp × cs × [(cft × Ket)+ (cfb × Keb) + (cfg × Keg)] kN/m2
Fn j = Fn a × Hl × Lb kN
where:
Fn a is the area + or –ve working area load applied to the outer face of the scaffold structural model in kN/m2;
Fn j is the individual + or – ve working load applied to an outer face internal node in kN;
qp is the peak velocity wind pressure in kN/m2;
cs is the site or location coefficient:
cs = 0.25 for impermeable façade or:
cs = 1.0 for fully permeable façade – refer to 4.2.3.5.1 for a partly permeable façade].
Hl is the lift height in metres;
Lb is the bay length in metres;
cft is the aerodynamic force coefficient for scaffold tube = 1.2;
cfb is the aerodynamic force coefficient for toe board / platform edge zones = 1.3;
cfg is the aerodynamic force coefficient for brick guards:
142
cfg = 0.083 for wire brick guards;

cfg = 0.177 for plastic brick guards – provisional calculated values subject to validation by testing.
Ket is a factor relating the reference area of scaffold tube to the gross area: Hl × Lb:
Ket = 0.18 for 2 m lifts, 0.15 for 3 m lifts for unboarded lifts (single guard rails);
Ket = 0.23 for 2 m lifts, 0.18 for 3 m lifts for boarded lifts (double guard rails for 2 m lifts, triple for 3 m).
Keb is a factor relating the reference area of toe board / edge zone to the gross area: Hl × Lb:
Keb = 0.12 for 2 m lifts, 0.08 for 3 m lifts with outer toe board only;
Keb = 0.15 for 2 m lifts, 0.10 for 3 m lifts with inner and outer toe boards.
Keg is a factor relating the elevation area of brick guard to the gross area: Hl × Lb:
Keg = 0.358 for 2 m lifts; Keg = 0.239 for 3 m lifts.
5.14.2 Wind loads parallel to the façade
These formulae are for all nodes:
TBC xx
5.15 Tie / anchor forces
If the designer has created an electronic structural model of a tied access scaffold, the tie forces for the specified
load combinations will be available from the reaction results of the structural analysis provided by the computer
software. If the limit state partial safety factor format has been adopted, it will be necessary to ‘unfactor’ the relevant
reaction results for the ultimate limit state load combinations by dividing by 1.50 to get the required safe working
forces generally understood in the industry.
If the design is done without computer software it will be necessary to estimate tie forces by manual calculation. A
manual check may also be required to verify that modelling and analysis by computer is giving credible results. Some
simple methods for manual calculation are given in this section.
5.15.1 Tie / anchor forces normal to the façade
Approximate formulae are provided below to assist with estimating tie forces.
In most cases the formulae relate to internal ties. Where the top lift is untied the critical tie is usually in the lift
immediately below due to the cantilever-anchor span action of the ledger bracing and this is catered for in the
structural response factors where necessary. Lower tie forces could be calculated for ties at the vertical edges of a
discontinuous façade scaffold but the differentiation is unlikely to be worthwhile. Any perceived under-utilisation of
edge ties may be considered to cover for high local suctions at corners.
The tie forces acting normal to the façade are calculated differently for clad and unclad areas of façade:
5.15.1.1 Unclad scaffolds
Individual tie forces in both tension and compression may be calculated using the following approximate formulae:
For areas with unboarded lifts:
Ft c = qp × cs × Ht × Lt × Ks × cft × Ket kN
For areas with boarded lifts:
Ft c = qp × cs × Ht × Lt × Ks × [(cft × Ket) + (cfb × Keb) + (cfg × Keg)] kN
where:
Ft c is the individual tension or compression force transmitted to the façade at working load (assuming push-pull
ties).
qp is the peak velocity wind pressure in kN/m2.
cs is the site or location coefficient
cs = 0.25 for impermeable façade or = 1.0 for fully permeable façade – refer to 4.2.3.5.1 for a partly
permeable façade.
Ht is the vertical spacing between lines of ties.
Lt is the horizontal spacing between ties in each line
143
Ks is a factor for structural response allowing for continuity and cantilever effects:
For ties at alternate 2 m lifts and alternate frames (pattern A) with top lift tied: Ks = 1.11
For ties at alternate 2 m lifts and alternate frames (pattern A) with top lift untied: Ks = 1.45
For ties at every 2 m lift and every 4th frame (staggered pattern D): Ks = 1.35
For ties at every 3 m lift and alternate frames: Ks = 1.35
The factors above assume that ties are positioned at ledger braced frames and that the ends (vertical
edges) of the scaffold are ledger braced and tied or provided with equivalent returns.
cft is the aerodynamic force coefficient for scaffold tube = 1.2.
cfb is the aerodynamic force coefficient for toe board /platform edge zone = 1.3.
cfg is the aerodynamic force coefficient for brick guards.
cfg = 0.083 for wire brick guards; cfg = 0.177 for plastic brick guards – provisional calculated values
subject to validation by testing.
Ket is a factor relating the reference area of scaffold tube to the gross area tied: Ht × Lt
Ket = 0.18 for 2 m lifts, 0.15 for 3 m lifts for unboarded lifts (single guard rails).
Ket = 0.23 for 2 m lifts, 0.18 for 3 m lifts for boarded lifts (double guard rails for 2 m lifts, triple for 3 m).
Keb is a factor relating the reference area of toe board / edge zone to the gross area tied: Ht × Lt
Keb = 0.12 for 2 m lifts, 0.08 for 3 m lifts with outer toe board only.
Keb = 0.15 for 2 m lifts, 0.10 for 3 m lifts with inner and outer toe boards.
Keg is a factor relating the elevation area of brick guard to the gross area tied: Ht × Lt
Keg = 0.36 for 2 m lifts; Keg = 0.24 for 3 m lifts.
5.15.1.2 Scaffolds clad with high permeability debris netting
Individual tie forces in both tension and compression may be calculated using the following approximate formula:
Ft c = qp × cf ⊥ × Ht × Lt × Ks kN
where the variables are as noted above except:
cf ⊥ is the aerodynamic force coefficient for wind force normal to the cladding.
cf ⊥ = 0.65 for high permeability netting.
For low permeability netting the aerodynamic force coefficient should be determined by tests or treated as
sheeting with cf ⊥ = 1.30.
5.15.1.3 Scaffolds clad with sheeting (or low permeability netting of unknown permeability)
For sheeted scaffolds it is necessary to consider the windward and leeward conditions separately as outlined below.
Sheeted scaffold windward condition

When wind blows on to a sheeted scaffold the sheeting shields the building rather than vice versa so the site
coefficient cs = 1.0 and is omitted from the expression below.
Frequently structural transoms butting the façade are provided in addition to push-pull ties so in this calculation the
area served is defined by the spacing of compression supports. If there are no butting transoms Hc= Ht and Lc =
Lt.
Fc = qp × cf ⊥ × Hc × Lc × Ks kN
where:
Fc is the individual compression force transmitted to the façade at working load.
cf ⊥ is the aerodynamic force coefficient for wind acting normal to cladding = 1.30 for impermeable sheeting.
Hc is the vertical spacing between lines of compression support.
Lc is the horizontal spacing between compression supports in each line.
Ks is a factor for structural response allowing for continuity and cantilever effects as noted for unclad
scaffolds.
Sheeted scaffold leeward condition

Individual tie forces in tension may be calculated using the following approximate formula:
144
Ft c = qp × cs × cf ⊥ × Ht × Lt × Ks kN
where the variables are as noted for debris netting except:

cf ⊥ is the aerodynamic force coefficient for wind acting normal to cladding = 1.30 for impermeable sheeting.
cs is the site or location coefficient
cs = 0.25 for impermeable façade; cs = 1.0 for fully permeable façade.
Refer to 4.2.3.5 for a partly permeable façade and note that the interpolation is different for sheeting.
5.15.2 Tie / anchor forces parallel to the façade
The following approximate formulae are provided to assist with estimating tie forces parallel to the façade.
5.15.2.1 Unclad scaffolds
qp × Hh × L × W × Kh × Kt × csize
Fh = kN
Nt
where:
Fh is the working horizontal shear force per tie in kN.
Hh is the vertical spacing between lines of ties intended to transmit shear.
L is the overall length of the scaffold in metres.
W is the overall width of scaffold from the face of façade to the end of transoms. Typical values:
For 5+2 scaffold: W = 1.950 m; 4+2 scaffold: W = 1.720 m; 3+2 scaffold: W = 1.490 m.
Kh is a factor giving wind force per unit volume of unclad scaffold based on research and development
calculations.
For lift height 2.0 m, double outer guard rails only: Kh = 0.102; double guard rails inside and outside
Kh = 0.132.
For lift height 3.0 m, triple outer guard rails only: Kh = 0.088; triple guard rails inside and outside
Kh = 0.119.
Kt is the proportion of wind shear delivered to the façade rather than to the foundations.
Typical values are given in table 4.7 in section 4.4.1.3.
Obviously it is safe to adopt = 1.0 in all cases.
csize is the BS EN 1991-1-4 reduction factor for size which can be applied to long scaffolds. Refer to 4.2.3.2.2.5
for details.
If in doubt it is safe to adopt csize = 1.0.
Nt is the number of shear resisting ties per row.
5.15.2.2 Scaffolds clad with high permeability debris netting
As netting may be damaged or removed at any time for operational reasons, tie forces should be checked for the
unclad condition which may be more onerous.
[ (W × cf ⊥) + (L × cf ∥ × cs)] × qp × Hh × Kt × csize
Fh = kN
Nt
cf ⊥ is the aerodynamic force coefficient for wind force normal to the netting.
cf ⊥ = 0.65 for high permeability netting.
For low permeability netting the aerodynamic force coefficient should be determined by tests or treated as
sheeting with cf ⊥ = 1.30.
cf ∥ is the aerodynamic force coefficient for wind force parallel to the netting.
cf ∥ = 0.17 for high permeability netting.
For low permeability netting the aerodynamic force coefficient should be determined by tests or taken as
cf ∥ = 0.30 as given in BS EN 12811-1 Annex A.
145
cs is the site or location coefficient.

cs = 0.25 for impermeable façade cs = 1.0 for fully permeable façade.
Refer to 4.2.3.5 for a partly permeable façade and note that the interpolation is different for sheeting.
5.15.2.3 Scaffolds clad with sheeting (or low permeability netting)
As sheeting may be damaged or removed at any time for operational reasons tie forces should be checked for the
unclad condition.
[ (W × cf ⊥) + (L × cf ∥)] × qp × Hh × Kt × csize
Fh = kN
Nt
cf ⊥ is the aerodynamic force coefficient for wind force normal to the sheeting
cf ⊥ = 1.30 for impermeable sheeting.
cf ∥ is the aerodynamic force coefficient for wind force parallel to the netting
cf ∥ = 0.10 for impermeable sheeting.
cf ∥ = 0.30 for low permeability netting with unknown aerodynamic coefficient.
cs is = 1.0 so omitted from the above expression.
146 This page is intentionally left blank.

