Chemistry Revision:

Noble Gases: Noble gases are gases that are stable and have a complete outer shell. On the
periodic table, noble gases belong to group 18. Noble gases include helium (He), neon (Ne),
argon (Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe), and radon (Rn).

Periods: Periods are the horizontal rows in the periodic table. The period number indicates the
number of shells in the atom. For example, elements in the third period will have three shells.

Groups: Groups are the verticle columns in the periodic table. The group number indicates the
number of electrons an atom has in the outermost shell (valence electrons). For example, an
atom with a group number of 3, will have 3 electrons in the outermost shell.
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Ionization Energy: Ionization energy is the amount of energy required to remove an electron
from the outermost shell of an isolated, gaseous atom.
- As we go from top to bottom in the periodic table, the ionization energy decreases, this is
because more shells are added to the atom, which causes the nuclear attraction to
decrease
- As we go from left to right in the periodic table, the ionization energy increases, this is
because the number of electrons increases, which causes the attraction between the
nucleus and electrons to increase, hence, more energy is needed

Electron affinity: Amount of energy released when a neutral atom attracts an electron to form
an anion - negatively charged (isolated gaseous atom).
- Left to right in the periodic table: electron affinity increases because the number of
protons and the number of electrons increase ( protons attract electrons because
opposites attract)
- Top to bottom in the periodic table: electron affinity decreases because more shells and
electrons are added increasingly further away from the nucleus. Electrons become less
tightly bound and can be removed.

Electronegativity: The tendency of an atom to attract a shared pair of electrons towards itself.
- To attract electrons, more protons are needed and a lesser number of shells are
required.
- Top to bottom: electronegativity decreases
because the number of shells increases which
causes the nuclear attraction to decrease
- Left to right: electronegativity increases
because the number of protons increases, this
causes the attraction of electrons to increase
as opposites attract (protons attract electrons).
Nuclear attraction increases which cause the
atomic radius to also decrease
Atomic Radius: The distance between the nucleus and the outermost shell of an atom
- Top to bottom: Atomic radius increases because the number of shells increase
- Left to right: Atomic radius decreases because more protons and electrons are added
that increase the nuclear attraction (reducing the distance between the nucleus and
outermost shell)

Diffusion: The process in which different gases or liquids mix due to the random motion of their
particles. Diffusing particles move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower
concentration. Eventually, the concentration of particles is evenly distributed and spread out to
occupy the space available.
- If the temperature increases, then the process of diffusion will occur faster as the kinetic
energy will increase, increasing the number of successful collisions.
- Lower mass, faster diffusion (lighter particles move quicker)
- Higher mass, slower distribution (lighter particles move quicker)

Brownian Motion: Brownian motion is the random movement of particles as a result of

collisions with surrounding gaseous molecules. (eg. air particles)
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Filtration: Filtration is a process in which solid particles in

a liquid or gaseous fluid are removed by the use of a filter
medium that permits the fluid to pass through but retains
the solid particles. Either the clarified fluid or the solid
particles removed from the fluid may be the desired
product. The most common example is making tea. While
preparing tea, a filter or a sieve is used to separate tea
leaves from the water. Through the sieve pores, only
water will pass. The liquid which has obtained after
filtration is called the filtrate; in this case, water is the
filtrate.

Distillation: Distillation is a process

through which two liquids are separated
from each other. Both simple distillation
and fractional distillation can be used to
separate two miscible liquids present in
a mixture. If they differ in boiling points
by more than 25 C˚, simple distillation is
used. In case the difference is less than
this temperature, then the process of
fractional distillation can be employed.
Chromatography: Chromatography is a process for separating components of a mixture.

Crystallization: Crystallization is the process of separating solid compounds from the solution
in the form of crystals. This method is mainly employed for the separation of a solid in pure form
from the solution. It is a physical change.

Decantation: Decantation is the process of separation of liquid from solid and other immiscible
(non-mixing) liquids, by removing the liquid layer at the top from the layer of solid or liquid
below.

Sublimation: Solid to gas without the liquid phase.

Evaporation: A process that converts liquid to gas at any temperature. During this process, the
topmost layer of the liquid uses energy from the surroundings to convert liquid to vapor

Centrifugation: Method of separating a solution by spinning and mixing it extremely fast. Used
to separate skim milk from whole milk.
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Pure substances: Pure elements are elements that contain only one substance with a clear
melting point (always homogeneous in nature)

Impure Substances: No clear melting and boiling point, heterogeneous in nature, and two or
more substances
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Factors affecting the equilibrium:

1. Temperature
- Exothermic: Favoured at low temperatures as they give out energy
- Endothermic: Favoured at high temperatures as they absorb energy
2. Pressure:
- High pressure favors the side with a lesser number of moles (gaseous molecules)
3. Concentration:
- The concentration of the reactant is increased, then the forward reaction is favored
- Prefers the side with a lesser concentration

Le Chatelier’s Principle: If a system at equilibrium is disturbed by a change in concentration,

temperature, pressure, or any other component, the equilibrium will shift to counteract and
oppose the change.

Endothermic: In an endothermic reaction, energy is absorbed - favored at higher temperatures.

Exothermic: In an exothermic reaction, energy is released to the surroundings - favored at
lower temperatures.

Conservation of mass: the law of conservation of mass or principle of mass conservation

states that for any system closed to all transfers of matter and energy, the mass of the system
must remain constant over time, as the system's mass cannot change, so the quantity can
neither be added nor be removed. Therefore, the quantity of mass is conserved over time.

Solubility: the ability of a substance to dissolve in another substance

Colloids: heterogeneous, particles a bit bigger than the particles in true solutions, particles
move in Brownian motion

Metallic character: The energy released while making a neutral atom into a positive ion or
cation.

Suspension: Course mixture, particles settle to the bottom, particles suspend, can be seen with
bare eyes. A suspension is defined as a heterogeneous mixture in which the solid particles are
spread throughout the liquid without dissolving in it.

Isotopes: A form of a chemical element in which the atoms have the same number of protons
but a different number of neutrons

Covalent: A covalent bond is a bond where two or more atoms

share electrons. The sharing of atoms helps complete the outer
shell, or valence shell, of both atoms. For example, oxygen has six
valence electrons. It can form a covalent bond with two hydrogen
atoms, each of which has one valence electron

Ionic bonds: Transfer of electrons, (1,2,3 or more - loses

electrons, 4 or more - gains electrons), high melting point,
high boiling point. An ionic bond is formed by the complete
transfer of some electrons from one atom to another. The
atom losing one or more electrons becomes a cation—a
positively charged ion. The atom gaining one or more
electrons becomes an anion—a negatively charged ion.

Metallic bond: the force that holds atoms together in a metallic

substance. Such a solid consists of closely packed atoms. In
most cases, the outermost electron shell of each of the metal
atoms overlaps with a large number of neighboring atoms
Dynamic equilibrium: Chemical equilibrium is dynamic in nature because reactants change
into products and products change into reactants even after equilibrium is achieved

Enthalpy change: Product - reactant (negative - exo, positive - endo)

Bond energy = reactant - product (negative - exo, positive - endo)

Alloys: Alloys are two or more metals fixed together in fixed proportions (for example brass,
brawns, steel)

Emulsions: Emulsions are particles that do not mix with each other (immiscible)

Activation energy: The minimum amount of energy that must be provided for compounds to
result in a chemical reaction. The activation energy (Ea) of a reaction is measured in joules per
mole (J/mol).