1.

Introduction to Language Components: Language comprises three constituent parts:

phonological system, lexical system, and grammatical system. The phonological system
defines the appearance of language units, while the lexical system encompasses words and
word groups. The grammatical system regulates how these units combine to form
utterances. Each system is studied by a corresponding linguistic discipline: phonology,
lexicology, and grammar.
2. Practical vs. Theoretical Linguistic Description: Linguistic descriptions serve practical or
theoretical purposes. Practical descriptions provide rules to aid language learning, while
theoretical descriptions analyze language structure and functioning. Theoretical grammar
aims to understand a language's inner workings, treating it as a functional system.
3. Role of Words in Expression: Words are essential for conveying thoughts, but they require
organization to form phrases or statements. The grammatical system studies word
building, development into word combinations, phrases, and sentences, ultimately
examining the structure of a language like English.
4. Components of Grammatical Structure: The grammatical structure of a language consists
of morphology and syntax. Morphology studies parts of speech, focusing on the structure
of words and their relationships. Syntax deals with sentences, their types, and meanings.
5. Types of Relations Between Units: In language, units relate to each other in syntagmatic
and paradigmatic relations. Syntagmatic relations are immediate linear connections within
a segmental sequence, while paradigmatic relations are based on similarity and
substitution possibilities.
6. Examples of Syntagmatic Relations: Syntagmatic relations involve immediate linear
connections between units. For instance, in the word-group "A PINT OF MILK," "PINT"
contrasts with "A," "OF," and "MILK." Within "PINT," "P," "I," "N," and "T" are in syntagmatic
relations.
7. Types of Paradigmatic Relations: Paradigmatic relations are based on similarity and
substitution possibilities. They can be semantic, formal, or functional, depending on the
principles of similarity they adhere to.
8. Examples of Paradigmatic Relations: Semantic paradigmatic relations involve similarity of
meaning, like "a book to read" and "a book for reading." Formal relations rely on similarity
of forms, such as "man – men" or "play – played – will play – is playing." Functional
relations are based on the similarity of function, like noun determiners such as "a," "the,"
"this," etc.
9. Systemic Relations in Language: Language functions as a structural system with
hierarchical levels: phonological, morphological, syntactical, and super-syntactical. Each
level has specific functional features, with phonemes at the lowest level and sentences at
the highest.
10. Levels in the Structure of Language: Language structure comprises phonemes, morphemes,
words or lexemes, and word combinations or phrasemes. These levels represent
hierarchical layers in language construction.
11. Classification of Languages: Indo-European languages are classified into synthetic and
analytic types. Synthetic languages use inflections to express grammatical meanings, while
analytic languages rely on words to convey grammatical forms.
12. English as an Analytic Language: English, particularly Modern English, is predominantly
analytical, employing words rather than inflections to express grammatical meanings.
However, it has undergone analytical changes over time.
13. Grammatical Meanings and Categories: Words carry both lexical and grammatical
meanings. Grammatical meanings can be explicit or implicit, marked morphologically or
not. Grammatical categories consist of identical grammatical meanings with the same
form, such as singular and plural.
14. Referential vs. Significational Categories: Grammatical categories either correspond to
objective reality (referential) or do not (significational). Referential categories, like tense or
number, reflect objective categories, while significational categories, like mood or degree,
do not directly correspond to reality.
15. Conclusion: Understanding the structure of language involves analyzing its constituent
parts and their relationships. From phonology to syntax, each component contributes to
the complexity and functionality of language, facilitating communication and expression.