Definitions 6 147
6.1 Definitions 148

SECTION 6 I Definitions
148 6.1 Definitions

For the purposes of this NASC Guide, the following definitions apply:
abnormal façade a façade which does not permit the fixing of ties.
actions loads as described in BS EN12811-1and other European standards.
adjustable base see base jack.
plate
advance guard rail a device to erect temporary guardrails to a platform from the platform below as an aid to
the safe erection of scaffolding.
anchor a component installed in a building structure to attach and stabilise an access scaffold.
anchorage the combination of anchor and the immediately surrounding base material.
base jack a base plate with means of vertical adjustment.
base lift see foot lift.
base plate a steel or aluminium plate used for spreading the load from a standard over a greater area.
bay the portion of scaffold between the centre lines of two adjacent standards along the face
of a scaffold.
bay length the horizontal distance between the centres of two adjacent standards along the face of
the scaffold.
birdcage a scaffold structure comprising a grid of standards, ledgers and transoms with a top
platform usually intended for access to the underside of a structure or ceiling.
board transoms scaffold tubes supporting scaffold boards or platform units at intervals, which are
themselves supported by scaffold ledgers.
board-clip a clip for retaining a board to a scaffold tube.
bolted tie an assembly of nuts, bolts, anchors, rings or tubes fixed into the surface of a building for
the purpose of stabilising an adjacent scaffold.
box tie an assembly of tubes and couplers forming a frame around a part of a permanent structure
for the purpose of stabilising an adjacent scaffold.
brace a tube placed diagonally with respect to the vertical or horizontal members of a scaffold
and fixed to them to afford stability.
brick guard a fender fabricated from metal or plastic wires covering the gaps between the principal
guard rail and toe board, sometimes incorporating provision for an intermediate guardrail
and toe board for the purpose of preventing objects from falling off the scaffold platform.
bridge a specially strengthened section of scaffolding providing an opening around an
entrance way, projection of the facade or other obstruction to some of the scaffold
standards taking support at ground level.
bridle a horizontal tube fixed parallel to the face of a building to support the inner end of a putlog
transom or tie tube.
building a structure or part of it such as a façade against which the scaffold is constructed.
butt tube a short length of horizontal tube to provide contact support from an adjacent building face
or other permanent structure .
butting transom a transom extended inwards to actually or potentially contact the building face, limiting or
preventing movement of the scaffolding towards it.
butting tube a tube which butts up against the façade of a building or other surface to prevent the
scaffold moving towards that surface.
cantilevered access a platform supported by raking tubes and couplers, normally positioned at the inner face of
platform a scaffold to provide access to a recess in the façade.
cantilevered a scaffold deck structure projecting from the outer face of a scaffold intended to protect
protection fan those below from falling materials.
castor a swivelling wheel secured to the base of a scaffold standard for the purpose of mobilizing
the scaffold.
characteristic the strength at which members or couplers would fail under test. Normally associated with
strength a confidence limit that only 5 % of samples tested would fail below the value stated.
check coupler a coupler added to a joint under load to give extra security to the coupler(s) principally
carrying the load.
chord the principal longitudinal member(s) of a beam or truss.
chord stiffener a tube fixed at right angles to the chord of a prefabricated rafter, beam or truss for the
purpose of preventing buckling.
149
cladding material material normally intended to provide weather and dust protection, typically sheeting or
debris netting covering the outer face of a scaffold.
client a person or organisation that procures scaffolding.
country all terrain that is not defined as sea or town. See sea and town.
coupler a device used to fix two scaffold tubes together.
coupler rotational proportional resistance of a coupler to rotation about the axis of a connected tube usually
stiffness expressed as kNm/radian.
coupler rotational ultimate resistance of a coupler to rotation about the axis of a connected tube or the safe
resistance working resistance usually expressed in kNm.
cross brace see ledger brace.
cruciform action in plane relative movement of two scaffold tubes connected by a coupler (scissors action).
e.g. ledger and standard, transom and ledger.
cruciform stiffness proportional resistance of a coupler to cruciform action usually expressed as kNm/radian.
cruciform strength ultimate resistance of a coupler to cruciform action or the safe working resistance usually
expressed in kNm.
debris netting permeable cladding material intended to protect the surrounding environment from debris.
design conception and calculation to produce a the arrangement and details of a scaffold
structure.
designer a person or organisation that conceives an arrangement and details of a scaffold structure.
double lip tie a lip tie which takes compression and tension as a push / pull tie by means of transverse
tubes contacting the back and front of a structural element such as a wall or column.
double standards two standards fixed side by side to provide greater load capacity than a single standard,
usually positioned at 150 mm centres along the ledger to suit adjacent base plates.
dowel pin see spigot pin.
edge protection a set of components forming a barrier to protect people from the risk of falling and to retain
materials from falling.
end guard rail a guard rail placed across the end of a scaffold or used to isolate an incomplete section of
platform.
end toe board a toe board at the end of a scaffold platform to prevent the fall of objects therefrom.
end toe board clip a device for retaining end toe boards.
expanding spigot a spigot incorporating an expanding device (see joint pin).
extension bracket a bracket, usually attached to the inside of a scaffold, to enable boards to be placed
between the scaffold inner standards and the building. Also known as a hop-up bracket.
façade brace a brace fixed in a plane parallel to the face of a building.
face brace see façade brace.
fencing structure see brick guard.
fittings a general term embracing couplers and other components for assembling and tying
scaffolds.
fixed finial coupler a coupler used to fix a tube across the end of another at right angles in the same plane, as
in a horizontal handrail.
fixed spigot a spigot typically permanently fixed to the end of a scaffold tube.
foot lift a grid of ledgers and structural transoms erected near to the ground used either to provide
extra fixity to the standards or (with board transoms) to support a low level platform.
free standing a scaffold which is not attached to any other structure and is stable against overturning on
scaffold its own account or, if necessary, assisted by guys or rakers and anchors.
gin wheel or block a single pulley for fibre ropes attached to a scaffold for raising or lowering materials.
going the horizontal distance between the nosings of two consecutive steps of a stair or terrace,
measured in a horizontal line.
guard rail a scaffold tube or proprietary component incorporated in a structure to prevent the fall of a
person from a platform or access way.
guard rail post a puncheon supporting a guard rail.
guy anchor a pin or tube driven into the ground to provide an anchorage for a guy rope or cable.
heavy duty tie a tie assembly with a safe load in direct tension of 12.2 kN.
height the height measured from the foundation to the top assembly of ledgers and transoms or
top platform (see also lift height).
150
hop-up bracket a bracket usually attached to the inside of a scaffold to enable boards to be placed
between the scaffold standards and the building either below, above or at the same level
as the main platform.
inside board a board placed between the scaffold inner standards and the building supported on
extended transoms or hop-up brackets.
interlock pin see spigot pin.
independent tied a scaffold which has two lines of standards, one line supporting the outside of the deck
scaffold and one the inside, tied to a permanent building for stability.
inside or outside a bridle tube fixed either inside or outside a building wall.
bridle
jib crane a small crane specially adapted for pivotal mounting on a scaffold tube.
joint pin an expanding fitting placed in the bore of a tube to connect one tube to another coaxially
(see spigot).
kentledge dead weight added to a structure to ensure adequate stability against uplift and
overturning.
knee brace a brace across the corner of an opening in a scaffold to stiffen the corner or to reduce the
effective span of a beam or ledger.
ladder access tower a tower of scaffolding that provides access to an independent tied scaffold as an
alternative to incorporating ladder-access points within the working area or providing
access by stairs.
ledger a horizontal scaffold member spanning between the standards to support the transoms.
ledger brace diagonal tubes connected between the inner and outer ledgers of consecutive lifts adjacent
to the standards, or directly to the standards adjacent to the ledgers, so as to provide in
conjunction with the inner and outer standards and nearest transoms, a lattice girder in the
vertical plane.
length the length of a scaffold between its extreme standards, sometimes designated by the
number of bays (see also bay length).
lift the assembly of ledgers and transoms forming each horizontal level of a scaffold.
lift height the vertical distance between two lifts, measured centre to centre of corresponding
components.
lift headroom the clear distance between a platform and the tubular assembly of the lift above.
lift shaft tower a scaffold tower erected within a lift shaft, usually butted at intervals to the lift shaft walls
on all sides for stability.
light duty tie a tie assembly with a safe load in direct tension of 3.5 kN.
limit state a state beyond which the structure no longer satisfies the design performance
requirements.
lip tie an assembly of tubes forming a hook around a permanent structural feature.
longitudinal brace a brace generally in the plane of the longer dimension of the scaffold, particularly in
birdcages but see also façade brace.
movable tie a tie which may be temporarily moved for the execution of work subject to implementation
of an agreed method statement.
needle transom a transom extending from or into a building.
netting permeable cladding material.
node a theoretical intersection point where two or more members are connected together,
although they may not actually be in the same plane. Usually the intersection between a
standard and ledger.
non-movable tie a tie which must not be moved during the life of a scaffold.
normal façade a façade which permits the fixing of ties.
pair of standards two standards forming the vertical members of the frame at right angles to the building.
parallel coupler a coupler used to join two tubes side by side.
pavement scaffold a scaffold over a pedestrian thoroughfare with no ledger bracing below the first lift,
allowing clear access.
pavement lift the first lift in a pavement scaffold, normally not exceeding 2.7 m high.
permissible stress the stress that can be sustained safely by a structural material under load for the particular
condition of service or loading.
plan brace diagonal tubes, usually fixed between adjacent standards and ledgers in the same lift so as
to form a lattice girder or panel in the horizontal plane thereby providing additional rigidity
in the horizontal plane.
151
platform a section of lift boarded with platform units.
platform unit a timber scaffold board or steel, aluminium, plastic or laminated veneer lumber unit or
lightweight staging unit used to form a scaffold platform.
prefabricated a transom with fixed integrated couplers. Variations are available that act as structural
transom unit transoms, with connections to both the standards and the ledgers, or board transoms, with
connections to the ledgers only.
prop tie an assembly of telescopic props or scaffold tubes jacked or wedged between adjacent
floors inside a building usually to provide anchorage for a cantilever or truss-out scaffold.
push / pull tie a tie which is capable of acting to restrain the scaffold moving either towards or away from
the building.
putlog a tube with a flattened end or blade to fit in the bed joints of a masonry building under
construction or in the perpend joints of an existing building.
putlog adaptor a fitting to provide a putlog blade on the end of scaffold tube.
putlog coupler a coupler used for fixing a putlog or transom to a ledger or to connect a tube used only as a
stop-end guard rail to an outer standard.
putlog scaffold a scaffold which has one line of standards to support the outside edge of the deck and
utilises the wall being built or the existing building to support the inside edges.
puncheon a vertical tube supported at its lower end by another scaffold tube or beam and not by the
ground or existing structure.
purlin a member spanning between the rafters of a building, parallel to the ridge, for the purpose
of supporting and attaching the roof covering and acting as lateral restraint for the rafters.
rafter an inclined structural member in a building spanning across a roof or from the eaves to the
ridge.
raker an inclined scaffold tube member usually substituting for tying the scaffold to a permanent
structure in the lower lifts.
retaining bar a strip or device fixed across the top of the decking to hold it down.
retaining boards similar to brick guard but using scaffold boards instead of a permeable mesh fender.
reveal pin a fitting used for tightening a reveal tube between two opposing surfaces.
reveal tie an assembly of a reveal tube with wedges or screwed fittings, and pads, if required, fixed
between opposing faces of an opening in a wall together with a tie tube connecting to the
scaffold.
reveal tube a tube fixed by means of a threaded fitting or by wedging between two opposing surfaces
of a structure, e.g. between two window reveals, to form an anchor to which the scaffold
may be tied.
right angle coupler a coupler used for connecting two tubes at a right angle. Normally refers to flap type right
angle couplers (also known as ‘double’ couplers) complying with EN 74 and not band-and-
plate type right angle couplers.
rise the vertical distance between the top surfaces of consecutive steps of a stair or terrace.
safety coupler see check coupler.
safe working load the load that a structural member or connection can safely carry with regard to the
conditions.
scaffold a temporary structure that provides access and a safe place of work for the erection,
maintenance, repair or demolition of buildings and other structures including storage of
plant and materials in use.
scaffold board a softwood board that has been graded to a prescribed standard and is generally used with
similar boards to provide access, working platforms and protective components such as
toe boards on a scaffold.
scaffolding a person or organisation that provides and installs scaffolding.
contractor
sea the sea and inland areas of water extending more than 1.0 km in the wind direction when
closer than 1.0 km upwind of the site (upwind is looking into the wind).
service load the working load applied to a platform or structural member.
serviceability limit a limit state beyond which specified service criteria, such as deflection limits, are no longer
state met.
shear pin see spigot pin.
sheeting impermeable cladding material, usually plastic sheets, attached to a scaffold in order to
provide protection from the effects of weather or to protect the surrounding area from the
effects of works being carried out on the scaffold.
152
sheeting clip a device for attaching sheeting to the members of a scaffold.
sheeting rail a horizontal tube fixed to the verticals of a scaffold to support sheeting, which may be a
guard rail, ledger or similar.
side protection see edge protection.
sill see sole board.
sleeve coupler a coupler enclosing and joining two tubes coaxially end to end.
slung scaffold a scaffold suspended on tubes, ropes or chains at a fixed height below a structure
overhead.
sole board or sole a timber, concrete or metal spreader used to distribute the load from a standard or base
plate plate to the ground.
spigot an internal fitting to align one tube to another coaxially (see joint pin).
spigot pin a pin placed transversely through the spigot and the scaffold tube to prevent the two from
coming apart.
standard a vertical scaffold tube which delivers load to its own foundation.
standard duty tie a tie assembly with a safe load in direct tension of 6.1 kN.
standard duty class a tie assembly with a safe load in direct tension of 9.1 kN.
B tie
suspended scaffold a scaffold hanging on ropes which is capable of being raised and lowered.
supplementary a coupler added to back up the main coupler taking the load when the estimated load on
coupler the joint is in excess of the safe working load of the main coupler.
sway transom a transom extended inwards in contact with a reveal or the side of a column to restrain the
scaffold from sway movement along the facade.
swivel coupler a coupler used for joining tubes at an angle other than a right angle.
swivel finial coupler a coupler to fix a tube across the end of another in the same plane but at an angle, e.g. the
sloping handrail to a stair.
TG 20 compliance a design sheet that summarises the criteria that a scaffold must exhibit to be TG 20
sheet compliant and exempt from the need for bespoke design.
TG 20 compliant a defined arrangement of scaffolding which has been designed by the NASC and for which
scaffold a bespoke design is not required.
TG 20 e Guide an electronic guide supplied with TG 20 for the selection and printing of TG 20 compliance
sheets.
tension pin see spigot pin.
through tie a tie assembly installed through a window or other opening in a wall so as to anchor
against the inside face of the wall.
tie or tie assembly the components attached to an anchorage or the building or framed around a part of it or
wedged or screwed into it with a tie tube. Used to secure the scaffold to the permanent
structure.
tie tube a tube used to connect a scaffold to an anchorage.
toe board an upstand at the edge of a platform, intended to prevent materials or users feet from
slipping off the platform.
toe board clip a clip used for attaching a toe board to a standard or puncheon.
town built up areas extending not less than 0.1 km upwind of the site with an average level of
rooftops at least 5 m above ground level (upwind is looking into the wind).
transoms a general term for horizontal scaffold tube members normally aligned in the direction at
right angles to the boards or platform units. Most transoms are board transoms supporting
the platform units. Other parallel members are also called transoms e.g. structural
transoms, principal transoms and tie tubes.
transverse brace a brace generally in the plane of the shorter dimension of the scaffold (see also ledger
brace).
trapeze tube a horizontal tube used to assist in erection and dismantling.
ultimate limit state a limit state associated with collapse.
vertical bridle a vertical tube performing the same function as a horizontal bridle tube.
wire tie or band tie an assembly of a ring anchor and wire or steel banding used to tie the scaffold to a building
or other permanent structure.
working platform the deck from which building and maintenance operations are carried out.
Appendices 153
A Alternative methods for

calculating peak
velocity pressure 154
B Calculation of the heights

of unclad independent
tied scaffolds 157
C Scaffolds using
aluminium tube 162
D Safe axial loads in steel

scaffold tubes to
BS 1139-1:1982 164
E Foundation design 165
F Modelling scaffolds with

structural analysis
software 172
G TG20:13 research
results 180
H Bibliography &
references 188
APPENDICES I Appendix
appendix AA
154 Appendix A
Alternative methods for calculating peak velocity wind pressure
A.1 Directional method for calculating peak velocity pressure
Section 4.2.3.2.2.1 of this guide provides a simple method of calculating peak velocity pressure qp. It involves
combining the most adverse directional effects (topography, distance to shore, wind direction) in a composite
calculation of qp to serve for all wind directions. Less conservative values for qp can be obtained by calculating
separately for each compass direction especially for sites which are remote from the west coasts of the British Isles.
The resultant values can be applied directly to the structural model in separate wind load categories. Alternatively the
highest value can be applied to throughout. The latter option is simpler and should be adopted where there is any
uncertainty about the orientation of the scaffold or building. At least four compass directions should be calculated (90
degree sectors) and preferably twelve (30 degree sectors). Calculating values for twelve directions is feasible using
computer software such as that incorporated in the TG20 eGuide. The following procedure may be followed:
First calculate the parameters which are independent of wind direction:
• Ascertain the site location.

• Use figure 4.1 (taken from the UK National Annex to BS EN 1991-1-4 figure NA.1) or related software to get the
UK fundamental basic wind velocity vb,map for the site. This is defined as the 10 minute mean velocity in m/s at
10 m above ground in open country with low vegetation with probability corresponding to a mean recurrence of
50 years normalised to sea level. This value will lie in the range 21.5 to 31 m/s.
• Establish the site altitude A, in metres above sea level, of the surface on which the scaffold will stand. This may
be ground level or the level of a permanent structure on which the scaffold is erected.
• Calculate the altitude factor: calt = 1 + 0.001 × A
For structure or component heights z more than 10 m above ground a less conservative value may be calculated:
calt = 1 + 0.001 × A × (10 / z) 0.2
• Determine the probability factor cprob which allows for the short life of most scaffold structures and temporary
works compared with the nominal 50 year life of a permanent structure so as to maintain the same risk of
exceedance. A cprob value of 0.83 is applicable for scaffolding with design life less than 2 years. For longer
design life and different probability refer to BS EN 1991-1-4 clause 4.2 note 4.
• Determine the seasonal factor cseason. If it can be assured that the scaffold will be in place only during months
which have a reduced probability of wind storms this may be taken into account by means of this factor which
may be obtained from the UK National Annex to EN 1991-1-4 table NA.2. Examples of values of the seasonal
factor taken from this table are:
cseason = 0.71 for any two months in May to August;
cseason = 0.84 for the six months April to September inclusive;
cseason = 0.86 for the two months February and March;
cseason = 1.00 for the two months December and January.
cseason = 1.00 for the six months October to March inclusive.
If in doubt adopt cseason = 1.0.
Then for each wind direction:
• Select the topography factor (Twind) from figure 4.2 for the upwind direction.
A knowledge of the site location is required to determine whether the terrain is nominally flat, moderately steep,
or steep. Hills and ridges have different factors to those for cliffs and escarpments. (The range will be from 1.0 to
1.26).
• Calculate the site wind factor: Swind = Twind × calt × vb,map.
The site wind factor is the 10 minute mean velocity in m/s at 10 m above ground in open country with low
vegetation with probability corresponding to a mean recurrence of 50 years adjusted for site altitude, topography
and season.
• Select the directional factor (cdir) for the upwind direction from table A.1 which is reproduced from table NA.1
in the UK NA to BS EN 1991-1-4. Note that the directions are defined by angles from 0° due North in a clockwise
direction. Also note that where only four orthogonal directions are considered, the maximum value for the
directions lying 45° either side of the current direction should be used. The directional factor allows for the higher
probability of extreme wind storms from certain directions notably from the West in the British Isles.
AAPPPPEEN
NDDIIC
CEESS II Appendix
appendix A
155
Table A.1 - Directional factor cdir
Direction 0° 30 ° 60 ° 90 ° 120 ° 150 ° 180 ° 210 ° 240 ° 270 ° 300 ° 330 °

cdir 0.78 0.73 0.73 0.74 0.73 0.80 0.85 0.93 1.00 0.99 0.91 0.82
Note that interpolation may be used in this table
• Calculate vb the basic wind velocity allowing for probability and time of year:
vb = cseason × cprob × cdir × Swind.
• Calculate qb the (10 minute mean) basic velocity pressure:
qb = 0.613 × vb2.
• Determine the combined site exposure factor ce(z).ce,T for the upwind direction. The combined exposure factor
quantifies the ‘turbulence’ of the wind i.e. the fluctuations causing the peak 1 second gust pressure affecting
structures and components to be considerably higher than the basic 10 minute mean pressure. It takes into
account variations in wind speed due to height above ground, the ground roughness of the terrain upwind of the
structure and whether the structure is in a town environment.
ce(z) is the exposure factor for country terrain and depends on the effective height of the structure or
component (z – hdis) and the distance from the shoreline and is plotted in figure NA.7 of the UK NA to BS EN
1991-1-4.
ce,T is a correction factor to allow for the reduction of wind speed in towns plotted in figure NA.7. The factors
are combined in table 15 of BS 5975:2008+A1:2011 which is reproduced here as table 4.2. Note that hdis is the
displacement height allowing for the favourable effect of surrounding buildings in reducing wind speed. It may
be calculated using BS EN 12811-1 A.5 or conservatively taken as zero.
Where only four wind directions are considered the terrain parameters for each direction should be selected to
correspond with the upwind direction with least roughness in the sector +/-45 degrees either side of the given
direction. Where twelve wind directions are considered the terrain parameters for each direction should be
selected to correspond with the upwind direction with least roughness in the sector +/- 15 degrees either side of
the given direction.
• Finally calculate the peak velocity pressure: qp = ce(z).ce,T × qb.
Normally the largest value of peak velocity pressure for all the considered wind directions will be adopted for the
design of the scaffold.
Exceptionally the directional results may be grouped according to the directions of the principal axes of the scaffold if
this is known with certainty and worthwhile.
A.2 Wind exposure assessment used in the TG20 Operational Guide and TG20 eGuide
The TG20 Operational Guide chapter 3 and the TG20 eGuide provide means of assessing the wind exposure without
need for calculation for the purpose of selecting TG20 compliant designs. These wind procedures may also be used
safely for special designs provided that the process and results are fully understood. For full explanation of these
procedures refer to (A.1).
A.2.1 TG20 eGuide internet procedure
The interactive wind map provided in the TG20 eGuide implements the ‘directional’ wind assessment described in
Appendix A.1 of this guide. The software calculates the peak velocity pressure at the top of the scaffold for twelve
compass directions allowing for distance to shoreline, altitude and local topography all taken from a UK topographical
database. The user is able to effectively define the seasonal factor and terrain category by selection from visual
images.
Using the largest value of peak velocity pressure given by the twelve directions, the software calculates the TG20:13
wind factor STG20:13 which is the value of Swind which would generate this pressure from a site on the shoreline
in ‘country’ terrain. The TG20 wind factor enables all sites in the British Isles to be compared on a consistent basis
allowing design calculations of peak velocity pressure to be based on the value of the exposure factor ce(z) for the
shoreline condition as given in table A.2.
appendix AA
156
Table A.2 – Exposure factor ce(z) for use with the TG20:13 wind factor STG20:13 extracted from
BS 5975:2008+A1:2011 table 15
Effective height z – hdis (m) ≤2 3 4 5 10 15 20 30 50 100
Exposure factor ce (z) 1.90 2.15 2.31 2.43 2.82 3.07 3.20 3.42 3.68 3.98
A.2.2 TG20 eGuide manual procedure
Where an internet connection is not available or the user does not wish to use it, the TG20 eGuide and chapter 3
of the TG20 Operational Guide both provide an alternative procedure using a map of the British Isles on which three
exposure zones are shown.
The map was derived by calculating values of STG20:13 for each 1 km square as outlined in Appendices A.1 and A.2.1
but assuming 150 m altitude, country terrain, flat topography and seasonal factor cseason = 1.0.
The zones correspond to STG20:13 maximum wind factors 22, 26, 30.5 and > 30.5 m/s and are labelled ‘low’
‘moderate’, ‘high’ and ‘extreme’. The user can select options to adjust conservatively for variations in altitude, terrain,
topography and seasonal usage. This is achieved by application of appropriate factors which typically move the site
exposure into a higher or lower exposure zone as described in chapter 3 of the TG20 Operational Guide.
A
A PP PPEE N
NDD II C
C EE SS I Appendix
appendix A
B
Appendix B 157
Calculation of the heights of unclad independent tied scaffolds

Information about the maximum permitted heights of TG20 compliant scaffolding is provided by the TG20 Operational
Guide and eGuide. All other scaffolds must be calculated.
B.1 Calculation procedure
A simple method of determining the safe height for unclad independent tied scaffolds not more than 50 m high can
be adopted in cases where the effects of wind loading are relatively minor which, for the purpose of this calculation,
are for sites where the wind factor Swind does not exceed 30.
For the purpose of calculation of the safe height, H, of the scaffold, a lift is considered as being supported by the
full load-carrying capacity of only two standards, as in practice the load-carrying capacity of the four standards in the
lift of an independent tied scaffold is shared by the lifts on either side of the more central lift thus effectively halving
the capacity available to each lift. The method (known as the strut buckling method) used for the calculation for steel
scaffolds with 2 m lifts that are fully ledger braced, and part or fully boarded. It assumes that the arrangement of
boards (e.g. 4+1) is the same at every lift.
The method equates the calculated safe load on one standard with the total load from the boarded lifts, the
unboarded lifts and the imposed load.
The method is as follows:

a. Choose the size, Load Class and number, nL, of the loaded working platforms.
b. Choose the bay length and the maximum vertical interval between lines of ties.
c. Determine the effective length of the standard using table 5.14.
d. Take the allowable load, Pc, on one standard in the lift from Table 5.10 using the effective length obtained at (c).
e. Take the self weight(s) on a standard for the unboarded scaffold per lift from table 5.4.
f. Take the extra weight of the loaded lift, (w), on the more heavily loaded standard from table 5.5 and if there is
more than one working lift sum the values to give the total extra weight of the loaded working lifts, W.
g. Obtain the weight on a standard of the boarded lift alone (w0) from table 5.5 using the 0.00 kN/m2 value.
h. Equate the allowable load on one standard (Pc) to the total load exerted by the weight of the scaffold and the
imposed loads, to enable the number of lifts, n, to be calculated.
ns + W + (n − nL ) w0 = Pc
Thus, for a fully boarded scaffold,
Pc = W − nL wO n (s wO )
Then,
P −W n w
n = ------c------------------------L--------O---
(s wO )
And for a part boarded scaffold,
Pc −W
n = -------------------
s
In both cases the calculated height Hc (m) is given by:
Hc = 2n for a 2 m lift height
i. To allow for wind and the effect of other horizontal loads, this calculated height must be reduced to 90% of its
value. This assumes that the tie tubes will be triangulated or otherwise suitably laterally restrained, depending on
the wind factor and scaffold height, as described in section 7.9 of the TG20:13 Operational Guide.
j. The safe height for the scaffold is then H = 0.9 Hc
APPENDICES I Appendix B
158
For the purpose of these calculations, the following symbols apply:
s is the weight of an unboarded lift on one standard in kN (see table 5.4).

w is the extra weight per loaded lift on one standard in kN (see table 5.5).
w0 is the extra weight per boarded lift with no imposed load on one standard in kN (see table 5.5).
W is the total weight on one standard in kN.
nL is the number of loaded lifts.
LE is the effective length of the standard in mm (see table 5.13).
Pc is the safe load on a single standard, depending upon its effective length in kN (see table 5.10).
n is the maximum number of lifts.
Hc is the calculated maximum height (in m).
H is the recommended maximum height ( = 0.9 Hc in m).
B.2 Worked examples
B.2.1 Very light duty scaffold
Calculate H for three lengths of bay, 2.1 m, 2.4 m and 2.7 m, for a very light duty scaffold with one working platform
rated at 0.75 kN/m2, three boards wide (1 – 3 – 0), in 2 m lifts with lines of ties at alternate lifts, at a maximum vertical
interval of 4 m. The scaffold tube is assumed as BS EN 39 Type 4 in the “used” condition.
Only One Lift Boarded Fully Boarded

Bay Lengths (m) 2.1 2.4 2.7 Bay Lengths (m) 2.1 2.4 2.7
s (kN) 0.40 0.46 0.48 s (kN) 0.40 0.46 0.48
w (1st working lift, kN) 0.94 1.07 1.20 w (1st working lift, kN) 0.94 1.07 1.20
W (kN) 0.94 1.07 1.20 W (kN) 0.94 1.07 1.20
LE (m) 3.20 3.20 3.20 Number of loaded lifts nL 1 1 1
PC (kN) “used” 11.90 11.90 11.90 Extra weight no load wO 0.40 0.45 0.51
n 27.40 23.50 22.30 nL x wO 0.40 0.45 0.51
HC (m) 54.80 47.10 44.60 s + wO 0.80 0.91 0.99

Safe Height H (m) 49.00 42.00 40.00 LE (m) 3.2 3.2 3.2
PC (kN) “used” 11.9 11.9 11.9
n 14.2 12.4 11.3
HC (m) 28.4 24.8 22.6
Safe Height H (m) 26.0 22.0 20.0

159
B.2.2 Light duty scaffold
Calculate H for three lengths of bay, 2.0 m, 2.1 m and 2.4 m, for a light duty scaffold with two working platforms rated
at 1.50 kN/m2, four boards wide (2 – 4 – 0), in 2 m lifts with lines of ties at alternate lifts at a maximum vertical interval of
4 m. The scaffold tube is assumed as BS EN 39 Type 4 in the “used” condition.
Two Lifts Boarded Fully Boarded

s (kN) 0.41 0.41 0.47 s (kN) 0.41 0.41 0.47
w (2nd working lift, kN) 1.81 1.90 2.17 w (2nd working lift, kN) 1.81 1.90 2.17
W (kN) 3.62 3.80 4.34 W (kN) 3.62 3.80 4.34
n 20.2 19.8 16.1 nL x wO 0.88 0.92 1.06
HC (m) 40.4 39.5 32.2 s + wO 0.85 0.87 1.00

PC (kN) “used” 11.9 11.9 11.9
n 10.8 10.4 8.6
HC (m) 21.6 20.7 17.2
Safe Height H (m) 19.0 19.0 16.0
B.2.3 General purpose scaffold
Calculate H for three lengths of bay, 1.8 m, 2.0 m and 2.1 m, for a general purpose scaffold with two working
platforms rated at 2.00 kN/m2 and one working platform rated at 0.75 kN/m2, all five boards wide with one board on the
inside (3 – 5 – 1) in 2 m lifts with lines of ties at alternate lifts at a maximum vertical interval of 4 m. The inside board is
loaded to 0.75 kN/m2. The scaffold tube is assumed as BS EN 39 Type 4 in the “as new” condition.
Three Lifts Boarded Fully Boarded

s (kN) 0.41 0.42 0.43 s (kN) 0.41 0.42 0.43
w (3rd working lift, kN) 1.54 1.71 1.80 w (3rd working lift, kN) 1.54 1.71 1.80
W (kN) 7.26 8.07 8.48 W (kN) 7.26 8.07 8.48
PC (kN) “as new” 13.6 13.6 13.6 Extra weight no load wO 0.44 0.46 0.52
n 15.5 13.2 11.9 nL x wO 1.32 1.38 1.56
HC (m) 30.9 26.3 23.8 s + wO 0.85 0.88 0.95

PC (kN) “as new” 13.6 13.6 13.6
n 9.0 7.9 7.0
HC (m) 18.0 15.7 14.1
Safe Height H (m) 16.0 14.0 13.0

160
B.2.4 General purpose scaffold
Calculate H for three lengths of bay, 1.8 m, 2.0 m and 2.1 m, for a general purpose scaffold with two working
platforms rated at 2.00 kN/m2, and one working platform rated at 0.75 kN/m2 all five boards wide with two boards on
the inside (3 – 5 – 2) in 2 m lifts with lines of ties at every lift at a maximum vertical interval of 2 m. The inside boards are
loaded to 0.75 kN/m2. The scaffold tube is assumed as BS EN 39 Type 4 in the “as new” condition.
Three Lifts Boarded Fully Boarded

s (kN) 0.42 0.43 0.44 s (kN) 0.42 0.43 0.44
W (kN) 8.85 9.84 10.34 W (kN) 8.85 9.84 10.34
PC (kN) “as new” 18.2 18.2 18.2 Extra weight no load wO 0.55 0.61 0.64
n 22.3 19.4 17.9 nL x wO 1.65 1.83 1.92
HC (m) 44.5 38.9 35.7 s + wO 0.97 1.04 1.08

PC (kN) “as new” 18.2 18.2 18.2
n 11.3 9.8 9.1
HC (m) 22.7 19.6 18.1
Safe Height H (m) 20.0 18.0 16.0
B.2.5 Heavy duty scaffold
Calculate H for three lengths of bay, 1.5 m, 1.8 m and 2.0 m, for a heavy duty scaffold with two working platforms
rated at 3.00 kN/m2 and two working platforms rated at 0.75 kN/m2, all five boards wide (4 – 5 – 0), in 2 m lifts with lines
of ties at every lift at a maximum vertical interval of 2 m. The scaffold tube is assumed as BS EN 39 Type 4 in the
“used” condition.
Four Lifts Boarded Fully Boarded

s (kN) 0.38 0.40 0.42 s (kN) 0.38 0.40 0.42
w (4th working lift, kN) 1.02 1.22 1.36 w (4th working lift, kN) 1.02 1.22 1.36
W (kN) 7.92 9.48 10.54 W (kN) 7.92 9.48 10.54
L E (m) 2.7 2.7 2.7 Number of loaded lifts nL 4 4 4
n 21.0 16.1 12.8 nL x wO 1.52 1.84 2.00
HC (m) 42.0 32.1 25.5 s + wO 0.76 0.86 0.92

Safe Height H (m) 38.0 29.0 23.0 L E (m) 2.7 2.7 2.7
PC (kN) “used” 15.9 15.9 15.9
n 12.5 9.6 8.0
HC (m) 25.0 19.2 16.0
Safe Height H (m) 23.0 17.0 14.0

161
B.2.6 Masonry and special duty scaffold
Calculate H for three lengths of bay, 1.2 m, 1.5 m and 1.8 m, for a masonry and special duty scaffold five boards wide
with one inside board, with two working platforms rated at 3.00 kN/m2 and two working platforms rated at 0.75 kN/
m2. The inside board is fully loaded to 3.00 kN/m2 on the working platform (4 – 5 – 1 F). It has 2 m lifts with lines of ties
at every lift at a maximum vertical interval of 2 m. The scaffold tube is assumed as BS EN 39 Type 4 in the “used”
condition.
Four Lifts Boarded Fully Boarded

s (kN) 0.31 0.39 0.41 s (kN) 0.31 0.39 0.41
w (4th working lift, kN) 1.03 1.28 1.54 w (4th working lift, kN) 1.03 1.28 1.54
W (kN) 8.64 10.78 12.94 W (kN) 8.64 10.78 12.94
n 23.4 13.1 7.2 nL x wO 1.20 1.48 1.76
HC (m) 46.8 26.3 14.4 s + wO 0.61 0.76 0.85

PC (kN) “used” 15.9 15.9 15.9
n 13.9 8.7 5.6
HC (m) 27.7 17.4 11.1
Safe Height H (m) 25.0 16.0 10.0

APPENDICES I Appendix C
162 Appendix C
Scaffolds using aluminium tube
C.1 Introduction
Many of the recommendations in this guide on the form of construction of scaffolds built from steel tube apply to
aluminium tube. However, some exceptions are listed below.
Because of its different structural and material properties, special design is required for scaffolds constructed with
aluminium tubes. For convenience some information has been collected in this Appendix.
The structural properties of aluminium scaffold tube to BS 1139-1.2:1990 are shown in Table C.1.
The structural properties of aluminium and steel couplers fixed to aluminium tube are the same as for steel couplers
on steel tube as listed in table 5.14 except that the values of cruciform bending stiffness should be reduced by 14%.
Table C.1 – Section properties of aluminium scaffold tubes to BS 1139-1.2:1990

Nominal Cross- Second Radius Modulus Safe
Outer wall Mass per sectional Moment of of Flexural Design Plastic working
diameter thickness linear m area inertia gyration elasticity Stiffness strength modulus moment
(A) (I) (r) (E) (EI) (S p ) (M c ) (1)
TYPE OF TUBE- Aluminium tube (type 6082 T6) complying with the requirements of BS 1139
mm mm kg/m cm2 cm4 cm N/mm2 N.mm2 N/mm2 cm3 kNm
48.3 ± 0.5 4.47± 0.56 1.65 6.15 14.90 1.56 70000 10.45 x 10 9 255 8.61 1.33
maximum
reduction
7.5%
(1) Safe working moment = characteristic moment of resistance/1.65
C.2 Care of aluminium tubes
C.2.1 Straightness of tubes
Bent tubes should not be used. Tube should be considered bent if the deviation from a straight line is greater than
15 mm in any 3 m length. Aluminium tube should not be straightened. The straight parts of a tube may be cut out and
re-used, but the remainder should be scrapped.
C.2.2 Heat treatment of tubes
Because aluminium tube is heat treated in manufacture, heat should not be applied to it by welding or flame, unless
this is carried out in controlled conditions.
C.3 Material properties of aluminium
C.3.1 Stiffness
Aluminium is less stiff than steel, therefore when aluminium tubes of similar size are used in a structure it will deflect
more than steel under the same loads. The safe axial loads for aluminium standards are generally considerably less
than those for steel standards with the same dimensions.
C.3.2 Corrosion and explosion hazards
Aluminium suffers more rapid corrosion than mild steel in certain circumstances, particularly where it is in prolonged
contact with copper or copper alloy items in moist conditions. The difference in the properties of steel and aluminium
makes each material more suitable for different conditions. In situations where cleanliness is especially important or
where there is risk of explosions, specialist advice should be sought in conjunction with the client.
APPENDICES I Appendix C
163
C.4 Stability and stiffness
C.4.1 Aluminium access towers
Access towers built from aluminium tube should have their access ladders fitted internally to reduce the possibility of
their being overturned.
C.4.2 Mixed aluminium and steel tubes
Scaffolds should not be constructed with standards of mixed aluminium and steel tube at any one level. However,
advantage may be taken of the best characteristics of the two materials by using aluminium tube in the upper lifts of
tall scaffolds so as to reduce the gravity loading at lower levels where steel tube can be used for its higher safe load
capacity. The level at which the change is to occur must be clearly stated on drawings or equivalent instructions to
site management.
C.4.3 Limitations of use of aluminium tube
When designing scaffold structures where counterbalancing or deflection may be critical to the design, special care
should be taken to make allowance for the lower mass and stiffness of aluminium compared to steel tube.
C.5 Safe axial loads in compression for aluminium tubes
Table C.2 gives safe axial loads for aluminium tubes to BS 1139-1.2:1990 depending on their effective length.
Table C.2 – Safe axial loads for aluminium scaffold tube complying with BS 1139-1.2:1990
Effective Length Slenderness ratio Safe axial load

LE λ Pc
mm kN
200 12.8 94.2
400 25.7 88.4
600 38.5 79.3
800 51.3 64.8
1000 64.2 48.9
1 200 77.0 36.5

1 400 89.9 27.9
1 600 102.7 21.8
1 800 115.5 17.5
2 000 128.4 14.4
2 200 141.2 12.0

2 400 154.0 10.1
2 600 166.9 8.7
2 800 179.7 7.5
3 000 192.5 6.6
3 200 205.4 5.8

3 400 218.2 5.2
3 600 231.1 4.6
3 800 243.9 4.2
4 000 256.7 3.8
4 200 269.6 3.4

4 400 282.4 3.1
4 600 295.2 2.9
4 800 308.1 2.6
5 000 320.9 2.4
5 200 333.7 2.2

5 400 346.6 2.1
5 600 359.4 1.9
5 800 372.3 1.8
6 000 385.1 1.7
Note - The safe axial loads have been calculated by dividing the characteristic resistance by a factor of 1.65.
APPENDICES I Appendix D
164 Appendix D
Safe axial loads in steel scaffold tubes manufactured
in accordance with BS1139-1:1982
Table D.1 – Safe axial loads for steel scaffold tubes

manufactured in accordance with BS 1139-1:1982
“AS NEW” TUBES “USED” TUBES

Effective Length Slenderness ratio Safe axial load Effective Length Slenderness ratio Safe axial load
LE λ Pc LE λ Pc
mm kN mm kN
200 12.7 70.9 200 12.8 63.1
400 25.4 68.9 400 25.7 61.3
600 38.1 64.2 600 38.5 57.1
800 50.8 59.3 800 51.3 52.6
1000 63.5 54.0 1000 64.2 47.8
1 200 76.2 48.4 1 200 77.0 42.8

1 400 88.9 42.7 1 400 89.9 37.7
1 600 101.7 37.3 1 600 102.7 32.9
1 800 114.4 32.5 1 800 115.5 28.5
2 000 127.1 28.2 2 000 128.4 24.8
2 200 139.8 24.6 2 200 141.2 21.6

2 400 152.5 21.5 2 400 154.0 18.9
2 600 165.2 18.9 2 600 166.9 16.6
2 800 177.9 16.8 2 800 179.7 14.7
3 000 190.6 14.9 3 000 192.5 13.1
3 200 203.3 13.4 3 200 205.4 11.7

3 400 216.0 12.0 3 400 218.2 10.5
3 600 228.7 10.9 3 600 231.1 9.5
3 800 241.4 9.9 3 800 243.9 8.6
4 000 254.1 9.0 4 000 256.7 7.9
4 200 266.8 8.3 4 200 269.6 7.2

4 400 279.5 7.6 4 400 282.4 6.6
4 600 292.2 7.0 4 600 295.2 6.1
4 800 305.0 6.5 4 800 308.1 5.6
5 000 317.7 6.0 5 000 320.9 5.2
5 200 330.4 5.6 5 200 333.7 4.9

5 400 343.1 5.2 5 400 346.6 4.5
5 600 355.8 4.9 5 600 359.4 4.2
5 800 368.5 4.5 5 800 372.3 4.0
6 000 381.2 4.3 6 000 385.1 3.7
Note - It is recommended that for struts and braces designed to carry wind loads and lateral forces, λ < 271.
APPENDICES I Appendix E
Appendix E 165
Foundation design
E.1 General
Normal industry practice in the UK is that the Client is responsible for the adequacy of scaffolding foundations.
Usually the Client will delegate this function to an advisor – either the main contractor or a consulting engineer.
Exceptionally the scaffolding contractor may undertake foundation design and will also usually employ an engineer.
This appendix seeks to provide information for these designers on the particular characteristics of common scaffold
foundation solutions. For more general guidance on scaffold foundation construction refer to chapter 5 of the TG20
Operational Guide.
E.2 Foundation situations
The most common scaffold foundations may be listed as follows:
• Scaffold standards supported by a permanent superstructure;

• Scaffold standards supported on a structural concrete ground-bearing slab on subgrade;
• Scaffold standards supported on non-structural paving on subgrade with or without baseplates and timber sole
boards;
• Scaffold standards supported on subgrade with base plates and timber sole boards;
• Scaffold standards supported on concrete pad foundations.
By ‘subgrade’ is meant either natural soil or made ground. Sole boards are also called sole plates.
E.2.1 Scaffold standards supported on a permanent superstructure
In this situation the engineer should be supplied with working / unfactored scaffold leg loads and positions by the
scaffold designer or will ascertain them from a TG20 compliance sheet. Calculations and / or appraisal of the existing
structure to support the scaffold loads will follow the methods and data normally used for the structural analysis and
design of permanent works and is outside the scope of this guide.
E.2.2 Scaffold standards supported on a structural concrete ground bearing slab
Where the scaffold is to be supported on a continuous concrete ground bearing slab of sufficient thickness and
quality it may be safe to omit baseplates and sole boards. However if the surface must be protected against cosmetic
damage a baseplate and plastic spreader plate or equivalent should be provided. In order to justify the concrete slab
as a load spreader or ‘equivalent sole board’ the engineer requires the following information which may be obtained
by physical investigation and/or the drawing or specification for the original slab:
• Minimum thickness of the slab;

• Concrete strength grade;
• Presence and position of steel reinforcement if any;
• Presence of steel or plastic fibre reinforcement if any;
• Safe bearing pressure of the subgrade for which see E.4 below.
Structural calculations for concrete slabs should be in accordance with BS EN 1992-1-1 Eurocode 2: Design of
concrete structures and the UK National Annex thereto or possibly BS 8110 (now withdrawn but still valid). The former
gives better information on concrete without reinforcement. Both codes are written in limit state design partial safety
factor format so that working loads must be factored for comparison with design ultimate resistances. Alternatively
design ultimate resistances may be unfactored to get safe working values. The following resistances should be
checked:
• Contact bearing resistance of the concrete slab loaded by the steel tube.
BS EN 1992-1-1 clause 6.7: (partially loaded areas) allows for the effect of confinement to enhance the bearing
strength of concentrated areas remote from slab edges.
• Punching shear resistance of the concrete slab loaded by the steel tube.
BS EN 1992-1-1 clause 12.6.3 equation 12.5 gives design shear strength for plain concrete and clause 6.4 gives
rules for calculating punching shear resistance for reinforced concrete which may be adapted for plain and fibre
reinforced concrete. For plain and fibre reinforced concrete the elastic distribution of shear stress through the
section depth is parabolic with maximum at mid depth. Allowance may be made for direct load transfer to the
subgrade within the shear perimeter.
• Bending resistance of concrete slab loaded by steel tube.
BS EN 1992-1-1 clause 12.3.1 gives recommendations for design tensile stress which can be used to calculate
the resistance moment of a plain concrete section assuming an elastic stress distribution. Where the available
appendix AE
166
bearing pressure at the subgrade is high it may be advantageous to rely on traditional 45° load dispersion rather
than bending theory. Slabs reinforced with steel bars or mesh fabric provide much greater bending resistance
than plain or fibre reinforced slabs allowing loads to be spread to larger areas of poor subgrade. However, except
at slab edges only bottom face reinforcement is effective so if the slab has only top face reinforcement as is
common, it should be treated as plain concrete in resisting sagging bending moments due to load applied by
the scaffold standards. If the reinforcement does not comply with the minimum percentage requirements of the
relevant code of practice it should be ignored.
• Bearing pressure on the subgrade.
Refer to E.4 for guidance on assessing the safe bearing pressure.
Where the slab is reinforced with fibres, whether steel or plastic, the fibre manufacturer’s literature should give
structural design parameters.
Where base plates are provided under the scaffold standards, the effective bearing area may be increased by
dispersion through the base plate thickness (generally 5 mm). This thickness is not sufficient to distribute load over
the whole area of the plate. Where it is necessary to position standards close to the edge of a structural ground
slab or near to a joint, due allowance should be made for resultant reduction in the above resistances. However, the
presence of top face reinforcement, if any, may provide hogging moment resistance to compensate.
E.2.3 Scaffold standards supported on non-structural paving
Non-structural pavements such as brick and block paviours, small concrete slabs, tarmac and hard asphalt have little
or no bending or shear strength but nevertheless help to distribute the load to the subgrade. The usual method of
allowing for this is to assume an effective angle of load dispersion through the pavement thickness so as to arrive
at an effective bearing area on the subgrade. Angles of dispersion of between 25 and 45° to the vertical may be
appropriate according to the integrity of the pavement material as suggested by the literature on pavement design (E.1)
or engineering experience and judgement. Trial calculations will indicate whether a base plate only or a base plate
and sole board are required in addition to the pavement to safely transmit the scaffold leg load to the subgrade. For
design of a sole board refer to the following section.
E.2.4 Scaffold standards supported by base plate and sole board on subgrade
Where there is no concrete slab or adequate pavement it is usual practice to provide a base plate and timber sole
board under each scaffold standard. The plan area of the sole board is governed by the safe bearing pressure on the
subgrade as discussed in E.4. The sole board is required to distribute the leg load from the base plate to the subgrade
as discussed in E.3. In adverse conditions it may be necessary to provide heavy duty layered grillages of sole boards
or timber sleepers to spread the load.
E.2.5 Scaffold standards supported on concrete pad foundations
Exceptionally it may be decided to support scaffold standards on plain concrete pad or strip foundations cast into
the subgrade. This may be required where the ground safe bearing pressure at the surface is low and a heavy duty
timber foundation above ground would obstruct site operations or personnel access. The plan area of the concrete
foundation is governed by the safe bearing pressure of the subgrade at its underside. The thickness of concrete
required to distribute the leg load to the subgrade may be determined in accordance with clause 12.9.3 of BS EN
1992-1-1 or using traditional dispersion methods. It will then be sufficient to place the standards directly on the
concrete unless the quality is very poor and the loads exceptionally large. The top surface of the concrete pad can be
positioned below ground level to avoid any trip hazard. Before adopting a concrete pad base solution the necessity for
removal and reinstatement at the end of construction will need to be addressed.
E.3 Timber sole boards and grillages
In traditional practice the minimum timber foundation for a scaffold standard is formed from a 225 × 38 mm
scaffold board cut to 450 mm length and placed centrally under the standard and its base plate. Other timber sizes
and assemblies of timbers may be used as may be necessary to deliver the leg load to the subgrade. Section 5.4
provides general information for the structural design of timber for this purpose. The following resistances require
consideration:
• Bearing of the base plate on the timber;

• Shear of the timber;
• Bending of the timber.
E.3.1 Baseplate to timber bearing
The 5 mm thickness of a standard scaffold steel base plate is insufficient to provide the bending resistance necessary
to develop the safe bearing resistance of the timber over the whole area of the base plate. A safe bearing resistance
of approximately 22 kN can be justified by consideration of the stiff bearing area by dispersion through the plate
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acting at the full timber bearing stress and a lower stress acting on the remaining area. A base plate thickness of
8 mm or a supplementary plate thickness of 6 mm are required to develop the full timber bearing resistance under
the 150 mm square plate. Neither of these options is likely to be practicable in normal site conditions. In any case leg
loads greater than 22 kN on type 4 tube would require an effective length of 2.4 m and fully effective bracing. Loads of
this magnitude will frequently require doubled standards which will usually solve the bearing issue because the load
will be shared between two base plates.
E.3.2 Sole board shear and bending
The working shear force and bending moment in a simple sole board can be calculated by statics assuming uniform
bearing pressure at the underside of the board. If the sole board provided is longer than necessary for the allowable
bearing pressure, calculations may be based on the required length rather than the length provided As noted above,
the standard 5 mm thick scaffold base plate is too flexible to provide a rigid load / support so the critical section for
bending may be taken at the centre of the standard for simplicity or no more than half the tube diameter offset.
Sections near supports benefit from shear enhancement due to direct compression so the critical section for shear
may be taken at a distance equal to the member thickness from the standard. Table 5.8 provides values for the safe
shear and bending resistances of timber sole boards and other common timber sections. These may be used to
select a timber section.
In cases where doubled standards at 150 mm spacing (due to adjacent baseplates) share a sole board the analysis is
similar to that described above except that the effective support width is increased favourably.
Where pairs of standards at much wider spacing share a sole board (e.g. standards at 1.2 m centres on a 1.5 m board)
it should not be assumed that the sole board will safely distribute the load so as to achieve uniform bearing pressure.
Analytical studies indicate that uniform distribution is not attainable with the normal range of timber sizes and
subgrade stiffnesses. Consequently the distance from the standard centre to the end of the sole board should be not
less than half the length of the single sole board that would be required under each standard if they were separately
supported.
Where the sole board length required for subgrade bearing pressure is significantly more than 450 mm, a single
scaffold board section will be found insufficient in shear and / or bending. Doubled boards laid in parallel one beneath
the other as illustrated in the TG20 Operational Guide figure 5.2 can provide twice the shear and bending capacity of a
single board. Alternatively thicker sections such as 225 × 75 mm or 225 × 100 mm may be used at least up to 900 mm
length. Where a larger bearing area is required a grillage arrangement may be considered as described below.
E.3.3 Grillage foundations
In situations where high leg loads have to be supported on subgrade with low safe bearing pressure, grillage
foundations can provide an efficient solution. A timber grillage is usually just two layers of sole boards laid at right
angles to each other symmetrically about the supported standard. The top layer is typically a single 225 × 75 mm or
225 × 100 mm timber placed centrally under the baseplate and laid centrally on a lower layer of two or three 225 mm
wide boards so as to produce ‘pad foundations’ typically from 450 × 450 mm to 900 × 900 mm or more in plan.
For calculation purposes the lower sole boards should be designed as ‘inverted balanced cantilevers’ delivering
the bearing pressure reaction to the centre line of the upper sole board. The upper sole board similarly acts as two
cantilevers balanced about the standard. The shear forces and moments resulting from this simple model may be
used to select timber section sizes from section 5.4.
The lower sole boards of a grillage can be embedded into the subgrade to avoid creating an obstruction or trip hazard.
E.4 Subgrade bearing pressure
E.4.1 Assessing the site
Where scaffolding is to be erected on a new-build construction site there will usually be a ground investigation report
available to provide information for the design of foundations for the permanent structures. The designer of the
scaffolding foundations should request sight of this report together with any other relevant geotechnical and buried
services information. However, it should be noted that any safe bearing pressure given in the report will usually relate
to conventional permanent foundation types and sizes with significant embedment below the ground level to ensure
long term protection against erosion and seasonal effects. The soil layers near the ground surface consequently often
receive little attention or testing.
By contrast, temporary foundations for scaffolding are, where possible, placed on the ground surface. This means
that unlike most permanent foundations, they do not benefit from embedment or earth cover which not only
protects against accidental damage and erosion but also considerably enhances bearing capacity. Furthermore
sole plates consisting of single scaffold boards, timbers or sleepers are only 225 mm wide and these have very low
bearing capacity when laid on loose to medium dense sand or silt. In view of these differences an existing ground
investigation report or information about the bearing pressure adopted for the permanent structure foundations
should be viewed as useful information on soil type and quality but not as direct design guidance for scaffolding
appendix AE
168
foundations.
Where scaffolding is to be erected adjacent to an older existing building or in isolation there is less likely to be readily
available geotechnical information and the designer will have to rely more on local knowledge, intelligent observation
and if necessary, hand-dug trial excavations or small-scale borings and insitu testing. All trial excavations and
boreholes must be reinstated and compacted to the satisfaction of the client and in such a way as not to reduce the
bearing capacity of the ground to support the scaffold and any paving.
These topics are beyond the scope of this guide and so readers without relevant experience are advised to consult
some of the many texts on soil mechanics and foundation design (E.2, E.3).
E.4.2 Soil types and safe bearing pressures
BS 5975:2008:A1:2011 Code of practice for temporary works procedures and the permissible stress design of
falsework clause 18.2, table 17 gives presumed allowable bearing pressures for various types of soils and rocks.
The values given for intact unweathered rocks are all greater than 600 kN/m2 which is much more than sufficient for
routine scaffolding foundations (225 × 38 × 450 mm long scaffold boards). The remaining soil types may be broadly
classified as cohesive and non cohesive and may be identified using table E.1.
Table E.1 – Identification and description of soils

Clay type Description
Hard Difficult to indent by thumbnail.
Very stiff Just indented by thumbnail; requires pick or pneumatic spade excavation.
Stiff Just indented by strong thumb pressure.
Firm Moulded by strong finger pressure; excavated with a spade.
Soft Moulded by light finger pressure; easily excavated with a spade.
Very soft Exudes between fingers when squeezed.
Sand or gravel Description

Very dense Unable to drive a stake or rod with a sledgehammer.
Dense Difficult to drive a stake with a sledgehammer.
Medium A stake can be driven with a hammer. Can be excavated with a spade with effort.
Loose A steel rod can be driven easily. Can be excavated easily with a spade.
Loose fine sand, very soft clays and silt , peat, organic topsoil, unconsolidated made up ground and uncontrolled
fill should be considered as potentially unstable and should be removed and replaced with hardcore compacted in
layers. The prepared foundation area should extend at least 300 mm around the sole boards and 450 mm thick or as
necessary to either reach more compact material or to distribute the load to within the safe bearing pressure.
E.4.2.1 Cohesive soils

The values given in BS 5975:2008 + A1:2011 table 17 for cohesive soils are shown below in the FoS = 3.0 column of
table E.2. They are derived by applying a factor of safety of 3.0 to the calculated ultimate bearing pressure for square
bases based on the undrained shear strength. This is generally considered sufficient to control long term settlements
under base sizes typical of building structures (i.e. > 1.0 m). However scaffold foundations are typically much
narrower and the zone of compression causing settlement smaller. Scaffold structures are also temporary and more
tolerant of settlement. A global factor of safety may also be derived from BS EN 1997-1 and the UK NA thereto:
Partial safety factor for permanent loads 1.35

Partial safety factor for variable loads 1.50
For scaffold structures permanent loads are typically > 70% total so mean partial safety factor for loads 1.40
= 1.35 × 0.7 + 1.5 × 0.3
Partial safety factor for undrained soil shear strength 1.40
Global safety factor = 1.40 × 1.40 1.96
Therefore a factor of safety = 2.0 may be considered sufficient leading to the values shown below in the FoS = 2.0
column of table E.2.
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Table E.2 – Presumed safe bearing pressures for cohesive soils

Description FoS = 3.0 FoS = 2.0 Units
Very stiff / hard clay 300 to 600 450 to 900 kN/m2
Stiff clay 150 to 300 225 to 450 kN/m2
Firm clay 75 to 150 112 to 225 kN/m2
Soft clay and silt 40 to 75 60 to 112 kN/m2
Very soft clay and silt* < 40 < 60 kN/m2
*This category has been added from reference (E.3)
E.4.2.2 Cohesionless soils

The values given in BS 5975:2008 + A1:2011 table 17 for non-cohesive soils are intended for foundations wider than
1.0 metre. They are based on limiting settlements at working load rather than shear failure. However for narrower
foundations like those typical of scaffolding, shear failure becomes critical and it is necessary to calculate the ultimate
bearing pressure and apply a safety factor to obtain values of safe bearing pressure.
BS EN 1997-1:2004 + C1:2009 Annex D4 provides the following general equation for the bearing resistance of
granular soils in drained conditions:
R
qu = = c’ Nc bc sc ic + q’ Nq bq sq iq + 0.5 g’ B’ Ng bg sg ig
A’
where:
The first term reduces to zero if the soil is cohesionless as for most sands.
The second term reduces to zero if the foundation is on the surface as for most scaffold foundations.
R = ultimate bearing resistance in kN.

qu = ultimate bearing pressure under the effective base area in kN/m2.
A’ = effective base area allowing for eccentricity of vertical load = B’ × L’ in m2.
B’ = effective foundation width = actual width if load is concentric in m.
L’ = effective foundation length = actual length if load is concentric in m.
g’ = effective density of the bearing soil in kN/m3.
bg = bq = factor for base inclination = 1.0 if horizontal.
sq = shape factor = 1 + (B’ / L’) sin w’.

sg = shape factor = 1 – 0.3 B’ / L’.
ig = iq = ic load inclination factors = 1.0 for predominantly vertical load.
Nq = bearing capacity factor with respect to surcharge = eptanw’ tan2(45 + w’ / 2).

Ng = bearing capacity factor with respect to bearing soil density = 2 (Nq – 1) tan w’.
In order to use the above formula a value is required for the effective angle of internal friction and bulk density for
the subgrade within the zone of influence of the foundation. Ideally this is obtained by assessment of the results of
numerous insitu penetrometer tests. If these are not available table E.3 provides indicative values taken from the
Arcelor Piling Handbook (E.4) and other sources.
appendix AE
170
Table E.3 – Indicative design parameters for non-cohesive soils
Soil / subgrade description Angle of internal friction Bulk density

degrees kN/m3
Fine sand loose 30 18.6
compact 35 18.6
Coarse sand loose 35 18.2
compact 40 18.2
Gravel loose 35 17.2
compact 40 17.2
Hardcore loose 40 17.2
compact 45 17.2
Substituting the above parameters in the formula for ultimate bearing resistance enables the following calculations to
be made for a minimum size sole board:
For loose fine sand:
w’ = 30 degrees
Nq = e0.577 p tan2(60) = 18.4

g’ = 18.6 kN/m3
Ng = 2 (Nq – 1) tan w’ = 20.1
Sole board 225 × 450 mm:
sg = 1 – 0.3 B’ / L’ = 0.85
qu = R / A’ = 0.5 g’ B’ Ng bg sg ig
= 0.5 × 18.6 × 0.225 × 20.1 × 1.0 × 0.85 × 1.0 = 35.8 kN/m2
Applying factor of safety = 2.0, Allowable bearing pressure:
pa = 35.8 / 2 = 18 kN/m2
Ra = pa B’ L’ = 18 × 0.225 × 0.45 = 1.8 kN
Therefore loose fine sand w’ = 30 degrees is unusable for surface foundations.
For loose coarse sand or gravel:
w’ = 35 degrees
Nq = e0.700 p tan2(62.5) = 33.3

g’ = 18.2 kN/m3
Ng = 2 (Nq – 1) tan w’ = 45.2

= 0.5 × 18.2 × 0.225 × 45.2 × 1.0 × 0.85 × 1.0 = 78.7 kN/m2
pa = 78.7 / 2 = 39.3 kN/m2
Ra = pa B’ L’ = 39.3 × 0.225 × 0.45 = 3.98 kN
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For compact sand or gravel or loose hardcore :
w’ = 40 degrees
Nq = e0.839 p tan2(65) = 64.2

g’ = 17.2 kN/m3
Ng = 2 (Nq – 1) tan w’ = 106.1

= 0.5 × 17.2 × 0.225 × 106.1 × 1.0 × 0.85 × 1.0 = 174.5 kN/m2
pa = 174.5 / 2 = 87.3 kN/m2
Ra = pa B’ L’ = 87.3 × 0.225 × 0.45 = 8.83 kN
For compact hardcore :
w’ = 45 degrees
Nq = e1.0 p tan2(67.5) = 134.9

g’ = 17.2 kN/m3
Ng = 2 (Nq – 1) tan w’ = 267.7

= 0.5 × 17.2 × 0.225 × 267.7 × 1.0 × 0.85 × 1.0 = 440.3 kN/m2
pa = 440.3 / 2 = 220.1 kN/m2
Ra = pa B’ L’ = 220 × 0.225 × 0.45 = 22.3 kN
From the above calculations it may be deduced that the bearing capacity of single sole board surface foundations
bedded direct on loose to medium compact fine sand is theoretically inadequate for most scaffold foundations and in
such conditions special measures may be required such as:
• Increasing the width by adopting a grillage arrangement;

• Replacing the surface layers with hardcore compacted in layers.
appendix AF
172 Appendix F
Modelling scaffolds with structural analysis software
F.1 General
There are numerous commercially available computer programs which can be used for the structural analysis
of access scaffolds and other temporary works structures utilising tubes and fittings. For the purposes of the
research and development leading to TG20:13, it was desirable to be able to model the relevant scaffold structures
realistically, avoiding any gross simplifications which could lead to misunderstanding of structural behaviour. The
following features were considered particularly important to be able to model easily:
1. The non-concentric nature of connections in tube and fitting scaffolds;

2. Automatic allowance for base support ‘lift-off’ under tension where there is no anchorage provided;
3. Automatic allowance for compression-only horizontal supports where it is required to provide butting transoms
connecting to the façade;
4. Optional geometric second-order analysis allowing for ‘P-delta effects’;
5. Optional automatic determination of the elastic critical load factor for a load combination to easily determine
effective lengths.
It will be noted that all except the first item above involve iterative analysis and much time may be saved if this can
be done automatically. Not all frame analysis programs provide all such desirable features. As well as modelling and
analysis, the processing of results (checking of members and connections against capacities) also benefits from
automated calculation and filtering of critical results. Commercially available steel design programs linked to analysis
can be used to check tube members but as these have to cope with general steel sections and lateral restraints in
permanent structures, they were considered over-elaborate for the TG20:13 project. In order to expedite the research
and development for TG20:13 it was decided to develop special software for pre- and post- processing the selected
commercially available analysis software as described below:
• A pre-processor was developed to automatically generate standard configurations of scaffolding and derive the
joint (node) co-ordinates, member properties, support conditions and loading data;
• A post-processor was developed to interrogate the analysis results by load combination for each member in the
frame model and carry out a design check for the member and the connections. The critical results were filtered
into a summary giving critical member / connection and load combinations.
In the following sections further details of some of the above topics are given to assist designers wishing to create
and analyse realistic structural models with their own software.
F.2 Modelling scaffold couplers for structural analysis
As discussed in section 4.2, tube and fitting scaffolds are notable for the fact that the couplers allow the connected
tubes to pass each other. Consequently unlike most connections in permanent structures, the connections in tube
and fitting scaffolds are neither co-axial nor co-planar.
Furthermore only two tube members can be connected by the couplers covered by BS EN 74-1. This means that
bracing tubes have to be connected separately either to the vertical members (standards) with swivel couplers or
to the ledgers or transoms with right angle couplers with consequent eccentricities with respect to the adjacent
horizontal / vertical member (non) intersection.
The following sub-sections describe the methods adopted in the TG20:13 project for modelling coupler connections.
Basically the tube members were set out in separate layers or planes just as they are in a real scaffold. Consider a
façade access scaffold with X direction horizontal parallel to the façade, Y direction vertical and Z direction horizontal
normal to the façade. The outer standards are placed in an XY plane with Z co-ordinate zero. The outer ledgers are
placed in an XY plane with Z co-ordinate +50 mm. If connected to the standards with swivel couplers, the façade
bracing is placed in an XY plane with Z co-ordinate –80 mm. Similarly the transoms were laid out in separate planes
to the ledgers. Board transoms have Y co-ordinates 50 mm greater than the ledgers and underslung tie tubes 50 mm
less.
F.2.1 Right angle coupler connection between ledger and standard
The coupler is represented by a 50 mm long ‘analysis member’ joining the axes of the ledger and standard as shown
in figure F.1.
In figure F.1 the large arrows represent the loads applied to the sub-model to validate the member properties used
to represent the cruciform stiffness of the coupler. The small arrows represent the support constraints. The section
properties of the ‘coupler member’ were calculated as follows:
Cruciform stiffness of right angle coupler = Torsional stiffness of coupler member = G J / L

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173
Translational restraint along the x and z axes

Rotational restraint about the y axis
Load
Standard
Ledger
RA coupler
(Class A)
Load
y
z
Translational restraint along the x and y axes
x Rotational restraint about the y axis
Figure F.1 – Analysis model for a right angle coupler
Rearranging the above:
Torsional constant:
J = Cruciform stiffness × L / G
Shear modulus of steel tube:

G = 210000 / (2 × (1 + 0.3)) = 80769 N/mm2
Length of the member:

L = 50 mm
Hence for class A right angle coupler, with a cruciform stiffness of 10 kNm / radian:
J = 10 × 106 × 50 / 80769.23
= 6190.47 mm4
= 0.619 cm4
Rotational stiffness of class A right angle coupler

= 5.0 kNm / rad
Equating this to the stiffness required to cause unit rotation:

E I / L = 5.0 kNm / rad
Rearranging the above second moment of area of the coupler in both lateral directions:
Iy = Ix = Rotational stiffness ×L / E
= 5 × 106 × 50 / 210000
= 1190.5 mm4
= 0.119 cm4
The above properties can be adjusted pro-rata for couplers with different stiffnesses. The section area of the coupler
member was arbitrarily taken to be the same as a scaffold tube (5.57 cm2). Provided that extreme values are not
assumed this has no effect on the analysis results.
appendix AF
174
F.2.2 Putlog coupler connection between board transom and ledger
A model similar to the above was developed for putlog couplers as illustrated by figure F.2.
Cruciform stiffness of a putlog coupler:

= 2.5 kNm / rad
Using same expression as for an RA coupler:

J = 2.5 × 106 ×50 / 80769.23
= 1548 mm4
= 0.155 cm4
The second moments of area Ix and Iy may be estimated by reference to Oxford Brookes University report 395 (F.1)
which gives a characteristic slip resistance (6.5 kN) and stiffness (3.5 kN / mm) for typical putlog couplers in the
direction parallel to the ledger. Unfortunately the report does not give a stiffness value for the direction parallel to the
transom. However the characteristic slip resistance is known to be 1.20 kN, so assuming that stiffness is proportional
to resistance:
Kz = 1.2 × 3.5 / 6.5

= 0.646 kN / mm
From the equation for sway stiffness of a fixed ended member:

Iz = F × L 3 / (12 × E)
= 0.646 × 50 3 / (12 × 210)
= 32.0 mm4
= 0.0032 cm4
The behaviour in the X direction approximates more to a cantilever fixed at the ledger. Hence:
Ix = F × L 3 / (3× E)
= 3.5 × 50 3 / (3 × 210)
= 694 mm4
= 0.0694 cm4
It is not necessary to have accurate values of Ix and Iy for the putlog coupler members. It is sufficient that they are
of the right order of magnitude to avoid the spuriously high slip forces that can arise with closely spaced transoms if
relatively rigid properties are assumed.
Load
Translational restraint along the x, y, z axes

Transom Rotational restraint about the x axis
Ledger
Putlog coupler
y Translational restraint along the y axis

z x
Load
Figure F.2 – Analysis model for a putlog coupler
In figure F.2 the large arrows represent the loads applied to the sub-model to validate the member properties used to
represent the cruciform stiffness of the coupler. The small arrows represent the support constraints.
appendix A
F
175
F.2.3 Swivel coupler connection between bracing and standard
The analysis members representing swivel couplers were assigned the following properties:
Length:
L = 80 mm
This is the approximate distance between the axes of scaffold tubes joined by a swivel coupler.
Torsional inertia:
J = 0.001 cm4 (i.e. negligible).
If it is assumed that the two halves of the coupler are fixed to the clamped tubes and pinned to the swivel pin, the
relative deflection of the two ends of the coupler member is given by:
Deflection:
De = 2 × F × (L / 2)3 / (3 × E × I)
= F × L3 / (12 × E × I)
Hence stiffness:
K = 12 × E × I / L3
This is the same as the stiffness of a fixed ended member of the same length because of the zero moment at mid
length.
This model is appropriate for a swivel coupler connecting two parallel tubes. For two tube members at right angles
the coupler is approximately fixed to the one tube and pinned to the other and deflection:
De = F × L 3 / (3 × E × I)
So stiffness:
K = 3 × E × I/ L 3
Interpolating for tubes connected at intermediate angles, say 45 degrees:

K = 7.5 × E × I / L 3
From EN74 -1:2005, Table 8, for a type A swivel coupler:
Maximum allowable slip under 7 kN load:

= 7 mm
Minimum stiffness:
K = 7 / 7 = 1.0 kN / mm
So representative stiffness could be say:

K = 2.0 kN / mm
Whence:
I = K × L3 / (7.5 × E)
= 2.0 × 803 / (7.5 × 210)
= 650 mm4
= 0.065 cm4
The swivel coupler slip stiffness property (I) was verified by analysing the structural model shown in figure F.3.
Using Ix = Iy = 0.065 cm4 and applying a load of 2.0 kN, the vertical relative deflection of the coupler ends was
calculated as 1.17 mm. A stiffness of 1.7 kN / mm.
Adjusting pro-rata:
Ix = Iy = 0.065 × 2.0 / 1.7 = 0.075 cm4
appendix AF
176
Load
Translational restraint along the y and z axes
Swivel coupler
y
z
x Translational restraint along the x, y, z axes
Figure F.3 – Analysis model for a swivel coupler
In figure F.3 the large arrow represents the load applied to the sub-model to validate the member properties used to
represent the shear stiffness of the coupler. The smaller arrows represent the support constraints.
F.2.4 Transom unit coupler
The transom unit to standard connection is fundamentally different from other couplers because it joins three tubes
rather than two. Also the connection between the transom and the standard is concentric rather than offset. In testing
Godley treated the connections of the transom to the standard and to the ledger as separate issues (F2). In order to
replicate the tests it is necessary to model the connection as two elements:
1. A horizontal member (parallel to the Z axis) modelling the connectivity of the transom and standard;
2. A vertical member (parallel to the Y axis) modelling the connectivity of the transom and ledger.
Acting together these elements should also serve to model the connectivity of the standard and ledger (i.e. the
cruciform stiffness or ‘scissors action’ as in right- angle couplers). The following stage 1 (secant) stiffness values
were obtained from tests on pressed steel transom unit couplers:
Table F.1 – Stage 1 (secant) stiffness values obtained from tests on transom unit couplers
Description Symbol Value (kNm / radian)
Transom to standard - rotation about the ledger (X) axis KTSX 22.5
Transom to standard – rotation about the standard (Y) axis KTSY 0.0 [assumed]
Transom to standard – rotation about the transom (Z) axis KTSZ 24.0
Transom to ledger – rotation about the ledger (X) axis KTLX 0.0 [assumed]
Transom to ledger – rotation about the standard (Y) axis KTLY 2.5
Transom to ledger – rotation about the transom (Z) axis KTLZ 14.0
The relevant parameters may be defined as follows:
Shear modulus of steel:

G = 210 / (2 × (1 + 0.3)) = 80.77 kN/mm2
appendix A
F
177
A: Transom to standard coupler member: B: Transom to ledger coupler member:

Length between ledger and standard axes: Length between transom and ledger:
LTS = 80 mm LTL = 50 mm
Rotation about X axis (bending stiffness): Rotation about X axis (small nominal value):
KTSX = E ITSX / LTS ITLX = 0.001 cm4
ITSX = KTSX × LTS / E Rotation about Y axis (torsion):
= 22.5 × 80 / (210 × 10) KTLY = G JTL / LTL
= 0.857 cm4 JTL = KTLY × LTL / G
This value reduced based on validation test: = 2.5 × 50 / (80.77 × 10)
ITSX = 0.823 cm4 = 0.155 cm4
Rotation about Y axis (small nominal value): Rotation about Z axis (bending stiffness):
ITSY = 0.001 cm4 KTLZ = E ITLZ / LTL
Rotation about Z axis (torsion):

ITLZ = KTLZ × LTL / E
KTSZ = G JTS / LTS = 14.0 × 50 / (210 × 10)
JTS = KTSZ × LTS / G = 0.333 cm4
= 24.0 × 80 / (80.77 × 10)

= 2.377 cm4
This value reduced based on validation test:

JTS = 2.229 cm4
Load
Transom unit
Transom to standard coupler
Ledger
Transom to ledger coupler
y
z x
Translational restraint along the x, y, z axes
Figure F.4 – Analysis model for a transom unit coupler
In figure F.4 the large arrow represents the load applied to the sub model to validate the member properties used to
represent the components of the coupler in respect of rotational stiffness in the YZ plane. The smaller arrows and
arcs represent respectively the directional and rotational supports provided in the equivalent test.
appendix AF
178
F.3 Determination of effective lengths
Annex E6 of former steelwork code BS 5950-1:2000 provides a method of determining the effective length of
columns in a multi-storey structure which may be used for standards in a rectilinear scaffold structure using the
following expression:
E×I
------------
LE =p Pcr
where:
LE is the effective length (in mm);
E is the modulus of elasticity of steel (210 kN/mm2);
I is the second moment of area of the scaffold tube section (13.8 × 104 mm4 for type 4 tube);
Pcr is the axial compression force in the column / standard at the elastic critical load factor (in kN).
The elastic critical load factor may be found by applying a test load of (say) 10 kN at each node of each standard in
the top lift of the structure as illustrated by figure F.5 and carrying out a second order geometric (P-delta) analysis
progressively increasing the load factor until instability occurs.
This iterative process can be accelerated by first increasing the load factor in integer increments to find the interval
bracketing the critical load factor and then incrementing each decimal place within that interval until the required
accuracy is achieved. Three decimal places is usually sufficient. Some frame analysis programs have the facility to
carry out this iterative process automatically.
10 kN test load at each standard
Notes:
1. Tied at alternate lifts at the ledger braced frames.
2. Ties are modelled with translation restraints along the x and z axes.
3. The base plates are modelled with full translational fixity and rotational fixity
about the y axis.
Figure F.5 – Model of a 4 lift × 6 bay scaffold with test loads applied to determine the elastic critical load factor
The buckling mode can usually be visualised by carrying out a second order elastic analysis at a load factor slightly
less than the critical value and displaying the deflection profile as illustrated in figures F.6 and F.7. However if both
the structure and loads are symmetrical the buckling failure occurs without prior visible deflections so it may be
necessary to apply small loads in the horizontal directions to disturb the system and generate deflections.
appendix A
F
179
Tie position
Figure F.6 – Model of a scaffold tied at every lift showing its deflected form at just below the critical buckling
load factor (buckling normal to the façade)
Tie position
Figure F.7 – Model of a scaffold tied at alternate lifts showing its deflected form at just below the critical buckling
load factor (buckling parallel to the façade)
appendix AG
180 Appendix G
TG20:13 Research results
G.1 General
As part of the TG20:13 project, research was carried out with the aim of justifying increased safe heights (where
possible) and relaxing rules given in earlier guidance such as TG20:08 and BS 5973. Additionally, at the request of
the TG20:13 working group, a number of investigations were undertaken to determine the structural implications
of recent developments in construction practice that have emerged since the publication of BS 5973 e.g. routine
use of two inside boards and tie tubes attached only to the inner ledgers or standards. The research has resulted in
an understanding of the behaviour of scaffolding structures under load which is reflected in the more detailed and
specific information given in this Design Guide and in the TG20 Operational Guide.
A full account of the TG20:13 research is given in reference G.1, with a brief summary of the main findings given in
this appendix. The conclusions are based on theoretical calculations, engineering logic and judgement and the results
of physical tests carried out by other researchers. No physical full scale scaffold tests were carried out in the TG20:13
project. All the modelling and structural analyses of scaffold frames were done using CADS A3D MAX software.
Details of the frame analysis modelling are given in Appendix F.
G.2 Verification of effective lengths given in TG20:08
In order to have a sound basis for further work it was considered necessary to verify the effective lengths of standards
in tied independent access scaffolds as given in table 23 of TG20:08 for scaffolds with 2.0 m lift height. Accordingly
structural analysis models were created similar to that illustrated in figure F.5. The following example incorporated the
following features understood to be consistent with those assumed in TG20:08:
• Scaffold with 5 main boards and no inside boards;

• 2.0 m lift heights. Two models were tested with 4 lifts and 10 lifts respectively;
• 6 bays of 2.1 m corresponding with the maximum spacing of façade bracing sets required by clause 4.2 of
TG20:08;
• Double bay façade bracing system as recommended in TG20:08;
• Alternate pairs of standards ledger braced;
• Façade and ledger bracing both connected to the standards with swivel couplers at the permitted maximum
eccentricity of 300 mm from the ledger-standard intersection. The alternative forms of bracing connection to
ledgers and to extended transoms respectively with right angle couplers were considered to be more rigid;
• Guard rails were ignored;
• Scaffold standards supported in all three directions at their bases but allowed to lift-off under vertical tension
force. No rotational restraint in the vertical planes. Rotational (torsional) restraint about the vertical axis. (This
latter restraint has no effect on elastic analysis but is routinely applied to avoid spurious instability reports when
plastic analysis is carried out);
• Tie tubes underslung from both inner and outer ledgers and connected with right angle couplers at the maximum
permitted 300 mm eccentricity from the ledger-standard intersection;
• Tie tubes connected to the façade assumed to be 120 mm from the inner standards with directional restraints in
the horizontal plane (X and Z) only as recommended in BS EN 12811-1 clause 10.2.1;
• Tie anchorages at alternate lifts on ledger braced frames (TG20:08 pattern A);
• Board transoms connected to the ledgers at 50 mm from the standards and at mid-bay. (This was later varied as
reported below);
• Ledgers connected to standards with short ‘analysis members’ as described in Appendix F.2.1 designed to
model the stiffness properties of class A right angle couplers as adopted in TG20:08. Tie tubes connected to the
ledgers with the same analysis member type;
• Board transoms connected to the ledgers with short ‘analysis members’ as described in Appendix F.2.2 designed
to model the stiffness properties of putlog couplers as adopted in TG20:08;
• Ledger braces and façade braces connected to the standards with short ‘analysis members’ as described in
Appendix F.2.3 designed to model the stiffness properties of class A swivel couplers.
A test load of 10 kN was applied axially to every standard at the top lift followed by incremental second order elastic
analysis to determine the elastic critical load factor and resultant effective length as outlined in Appendix F.3. The
effective length was calculated as 3.23 m for the 4 lift scaffold and 3.22 m for the 10 lift scaffold – a close agreement
with the 3.2 m given in table 23 of TG20:08. The failure mode is buckling of the inner standards parallel to the façade
as shown in TG20:08 figure 38 a(i) [figure 5.2 a(i) in this current guide].
Modified forms of the above models were created with ties at every lift in accordance with pattern D of TG20:08.
Effective lengths of 2.77 m and 2.75 m were obtained for the 4 lift and 10 lift scaffolds respectively – also in close
agreement with the 2.7 m effective length given in TG20:08. The failure mode was buckling of the non-ledger braced
standards normal to the façade in alternate directions (+/– Z) as illustrated in TG20:08 figure 38 b(ii) [figure 5.2 b(ii) in
this current guide].
AAPPPPEEN
NDDIICCEESS II Appendix
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181
G.3 Effect of base fixity
In tests on full scale scaffolds carried out at the Building Research Establishment (G2) it was observed that scaffold
standards erected on steel baseplates on a flat concrete surface exhibited significant base fixity until the onset of
buckling when the baseplate ‘kicked over’ into an ‘eccentric pinned’ condition. This behaviour contrasts with the
normal design assumption of a ‘pinned axial’ support.
At the request of the TG20:13 working group, a limited analytical study was made of the effects of base fixity on
the performance of tied independent façade scaffolds. It was found that as base fixity was increased from zero to
10 kNm/radian to 100 kNm/radian to fully fixed, the effective length reduced from 3.23 m to 3.06 m to 2.90 m to 2.86 m
with consequent increases in safe axial load from 13.4 kN to 14.7 kN (9.9 %) to 16.2 kN (20.6 %) to 16.5 kN (23.4 %).
However after careful consideration of the practicalities of site conditions it was concluded that no reliance should
be placed on any degree of base fixity for the design of routine scaffolds because of the great uncertainty that any
theoretical degree of fixity could be consistently achieved on site with loose baseplates, non-square tube ends and
variable or sloping surfaces.
G.4 Effect of a foot lift
A foot lift may be provided for a variety of reasons, one of which is to introduce some partial fixity at the bases of the
critical lowest lift standards without relying on the baseplates or foundations.
Including a foot lift using class A right angle couplers on both ledgers and structural transoms was found to increase
the axial load capacity of the standards by around 5 % for both ties at alternate lifts and ties at every lift.
G.5 Effect of tie fixity
In accordance with BS EN 12811-1 clause 10.2.1, it is normally assumed in analysis that tie fixings to the façade
are ‘pinned’ in the horizontal plane (X and Z restraints) and free to move vertically. At the request of the TG20:13
working group, a limited analytical study was made of the effects of tie rotational fixity in the horizontal plane on the
performance of tied independent façade scaffolds.
In this study the scaffold was reanalysed after incrementally introducing rotational stiffness in the horizontal plane
starting from 5 kNm/radian until full fixity. The results showed only very marginal improvement in the vertical load
capacity (1.4 %). The same was observed with a scaffold model having two inside boards and 5 main boards. In this
latter model the tie transoms extended 750 mm from the inner standard to the anchorage which provides greater
length for relative movement between the scaffold and the façade.
The reason that there is no increased vertical load performance due to fixity at the tie anchorage is that the original
arrangement modelled already provides an effectively rigid support in both horizontal directions because:
• Even the longest tie tube is very short in relation to its diameter and therefore compared to the scaffold frame it
restrains – almost rigid.
• The anchorage is already by traditional practice and EN 12811-1 clause 10.2.1 assumed to be rigid against
translation in the horizontal plane. In reality some anchorages (e.g. through ties) may be far from rigid but
introducing rotational fixity would be a very inefficient way of improving them.
It was concluded that in terms of effective length and vertical load capacity, there is nothing to be gained from
modelling (or allowing for) any perceived rotational fixity of some types of anchorage. However some useful additional
resistance to wind load parallel to the façade could be expected, although special design details and supporting
calculations would be required to justify this. This conclusion applies only when tie tubes are connected to both inner
and outer ledgers. It does not apply when tie tubes are connected only to the inner ledger or standard.
G.6 Effect of varying the cruciform stiffness of couplers
Increase in the cruciform stiffness of right angle couplers from that corresponding to class A to B and further was
found to have relatively little influence on the effective lengths of the standards and therefore vertical load capacity.
In order to achieve a significant improvement in load carrying capacity it would be necessary to adopt a coupler with
four times the cruciform stiffness of the pressed steel class A coupler.
50 % reduction in the cruciform stiffness of putlog couplers from 2.5 kNm/radian to 1.25 kNm/radian caused a
reduction of 7 % in vertical load capacity for scaffolds with ties at alternate lifts and 2 % reduction for ties at every
lift. In a separate study it was found that the resistance moment of putlog couplers could be critical in resisting wind
forces parallel to the façade.
G.7 Effect of practical transom spacing
It was found that the setting out of board transoms, whether to suit board maximum spans and overhangs or
idealised to match alternate transoms to standard positions, appears to have little or no effect on the effective
appendix AG
182
lengths of standards under vertical loading. There is therefore no need to co-ordinate board transom positions with
standards. This conclusion assumes that the density of transoms is kept broadly the same i.e. 1.2 m centres or 2 per
bay. It is also assumed that the separate tie tubes are connected to the ledgers with right angle couplers.
Closing up the spacing of board transoms significantly to accommodate high imposed loading may be expected to
reduce / improve the effective length of the standards and opening out the spacing to suit stronger boards may have
the opposite effect. However neither of these options has yet been studied.
G.8 Effect of including guard rails in the structural model
The effect of guardrails was studied on a 10 lift model by including firstly the outer and then inner guardrails. The
guardrails were connected to the standards by right angle couplers. The end guard rails were omitted. For ties at
alternate lifts there was only marginal increase in vertical load performance gained by including outer and inner
guardrails. However with ties at every lift a substantial 20 % increase was obtained just from including the mandatory
outer guardrails. This is because the buckling modes under vertical loads for ties at alternate / every lift are different
i.e. parallel / normal to the façade respectively. For buckling of the non-ledger braced standards normal to the façade
the effective length is mainly controlled by the number of horizontal members providing restraint. Including the
guardrails as well as the ledgers increases the number of restraints by 50 and 100 % for unboarded and boarded lifts
respectively.
G.9 Effect of a pavement lift
This TG20:13 study confirmed the guidance in TG20:08 to the effect that a pavement lift of up to 2.7 m height
(probably more) may be provided without adverse effect on vertical load capacity provided that ties to the façade or
equivalent restraint are installed at the first lift. If ties are only provided at the second and subsequent alternate lifts,
the effective length increases from 3.2 m to 3.47 m and the safe load capacity reduces from 13.6 kN to 11.78 kN. This
is because the length between ties governing the buckling failure parallel to the façade has increased from 4.0 m to
4.7 m. When plan bracing is introduced at the untied first lift, the inner standards are prevented from moving parallel
to the façade at this level by connection through to the façade bracing system. For ties at every lift the load capacity
reduces by about 5 % as a result of including a 2.7 m pavement lift.
G.10 Effect of tolerance on lift height
The effect of 10 % tolerance on the lift height was studied by modifying a four lift six bay structural model. The height
of the first two lifts was increased by 0.2 m (10 % on 2 m lifts) without increasing the overall scaffold height. It was
found that with ties at alternate lifts the increased lift height due to this particular example of 10 % construction
tolerance reduced the axial load capacity by around 4 %. This is due to the increase in vertical spacing of the ties
at the first row from 4.0 m to 4.4 m. The test was repeated with ties at every lift and it was found that the axial load
capacity was unaffected.
The latter behaviour can be explained by the different buckling mode with ties at every lift. For buckling of the non-
ledger braced standards normal to the façade the effective length is mainly dependent on the number of horizontal
restraint members and not sensitive to minor variations in their spacing.
G.11 Effect of varying scaffold widths
The effect of varying scaffold widths was studied with variations of a 10 lift × 6 bay structural model. The number
of main boards in the width of the scaffold was varied from 5 to 3. The effect of inside boards was also studied by
including a model with 5 main boards and 2 inside boards.
The models with reduced scaffold width showed improved performance with respect to effective lengths and vertical
load capacity. The model with 4 main boards had a reduced effective length (3.05 m) and resulting 8.8 % increase in
vertical load capacity. The model with 3 main boards had an effective length of 2.83 m resulting in 23.8 % increase in
vertical load capacity over the 5 board case. This is probably due to reduced flexibility of the narrower transom / ledger
horizontal girder assemblies. There was no difference in performance resulting from adding 2 inside boards to the
model with 5 main boards. This is probably because the tie tubes are relatively rigid and so the 5 + 2 boards model
behaves similarly to the 5 + 0 model. It may be noted that narrower scaffolds also attract less load from wind blowing
parallel to the façade.
G.12 Effect of substituting single bay for double bay façade bracing
TG20:08 section 4.2 recommended that if single bay façade bracing is used it should be accompanied by plan bracing
in panels between ledger braced frames or ties at maximum intervals of 12 bays and 4 lifts. As this rule is complex to
implement and largely ignored in practice, the TG20:13 working party requested a research review.
Accordingly 10 lift × 6 bay structural models were created with single and double bay façade bracing both without
plan bracing. The elastic critical loads were determined and found to be almost identical. As the standard method for
determining the elastic critical load [as outlined in F.3] includes only vertical test loads, single bay façade bracing is
as effective as double bay bracing and sufficient to maintain the same buckling mode of the inner standards parallel
AAPPPPEEN
appendix G
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183
to the façade. However, the effect on wind load combinations is untested by the above so a complete analysis and
design check with maximum wind loads was done for scaffold models with 5 main + 0 inside boards with single and
double bay façade bracing. Only very slight differences were noted in the results. In both models the capacity of the
façade brace to transfer wind load parallel to the façade was limited by coupler slip resistance and this was taken into
account in the analysis and member check.
In TG20:08 section 4.2 it is stated that the introduction of [limited] plan bracing is intended to reduce the overturning
effects of horizontal loads parallel to the façade which loads may cause uplift on certain standards. However, the
structural analyses done for TG20:13 showed that whereas plan bracing is very effective in transferring high parallel
wind forces to the façade and in extreme cases essential, it has to be provided in all tied lifts to be effective. It does
not prevent or reduce uplift but rather helps to deal with the consequences. The difference between single and
double bay façade bracing in resisting uplift was found to be relatively small and not sufficient to justify different
provisions of plan bracing. Façade bracing needs to be continuous across the length of the scaffold to make a
significant difference.
G.13 Effect of increasing the spacing of façade bracing
In TG20:08 the recommended maximum spacing of façade bracing sets was 6 bays whereas earlier guidance in BS
5973 required 30 m maximum spacing. At the request of the TG20:13 working group a limited study was undertaken
to see if the earlier guidance could be reinstated. Accordingly comparative unclad 10 lift models with single bay
bracing were created with respectively 6 bays and 14 bays of 2.1 m length. The models both had ties at alternate lifts
in pattern A and 5 main boards and no inside boards. Both models were found to have the same effective lengths for
the standards. Design checks under the same loading conditions produced similar but not identical results. Whilst this
result seemed to suggest that the maximum spacing could be relaxed for this scaffold configuration, less favourable
results for scaffolds with two inside boards and high wind exposure indicated that a wider range of conditions
including scaffolds with sheeting and debris netting should be investigated before reaching conclusions. Due to lack
of time for this it was decided to maintain the 6 bay spacing limit for façade bracing for TG20 compliant scaffolds.
G.14 Effect of ledger bracing direction
TG20:08 in section 6.2.1 suggests that the ledger bracing direction is immaterial for the structural stability of the
scaffold. However an earlier study on a simplified structural model with concentric axially rigid bracing connections
indicated that ledger bracing transfers significant (i.e. 20 %) compression loads from the high side to the low side
standards if the bracing direction is consistent. To resolve this issue the effect of altering the direction of ledger
bracing was studied with the more recent model with finite coupler stiffnesses and eccentric connections.
Three 10 lift × 6 bay models were created with respectively: ledger bracing sloping down to the inner face; down
to the outer face; and alternating directions. The bracing was connected to the standards with swivel couplers at
300 mm eccentricity from the ledger connection. The results showed a maximum difference of 5 % in the load sharing
between the outer and the inner standards which reduces to 0.2 % with alternating ledger braces. Elastic critical load
analysis was done on the three models with negligible difference in resultant effective lengths. These results indicate
that the flexibility of the couplers combined with practical eccentricity of connections to the standards act to prevent
significant load transfer between the outer and inner standards when bracing slopes are consistent. It is likely that
more load transfer may occur with more rigid arrangements such as right angle coupler connections to the ledgers
with minimum eccentricity but this has not been tested to date.
G.15 Effect of an untied top lift

When lines of ties are fitted strictly at alternate lifts this can sometimes result in the top lift being untied to the façade.
The effect of an untied top lift was studied with 10 lift and 9 lift models with the lowest line of ties at the second lift.
A third model was also created with 9 lifts and plan bracing in two bays between ledger braced frames at the untied
top lift. The models were loaded with a test vertical loads of 10 kN at the top lift and a test lateral load of 1 kN/m2
perpendicular to the façade on the entire face under separate load combinations. The results may be summarised as
follows:
• The maximum tie force is increased by approximately 20 % when the top lift is untied because of the cantilever –
anchor span effect increasing the tie forces transmitted to the highest line of ties.
• When the top lift is untied, the critical buckling length moves from the lowest lift to the top three lifts due to the
destabilising effect of the top lift cantilevering above the top line of ties. This causes a small increase in effective
length (3.20 m to 3.45 m). In practice it is not possible for the entire load to be applied at the top lift in an access
scaffold (because of the dominant self weight) so this can be ignored. In other circumstances (e.g. loading bays,
falsework etc.) the top cantilever condition may be critical as noted in section 5.7.1 of this guide.
• The effect of adding plan bracing to the untied top lift is to stop the inner line of standards acting as cantilevers
parallel to the façade at this level. The façade and ledger bracing restrain the potential movement. The critical
buckling length reverts to the lowest lift with approximately the same effective length as if the top lift were tied.
However, the presence of the minimum two bays of plan bracing has no effect on movement normal to the
façade so the higher tie force with untied top lift is not significantly reduced.
A similar situation to that described above may occur in clad scaffolds where an additional structural lift is often
appendix AG
184
provided to support the sheeting or debris netting. If the structural lift extends above the roof of the permanent
building it will not be possible to provide normal ties. The above solution with plan bracing in the structural lift
between ledger braced frames can be adopted here also.
G.16 Effect of varying tie patterns
The effects of varying tie patterns were studied using 10 lift × 6 bay structural models with ties arranged according to
patterns A, B, D and E as defined in figure 9 of TG20:08 with the following results:
• The effective length of the standards is governed by the vertical spacing of the ties but is largely unaffected
by whether they are placed in rectangular patterns 100 % on the ledger braced frames (patterns A and D) or
staggered (50 % on ledger braced frames – patterns B and E) as implied by TG20:08.
• The magnitude of the tie forces normal to the façade is not only governed by the average density of the ties
but also by their positioning and the stiffness of the frames to which they are attached. If the ties are regularly
spaced in both directions (vertical and horizontal) and all on ledger braced frames the internal tie forces are
relatively uniformly distributed. Thus the maximum tie forces are less for the model with tie pattern A than for
other patterns. Even so, the maximum force for tie pattern A is 10 % greater than the value calculated on a
simple tributary area basis. This is because of continuity effects in what is essentially a grid structure resisting
wind loading normal to the façade. The edge tie forces are of course always less than the internal tie forces.
• For tie patterns A and B (alternate lifts tied), the maximum tie force for pattern B is significantly (14 %) more than
for pattern A because the wind forces are preferentially attracted to the ties supporting the stiffer ledger braced
frames.
• Tie pattern D (ties every lift) has a (17 %) greater maximum tie force than tie pattern A even though the density is
the same. This is due to the cantilever action of those ledger braced frames which are not directly tied at the top
lift. This is similar to the effect of an untied top lift with pattern A.
• For tie pattern E (ties every lift but staggered) the greatest force is 41 % higher than the average internal tie force.
Similarly to pattern D, load is attracted preferentially to the ledger braced frames because of their stiffness but
the critical frame cantilevers 3 lifts above its highest tie.
• The results reported above suggest that allowance should be made for the effect of different tie patterns in
addition to allowing for the obvious variations in tie density. This could be a conservative ‘catch all’ allowance for
the most adverse pattern E or specific values for different tie patterns.
G.17 Effect of modelling geometrical imperfections
BS EN 12811 clause 10.2.2.1 requires the effect of practical imperfections (out of straight etc.) to be taken into
account.
This was tested on a 28 m fully boarded scaffold model. In this model the sway imperfections were modelled by
application of equivalent horizontal forces as permitted by BS EN 1993-1-1 clause 5.3.2 (7). The effects of local ‘bow’
imperfections are taken into account in the member design checks.
A full set of load combinations was analysed at the ultimate limit state with and without sway imperfection forces
applied and the results of all member checks were compared. A marginal (2.7 %) increase in maximum tie force
parallel to the façade was observed with a similar (2.4 %) increase in façade brace axial force. All other results showed
insignificant differences with sway imperfections included / excluded. Therefore it was decided not to include sway
imperfections in the models for safe height calculations.
G.18 Effect of tie tubes connected to the inner ledger only
For 10 lift × 6 bay scaffold structural models with 5 main boards and no inside boards it was found that the effective
length of the standards was the same whether the tie tubes are connected to both ledgers or to the inner ledger only.
However under severe wind exposure (STG20:13 = 40 m/s) failures were reported in the putlog couplers in slip force
and cruciform moment resistance. This was because of the removal of the bending stiffness and strength of the tie
tube extensions to the outer ledger. With inside boards the failures occur at lower wind exposures.
Removing the tie tube connection to the outer ledger fundamentally changes the wind load paths in the scaffold
structure placing the putlog couplers under additional stress due to wind blowing parallel to the façade. It is therefore
recommended that tie tubes should be connected to both the outer and the inner standards as earlier recommended
in TG20:08. When this is not possible, additional plan bracing should be provided. Plan bracing must be carefully
designed to avoid unintended overstressing of other members and is unlikely to be a cost effective alternative to
connecting tie tubes to both ledgers. A limited range of wind exposure, height and scaffold configurations for which
ties to the inner ledger only are adequate are identified by the TG20 eGuide as TG20 compliant scaffolds. However in
no circumstances should simple tie tubes be connected to the inner standards only without alternative sway restraint
because this places reliance on the very small resistance of a right angle coupler to rotation around the tube.
AAPPPPEEN
appendix G
A
185
G.19 Effective lengths of tie tubes
In TG20:08 Appendix D, the effective length of a scaffold standard cantilevering above or below a braced lift is given
as:
LE = 2 LC + LA
where:
LC is the cantilever length;
LA is the braced anchor span length.
At first sight it might be assumed that this expression would be applicable to the case of a tie tube connected to an
anchorage and both the inner and outer ledgers. However, in most cases the inner and outer ledgers are not plan-
braced together. Instead, partial restraint in the horizontal plane is provided by the cruciform stiffness of the putlog
couplers joining the board transoms to the ledgers and so the effective length must be greater than given by the
above expression.
In order to investigate this, three frame analysis models were created for 9 lift × 6 bay scaffolds with 5 main boards
and respectively 0, 1 and 2 inside boards and 120 mm clearance from the façade. Tie pattern A was adopted with the
top lift untied. Test loads were applied to the outer ends of all the ties and an elastic critical load analysis performed
as described in section F.3 except the loading was horizontal in the Z direction rather than vertical.
The effective length result were found to fit the following relationship:
LE = 1.213 LC + 2.055 LA
The following effective lengths are generated with 5 main boards:
No inside boards: LE = 2.52 m

One inside board: LE = 2.80 m
Two inside boards: LE = 3.09 m (compared with 2.41 m using the formula L E = 2 L C + L A)
When plan bracing is fitted between two consecutive ledger braced frames the TG20:08 Appendix D expression
should be applicable.
The situation with tie tubes connected only to the inner ledger and no bracing / triangulation was tested in similar
fashion with the following results:
No inside boards: LE = 4.05 m; LE / LC = 23.8

One inside board: LE = 6.23 m; LE / LC = 15.2
Two inside boards: LE = 7.85 m; LE / LC = 12.2
The stiffness of the putlog couplers connecting the board transoms to the ledgers was found to have no effect on this
case. The sway stability of simple ties to the inner ledger only is entirely dependent on the cruciform stiffness and
strength of the right angle couplers attaching the tie tubes to the ledgers.
G.20 Effect of supporting two separate standards on one timber sole board
It is widely assumed that for standards at 1250 mm centres a 1500 mm long symmetrically placed sole plate can
be substituted for two separate 750 mm sole plates. This results in the loads being applied close to the ends of the
sole plate which is intuitively very suspect in engineering terms. It was decided to investigate whether the reported
industry practice can be justified by numerical analysis and to ascertain whether there is any additional capacity
resulting from combining sole plates in line whilst maintaining the end projections of the individual plates.
As a result of hand calculations assuming uniform bearing pressure lengths at each end of the combined sole plate
and more refined analysis with elastic spring subgrade it was concluded that where two separate scaffold standards
are to be supported on one sole plate, its length should be such that the end distances from centre standard should
each be equal to half the length of sole plate required for a single standard. Generally the moments and shears
generated in a combined sole board loaded near its ends so as to distribute the loads uniformly to the subgrade
considerably exceed the resistances of practical timber sections. Similarly there is very little additional bearing
capacity resulting from combining sole plates in line whilst maintaining the end projections of the individual plates.
G.21 Extent of load sharing between doubled standards
There are certain circumstances whereby twin standards are required up to a certain level in a scaffold and thereafter
single standards appear to be sufficient. It is apparently common practice to simply curtail one of the twin standards
and allow the other to continue without any specific arrangements for load sharing. Where justification is sought it is
appendix AG
186
usually stated that load transfer will occur between the continuous standard and the discontinuous standard due to
greater elastic shortening of the former. In order to test this hypothesis a 2D structural analysis model was created
comprising 10 lifts of 2.0 m and two bays of 2.0 m. Discontinuous additional standards were added in lifts 1 to 5 at
0.150 m distance from the continuous standards. Ledgers were modelled as partially fixed ended members to allow
for the cruciform fixity of the RA couplers jointed to the standards. A 6 lift model was also created with doubled
standards in the first lift only.
The working lift was assumed to be the top lift with the next lift below loaded to 50 % of duty and the remaining lifts
loaded with boards only. The load in the lowest single standard was 8.25 kN. In the highest doubled standards the
loads were 1.73 kN and 7.27 kN in the discontinuous and continuous standards respectively, i.e. the load was shared
in proportions 19 : 81 (%). The corresponding values for the single doubled standard lift of the 6 lift model were
1.07 kN and 7.93 kN, i.e. proportions 12 : 88 (%). The loads in the lowest lift of the 10 lift model were 5.66 and 6.34 kN
in the discontinuous and continuous standards respectively, i.e. proportions 47 : 53 (%). This shows that load sharing
occurs but only over several lifts of doubled standards. This means that where standards are doubled purely to cope
with the relatively uniform accumulation of load from top to bottom of a scaffold it would be unsafe to curtail the
supplementary standard immediately at the level at which the continuing standard becomes just adequate. To ensure
that the continuing standard is not overloaded at the next lift down the supplementary standard should be continued
for several lifts above.
On the other hand where standards are doubled principally to support a bridges the bridge load should be applied
mainly to the supplementary standard which can be curtailed immediately above the bridge if the continuing standard
is adequate for the normal loads.
G.22 Effect of sleeve couplers on the load capacity of ledgers
TBA xx
G.23 Effective lengths of doubled standards
TBA xx
G.24 Effect of adding façade bracing to inner standards
TBA xx
G.25 Effective lengths of standards in birdcage scaffolds
TBA xx
G.26 Effective lengths of single bay façade braces in ledger braced scaffolds
A structural analysis model of an independent tied ledger braced scaffold was created with 8 lifts of 2.0 m and 6
bays of 2.0 m. Ties were positioned at alternate lifts and alternate ledger braced frames. Horizontal test loads were
applied at the upper end of façade braces. Two load combinations were applied loading the top lift and the second
lift respectively. The resultant forces in the façade bracings were noted after first order elastic analysis. Elastic critical
load analysis was then used to determine the effective lengths following the procedure outlined in Appendix F.3.
The effective lengths for the critical braces were both calculated as 2828 mm representing an effective length factor
of 1.0 with respect to the actual length of each brace. This demonstrated that both ends of the façade braces were
effectively restrained in position despite the absence of ledger bracing on alternate frames and the absence of plan
bracing.
G.27 Effective lengths of ledgers in ledger braced scaffolds
A structural analysis model of an independent tied ledger braced scaffold was created with 8 lifts of 2.0 m and 6 bays
of 2.0 m. Ties were positioned at alternate lifts and alternate ledger braced frames. Equal and opposite horizontal
test loads were applied at each end of each ledger. Two load combinations were applied testing the top lift and the
first lift ledgers respectively. Elastic critical load analysis was used to determine the effective lengths following the
procedure outlined in Appendix F.3. The effective lengths for the top and first lift ledgers were calculated as 2192 mm
and 2295 mm respectively representing effective length factors of 1.10 and 1.15 respectively. Although the deflection
diagrams at incipient failure indicated buckling in the horizontal planes in S-form with inflection points at the tie
positions, the actual buckling loads were much more closely related to the bay spacings than to the tie spacings.
AAPPPPEEN
appendix G
A
187
G.28 Review of TG20:08 values for the cruciform stiffness of couplers
TBA xx
APPENDICES I Appendix H
188 Appendix H
Bibliography, references and acknowledgements
This appendix is divided into four sections:
1. British and European standards and similar codes of practice which give details of materials and components
for access and working scaffolds and special scaffolds in steel which will satisfy the recommendations of this
guide;
2. NASC Safety and Technical Guidance notes;
3. Publications and reports of note consulted during the TG20:13 project or recommended for further reading;
4. Publications and reports specifically referred to by number in the text;
5. Acknowledgements for the development of this NASC Guide.
H.1 British Standards
BS EN 39:2001 Loose steel tubes for tube and coupler scaffolds - Technical delivery conditions.
BS EN 74-1:2005 Couplers, spigot and baseplates for use in falsework and scaffolds.
Part 1: couplers for tubes- requirements and test procedures.
BS EN 131-1:2007+A1:2011 Ladders. Specification for terms, types and functional sizes.
BS EN 131-2:2010+A1:2012 Ladders. Specification for requirements, testing and marking.
BS EN 354:2010 Personal fall protection equipment. Lanyards.
BS EN 358:2000 Personal protective equipment against falls from a height.
Belts for work positioning and restraint and work positioning lanyards.
BS EN 361:2002 Personal protective equipment against falls from a height. Full body harness.
BS EN 363:2008 Personal fall protection equipment. Personal fall protection systems.
BS EN 364:1993 Personal protective equipment against falls from a height. Test methods.
BS EN 365:2004 Personal protective equipment against falls from a height.
General requirements for instructions for use maintenance examination, repair and
for marking and packaging.
BS EN 397:2012+A1:2012 Specification for industrial safety helmets
BS EN 1004:2004 Mobile access and working towers made of prefabricated elements - Materials,
dimensions, design loads, safety and performance requirements
BS EN ISO 1181:2004 Fibre ropes. Manila and sisal
BS EN 1261:1995 Fibre ropes for general service. Hemp
BS EN 1263-1:2002 Safety nets. Safety requirements. Test methods
BS EN 1263-2:2002 Safety nets. Safety requirements for the positioning limits
BS EN 1990:2002+A1:2005 Eurocode. Basis of structural design and UK National Annex
BS EN 1991-1-1:2002 Eurocode 1. Actions on structures. General actions. Densities, self weight,
imposed loads for buildings.
+ UK National Annex.
BS EN 1991-1- Eurocode 1: Actions on structures - Part 1-3: General actions - Snow loads.
3:2003+C1:2010 + UK National Annex.
BS EN 1991-1- Eurocode 1: Actions on structures - Part 1-4:General actions - Wind loads.
4:2005+A1:2010 + UK National Annex.
BS EN 1991-1-6:2005 Eurocode 1: Actions on structures - Part 1-6: General actions – Actions during
execution.
BS EN 1992-1- Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures – Part 1-1- General rules and rules for
1:2004+C1:2010 buildings.
BS EN 1993-1- Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures Part 1-1 General rules and rules for
1:2005+C2:2009 buildings.
BS EN 1995-1- Eurocode 5: Design of timber structures. Part 1-1:General. Common rules and
1:2004+A1:2008 rules for buildings.
BS EN 1997-1:2004 Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design. General rules. + UK National Annex.
AAPPPPEENNDDIICCEESS II Appendix
appendix H
A
189
BS EN 10210-1:2006 Hot-finished structural hollow sections of non-alloy and fine grain steels. Technical
delivery requirements.
BS EN 10219-1:2006 Cold-formed welded structural hollow sections of non-alloy and fine grain steels.
Technical delivery requirements.
BS EN 12385-1:2002+A1:2008 Steel wire ropes. Safety. General requirements.
BS EN 12385-4:2002+A1:2008 Steel wire ropes. Safety. Stranded ropes for general lifting applications.
BS EN 12810-1:2003 Façade scaffolds made of prefabricated components - Part 1; Product
Specifications.
BS EN 12810-2:2004 Façade scaffolds made of prefabricated components - Part 2; Particular methods
of structural design.
BS EN 12811-1:2003 Temporary Works Equipment - Part 1: Scaffolds - Performance requirements and
general design.
BS EN 12811-2: 2004 Temporary Works Equipment - Part 2: Information on materials.
BS EN 12811-3:2002 Temporary Works Equipment - Part 3: Load testing.
prEN 12811-4:2012 Temporary Works Equipment - Part 4: Protection fans for scaffolding Issued as
draft for public comment DC 12/30248282.
BS EN 12813: 2004 Temporary works equipment - Load bearing towers of prefabricated components.
Particular methods of structural design.
BS EN 13157:2004+A1:2010 Cranes. Safety. Hand powered cranes.
BS EN 13374:2004 Temporary edge protection systems - Product specification, test methods.
Currently withdrawn and under revision: draft for public comment expected 2013.
BS EN 13889:2003+A1:2008 Forged steel shackles for general lifting purposes. Dee shackles and bow
shackles. Grade 6. Safety.
BS 1129:1990 Specification for portable timber ladders, steps, trestles and lightweight stagings
BS 1139-1.2:1990 Metal Scaffolding - Specification for aluminium tube.
BS 1139-2.2:2009 Metal Scaffolding. Couplers - Aluminium couplers and special couplers in steel.
Requirements and test methods.
BS 1139-1:1982 Steel scaffold tube specification (Minimum yield stress 210 N/mm²) (withdrawn
but relevant)
BS 1139-4:1982 Metal scaffolding. Specification for prefabricated steel splitheads and trestles.
BS 1692:1998 Specification for gin blocks.
BS 2037:1994 Specification for portable aluminium ladders, steps, trestles and lightweight
staging.
BS 2482:2009 Specification for timber scaffold boards.
BS 3551:1962 Specification for alloy steel shackles.
BS 5268-2:2002 Structural use of timber - Part 2: Code of practice for permissible stress design,
materials and workmanship (withdrawn and replaced by BS EN 1995-1-1 but still
valid).
BS 5950-1:2000 Structural use of steelwork in building. Code of practice for design. Rolled and
welded sections (withdrawn and replaced by BS EN 1993-1-1 but still valid).
BS 5973:1993 Code of practice for access and working scaffolds and special structures in steel
(withdrawn).
BS 5974:2010 Code of practice for planning, design, setting up and use of temporary suspended
access equipment.
BS 5975:2008+A1:2011 Code of practice for temporary works procedures and the permissible stress
design of falsework.
BS 6180:2011 Barriers in and about buildings. Code of practice.
BS 6399-1:1996 Loading for buildings. Code of practice for dead and imposed loads (withdrawn
and replaced by BS EN 1991-1-1).
BS 6399-2:1995 Loading for buildings. Code of practice for wind loads (withdrawn and replaced by
BS EN 1991-1-4).
BS 6399-3:1988 Loading for buildings. Code of practice for imposed roof loads (withdrawn and
replaced by BS EN 1991-1-1 and 3).
BS 8437:2005+A1:2012 Code of practice for selection, use and maintenance of personal fall protection
systems and equipment for use in the workplace.
appendix AH
190
H.2 NASC Safety and Technical Guidance Notes
SG 04:10 Preventing falls in scaffolding

SG 06:12 Manual handling in the scaffold industry
SG 07:12 Guide to risk assessments
SG 09:08 Use, inspection and maintenance of lifting equipment and accessories for lifting in scaffolding
SG 10:08 Requirements for use of brick guards
SG 14:10 Safety nets
SG 23:03 Safe system of work for birdcage scaffolds
SG 24:06 A guide for scaffold plans (method statements)
SG 25:10 Access and egress from scaffolds
SG 27:09 Temporary edge protection systems on open steelwork
SG 28:09 Safe system of work for scaffolding associated with timber frame building construction
SG 29:08 Internal edge protection on scaffold platforms
SG 31:09 Management of slips, trips and falls
SG 32:11 Guidance on the provision of inside board brackets
SG 33:12 Guide to the construction and use of loading bays platforms
SG 34:11 Guidance on protection of the public
SG 35:11 Handover of scaffold structures
SG 36:12 Unauthorised modifications to scaffolds
TG 03:11 Erection, use and dismantling of temporary rubbish chutes on scaffolding.

TG 04:11 Anchorage systems for scaffolding.
TG 05:10 Timber scaffold boards, an introduction to the revised standard BS2482:2009.
TG 06:10 Care and maintenance of scaffold boards.
TG 07:07 Scaffold board nail plates.
TG 08:10 Fire damage.
TG 09:12 Guide to the design and construction of temporary roofs and buildings.
TG 10:06 Fire retardent treatments for timber scaffold boards and battens.
TG 11:10 Stress corrosion cracking in high-tensile steels and alloys.
TG 12:10 Tying down of scaffold boards.
TG 13:03 Non-standard boarded platforms.
TG 14:03 Supplementary couplers and check couplers.
TG 15:03 Site hoardings and signboards.
TG 16:06 Anchoring to the ground.
TG 17:10 Identification of BS EN 74 scaffold fittings.
H.3 Bibliography
Abdel-Jaber M S, Beale R G, Rotational strength and stiffness of tubular scaffold connectors. Proceedings
Godley MHR, Abdel-Jaber M. Institution of Civil Engineers Structures and Buildings 162 pp 391-403, December
2009.
Beale R G and Godley M H R. Numerical modelling of tube and fitting access scaffolding systems. International
conference on advances in steel structures. Elsevier 2005 vol II pp 1375-1382.
Beale R G. Review of research into scaffold structures. Civil engineering computations tools
and techniques (Topping B V H editor), Chapter 12 pp 271-300. Saxe-Coburg
Publications, Stirlingshire Scotland, 2007.
Beale R G, Abdel-Jaber M S, Rotational strength and stiffness of tube and fitting scaffold couplers. Oxford
Godley MHR, Abdel-Jaber M. Brookes University report for National Access & Scaffolding Confederation, April
2008.
Bruniak, R and Sockel, H. Resistance tests on tubes and scaffolding parts. Oesterreichische Ingenieur
Zeitschrift (Austrian Engineering Journal), 4th annual volume, No. 9.
AAPPPPEENNDDIICCEESS II Appendix
appendix H
A
191
Champion S. Access scaffolding. Longman, 1996.

Cook N J. The designers guide to wind loading of building structures. 2 vols HMSO and
Butterworths, 1990.
Cortez-Quiroz C A, Irtaza H Numerical study of the effects of wind acting in different directions on clad
and Beale R G. scaffolds erected around a low-rise building. Oxford Brookes University report,
2011.
Godley M H R. Tests on forged and pressed scaffold couplers. Oxford Brookes University report
OBU 390 for National Access & Scaffolding Confederation, May 2008.
Godley M H R. Analysis of pressed and forged coupler tests. Slender Structures Ltd report SSL
155, May 2008.
Godley M H R. Analysis of full scale tests on tube and fitting scaffolds made at BRE. Slender
Structures Ltd report SSL 159, June 2008.
Godley M H R and Pallet P F. TG20:08. Technical guidance on the use of BS EN 12811-1 – Guide to good practice
for scaffolding with tubes and fittings. National Access & Scaffolding Confederation,
2 vols., November 2008.
Godley M H R. Tests on pressed steel putlog couplers for National Access & Scaffolding
Confederation. Oxford Brookes University report OBU 395, August 2009.
Godley M H R. Structural tests on Readylock transoms. Oxford Brookes University report OBU 404
for National Access & Scaffolding Confederation, February 2013.
Hairsine R C. TG20:13 Wind loads on façade access scaffolds. CADS report for National Access &
Scaffolding Confederation, September 2013.
Hensel, H. Wind load assumptions for tubular scaffolding and load redistribution in load-
bearing scaffolding. Dissertation, Dresden, 1964.
Hoxey R P, Robertson A P, Full scale studies on lightweight structures, windbreaks and walls at Silsoe
Richardson G M. Research Institute. HSE conference proceedings: Wind loading on temporary
structures pp 83-98. Health and Safety Executive, Sheffield, 1994.
Irtaza H. Experimental and computational determination of wind loads on sheeted / netted
scaffolds. PhD thesis. Oxford Brookes University, October 2009.
Irtaza H, Beale R G, Godley Experimental and numerical evaluation by computational fluid dynamics of wind
M H R. loads on sheeted scaffolds. Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on
Civil, Structural and Environmental Engineering Computing, Civil-Comp Press,
Stirling Scotland, 2009.
Knapton J. Concrete ground bearing slabs. Thomas Telford, London, 2003.
Maddocks G. Current UK practice in cladding temporary structures. HSE conference proceedings:
Wind loading on temporary structures pp 33-45. Health and Safety Executive,
Sheffield, 1994.
McFarlane R G. Slip tests on Readylok transoms. Lloyds British Testing Ltd report no 224992 21,
March 2013.
Milojkovic B, Beale R G, Modelling scaffold connections. 4th ACME UK Annual conference pp 85-88.
Godley M H R. Glasgow, 1996.
Nieser H. Current German practice in cladding temporary structures. HSE conference
proceedings: Wind loading on temporary structures pp 46–52. Health and Safety
Executive Sheffield, 1994.
Newberry C W and Eaton K J. Wind loading handbook. Building Research Establishment report. HMSO London,
1974.
Pallett P F and Nicoll I. Access and proprietary scaffolds. Chapter 21 in Temporary works: Principles of
design and construction. eds. Pallett P F and Grant M, ICE publishing, London
2012.
Richardson R A. Scaffold fan testing. Health and Safety Laboratory report HSL/2003/17. Buxton
England, 2003.
Richardson R A. Testing of reveal pin ties. Health and Safety Laboratory report HSL/2006/36. Buxton
England, 2006.
Roberts T. TG20:13 Wind factor research report. CADS report for National Access &
appendix AH
192
Schnabel P. Abschlussbericht zum Forschungsvorhaben Ermittlungvon aerodynamischen

Formbeiwerten für Fassadengerüste. (Determination of aerodynamic coefficients for
façade scaffolding). Report A1/79, for the Institute of Building Research, Berlin by
LGA Bayern, Munich, April 1981.
Unpublished translation / interpretation for National Access & Scaffolding
Confederation by R Lawrey and R C Hairsine, March 2013.
Summary and commentary for National Access & Scaffolding Confederation by R C
Hairsine, April 2013.
Schnabel P. Stromungstechnische Modellversuche zur Ermittlungder Windlasten auf bekleidete
Fassadengeruste (Aerodynamic model tests to determine the wind loads on clad
façade scaffolding). Report A18/91 for the Institute of Building Research, Berlin by
LGA Bayern, Munich, January 1994.
Unpublished translation and interpretation for National Access & Scaffolding
Confederation by R C Hairsine and T Roberts, CADS, 2012.
Schnabel P. Model experiments on covered scaffolding in a wind tunnel. HSE conference
proceedings: Wind loading on temporary structures pp 99 –116. Health and Safety
Executive, Sheffield, 1994.
Schröter, D. Contribution to the determination of the static stresses on tubular steel scaffolding.
Dissertation, Dresden, 1976.
Varatharajan D, Hairsine R C. TG20:13 Structural engineering research report. CADS report for the National
Access & Scaffolding Confederation, September 2013.
Widmann, H. Wind loads on tubular steel scaffolding. Beton und Stahlbetonbau (Concrete and
steel-reinforced concrete construction) 10/1961.
Wilson C, Hollis E J. Research on the effects of wind loading on clad scaffold structures. HSE
conference proceedings: Wind loading on temporary structures pp 117-136. Health
and Safety Executive, Sheffield, 1994.
H.4 Numbered references from the text of this guide
4.1 Schröter, D. Contribution to the determination of the static stresses on tubular steel scaffolding.
Dissertation, Dresden, 1976.
4.2 Schnabel P. Abschlussbericht zum Forschungsvorhaben Ermittlungvon aerodynamischen
Formbeiwerten für Fassadengerüste. (Determination of aerodynamic coefficients for
façade scaffolding). Report A1/79, for the Institute of Building Research, Berlin by
LGA Bayern, Munich, April 1981.
Unpublished translation / interpretation for the National Access & Scaffolding
Confederation by R Lawrey and R C Hairsine, March 2013.
Summary and commentary for the National Access & Scaffolding Confederation by
R C Hairsine April 2013.
4.3 Cook N J. The designers guide to wind loading of building structures. Table 20.1. 2 vols
HMSO and Butterworths, 1990.
4.4 Nieser H. Current German practice in cladding temporary structures. HSE conference
proceedings: Wind loading on temporary structures, Table 1, pp 46–52. Health and
Safety Executive, Sheffield, 1994.
4.5 Schnabel P. Stromungstechnische Modellversuche zur Ermittlungder Windlasten auf bekleidete
Fassadengeruste. (Aerodynamic model tests to determine the wind loads on clad
façade scaffolding). Report A18/91 for the Institute of Building Research, Berlin by
LGA Bayern, Munich, January 1994.
Unpublished translation and interpretation for the National Access & Scaffolding
Confederation by R C Hairsine and T Roberts, CADS, 2012.
4.6 Schnabel P. Model experiments on covered scaffolding in a wind tunnel. HSE conference
proceedings: Wind loading on temporary structures, p 105. Health and Safety
Executive, Sheffield, 1994.
4.7 Godley M H R. Structural tests on Readylock transoms. Oxford Brookes University report OBU 404
for the National Access & Scaffolding Confederation, February 2013.
4.8 McFarlane R G. Slip tests on Readylok transoms. Lloyds British Testing Ltd report no 224992, 21
March 2013.
4.9 Hairsine R C. TG20:13 Wind loads on façade access scaffolds. CADS report for National Access &
APPENDICES I Appendix H
193
5.1 Abdel-Jaber M S, Rotational strength and stiffness of tubular scaffold connectors. Proceedings
Beale R G, Godley Institution of Civil Engineers Structures and Buildings 162 pp 391-403, December
MHR, Abdel-Jaber 2009.
M.
5.2 Godley M H R. Analysis of pressed and forged coupler tests. Slender Structures Ltd report SSL
155, May 2008.
5.3 Godley M H R. Tests on pressed steel putlog couplers for National Access & Scaffolding
A.1 Roberts T. TG20:13 Wind factor research report. CADS report for the National Access &
E.1 Knapton J. Concrete ground bearing slabs. Thomas Telford, London, 2003.
E.2 Anon. NHBC Standards part 4.1. National House Building Council, UK 2013.
E.3 Tomlinson M J, Foundation design and construction Chapter 1. 7th edition, Pearson Education
Boorman R. England, 2001.
E.4 Anon. Arcelor piling handbook. 8th edition, p 4 / 9 table 4.5. Arcelor Mittal, reprinted 2008.
F.1 Godley M H R. Tests on pressed steel putlog couplers for the National Access & Scaffolding
F.2 Godley M H R. Structural tests on Readylock transoms. Oxford Brookes University report OBU 404
for the National Access & Scaffolding Confederation, February 2013.
G.1 Varatharajan D, TG20:13 Structural engineering research report. CADS report for the National
Hairsine R C. Access & Scaffolding Confederation, September 2013.
G.2 Godley M H R. Analysis of full scale tests on tube and fitting scaffolds made at BRE. Slender
Structures Ltd report SSL 159, June 2008.
H.5 Acknowledgements
The development of the TG20:13 Design Guide was entrusted to CADS (Computer and Design Services Ltd.) by the
National Access and Scaffolding Confederation:
Robert C. Hairsine BSc (Hons.) MICE FIStructE

TG20:13 Design Guide technical writing, including revisions and additions to the TG 20:08 text, and structural
engineering research and design.
Devi Varatharajan BSc (Hons.) MSc
Structural research and design.
Terry Roberts BSc (Hons.) MSc (Oxon.) MBCS CITP
TG 20:13 Design Guide editing and formatting.
Daniel Douglas
Additional illustrations.
It is based in large part on the previous editions which were prepared by Slender Structures Limited (M.H.R. Godley
BSc Phd CEng MICE FIStructE), with the help and co-operation of the TG 20:05 and TG 20:08 working groups chaired by Eur
Ing Ian Nicoll BSc (Hons.) CEng MICE.
This guidance was written with the help and co-operation of the NASC TG 20:13 working group, with contributions by
the members of the NASC Council and Technical Committee.
I Notes
194
I Notes
195
I Notes
196
(National Access & Scaffolding Confederation)
4th Floor, 12 Bridewell Place,
London, EC4V 6AP.
Tel: 020 7822 7400. Fax: 020 7822 7401.
Email: enquiries@nasc.org.uk
Twitter: NASCscaffolding
YouTube: NASClondon
www.nasc.org.uk

TG20-13 Design Guide Draft B

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TG20-13 Design Guide Draft B

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DRAFT B

TG 20:13 Design Guide

First published January 2005

• New overview and discussion of the structural behaviour of scaffolds;

• New commentary on BS EN 12811-1 imposed loads;

• New commentary and background to the wind loading guidance in BS EN 12811-1;

• New unified treatment of effective lengths covering more cases;

• Revised and more detailed treatment of scaffold boards, transoms, ledgers;

• New Appendix F on modelling scaffolds with structural analysis software;

Section 2 DESIGN GUIDANCE FOR STANDARD SCAFFOLDS 21

2.1.9 Tying scaffolding to building façades 33

Section 3 SPECIAL SCAFFOLDS 59

3.16 Spectator terraces and seating stands 80

Section 4 STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF TUBE AND FITTING SCAFFOLDS 85

4.2.3.4 Aerodynamic force coefficient cf 97

Section 5 SCAFFOLD DESIGN DATA 111

5.7.3.4 Tied scaffolds subject to uplift 128

Section 6 DEFINITIONS 147

A.2.2 TG20 eGuide manual procedure 156

Appendix B MANUAL CALCULATION OF LOADS PER STANDARD IN AN INDEPENDENT TIED 157

Appendix C SCAFFOLDS USING ALUMINIUM TUBE 162

Appendix D SAFE AXIAL LOADS IN STEEL SCAFFOLD TUBES TO BS 1139-1:1982 164

Appendix E FOUNDATION DESIGN 165

Appendix F MODELLING SCAFFOLDS WITH STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS SOFTWARE 172

Appendix G TG20:13 RESEARCH RESULTS 180

Appendix H BIBLIOGRAPHY & REFERENCES 188

Figure 2.12 Typical types of raker stabilisers used on domestic scaffolds 42

Table 5.1 Scaffold component weights 112

1.2 TG20 compliant scaffolds

1.3 Limit state design

1.4 Structural materials and components

2.1 Independent scaffolds 22

2.2Loading bays founded

2.3 Access birdcages 49

2.4 Putlog scaffolds 54

22 Design guidance for standard scaffolds

2.1.1 Description of tied independent scaffolds

Reveal tie tube

Figure 2.1 – Typical independent tied scaffold

2.1.2 Duty of tied independent scaffolds

2.1.2.2 Scaffold designation

2.1.2.3 Maximum bay lengths

2.1.2.4 Lift heights

kN/m2 (udl kN/m2) m mm

1 1-3-0 Inspection Inspection, 0.75 One full 2.7 1200 3 W06

3 3-5-0 General General 2.00 One full 2.1 1200 5 W09

2.1.3.1 Scaffolds supported on existing superstructures

2.1.3.2 Kentledge and ground anchors

2.1.4.2 Doubled standards

a. Very tall scaffolds especially if all lifts are boarded;

2.1.5.3 Curved building surfaces

2.1.6.1 Length of transoms

Table 2.2 – Erection tolerances

Standards Vertical to within ± 20 mm in 2 m (subject to max. deviation of 50 mm).

Nodes < Generally 150 mm between coupler centres.

Bracing < 300 mm from the node.

2.1.7.2 Ledger bracing

2.1.7.3 Façade bracing

(i) Bracing across single bays

(ii) Bracing as continuous line

(iii) Bracing across two bays and lifts

(iv) Bracing across two bays

Note that the right hand set