Natural Language–Based Conceptual Modelling Frameworks: State of the Art and

Future Opportunities
Introduction
The Paper titled "Natural Language–Based Conceptual Modelling Frameworks: State of the
Art and Future Opportunities" provides a comprehensive overview of various conceptual
modeling frameworks that are based on natural language processing. The frameworks
discussed aim to bridge the gap between domain experts' understanding of the problem
domain and the formal representation required for software development. The document
highlights the importance of conceptual modeling in the software development process and
how natural language-based frameworks can facilitate the elicitation of requirements and the
creation of conceptual models.

The article discusses several key frameworks, each offering unique approaches to conceptual
modeling. These frameworks include Saeki et al.'s Framework, Mich and Garigliano’s NL-
OOPS, Harmain and Gaizauskas’s CM-Builder, Ilieva and Ormandjieva’s MDAATUR,
Ambriola and Gervasi’s CIRCE, Deeptimahanti and Babar’s UMGAR, Ibrahim and Ahmad’s
RACE, Elallaoui et al.'s framework, Hossain’s bi-directional grammar-based framework, and
ABCD. The frameworks vary in their capability to generate different types of diagrams, such
as UML class diagrams, ER diagrams, and use-case diagrams. They also differ in their use of
restricted natural language (RNL), formal knowledge representation, support for semantic
round-tripping between textual specifications and conceptual models, and verification support
for consistency and accuracy.

Some frameworks, such as CIRCE and Hossain’s bi-directional grammar-based framework,

use restricted natural language (RNL) for conceptual modeling, which helps in eliminating
ambiguity and complexity. Additionally, these frameworks leverage formal knowledge
representation formalism, such as first-order logic (FOL), to ensure machine processability,
support for semantic round-tripping, and verification of conceptual models. On the other
hand, frameworks like NL-OOPS, CM-Builder, MDAATUR, UMGAR, and RACE focus on
generating UML class diagrams from the user's requirements text, using natural language
processing techniques and pattern rules. These frameworks aim to improve the accuracy and
efficiency of class diagram generation, with ABCD outperforming other tools in terms of
precision, recall, and overgeneration.

The paper provides a comprehensive analysis of natural language-based conceptual modeling

frameworks, highlighting their diverse approaches, capabilities, and potential impact on the
software development process. These frameworks offer valuable insights into how natural
language processing can be leveraged to bridge the gap between domain experts and software
developers, ultimately improving the efficiency and accuracy of the conceptual modeling
process.

Complete citation:
Hossain, B. A., Mukta, M. S. H., Islam, M. A., Zaman, A., & Schwitter, R. (2023). Natural
Language–Based Conceptual Modelling Frameworks: State of the Art and Future
Opportunities. ACM Computing Surveys, 56(1), Article 12.

Key Words:
Natural language processing, conceptual modeling, knowledge representation, semantic
round-tripping, software development

General subject:
Conceptual modeling frameworks based on natural language processing

Specific subject:
State of the art and future opportunities in natural language-based conceptual modeling
frameworks

Methodology:
The authors conducted a review of existing literature and frameworks related to natural
language-based conceptual modeling. They selected relevant papers based on specific criteria
and analyzed the motivation, architecture, and characteristics of each framework.

Result(s):
The article provides a comprehensive overview of various natural language-based conceptual
modeling frameworks, discussing their motivation, architecture, and characteristics. It also
highlights future research opportunities in this field.

Summary of key points:

The article discusses the selection strategy for relevant papers, review criteria, and the
software development process from natural language specification. It also provides detailed
insights into specific frameworks and their characteristics, such as Saeki et al.'s framework,
Mich and Garigliano’s NL-OOPS, Harmain and Gaizauskas’s CM-Builder, and others.
Additionally, it emphasizes the importance of semantic round-tripping and knowledge
representation in conceptual modeling frameworks.

Context:
The article contributes to the field by providing a comprehensive analysis of natural
language-based conceptual modeling frameworks and their potential impact on the software
development process. It also discusses how these frameworks relate to other work in the field
and identifies future research opportunities.

Significance:
The article is significant as it offers insights into the current state of natural language-based
conceptual modeling frameworks and highlights potential areas for further development in
this research domain.

Important Figures and/or Tables:

Figure 1: Architecture for deriving a formal specification from an informal specification
written in NL.
Overview of Conceptual Modeling Frameworks:
Conceptual modeling frameworks play a crucial role in translating domain knowledge into
formal representations essential for software development. In this section, I have provided an
overview of several key conceptual modeling frameworks discussed in the paper,
highlighting their diverse approaches, capabilities, and contributions to the field.
1. Saeki et al.'s Framework:
Saeki et al.'s Framework is one of the foundational approaches to natural language-based
conceptual modeling. It focuses on extracting structured knowledge from natural language
specifications to generate formal conceptual models. The framework emphasizes the
importance of semantic round-tripping, ensuring consistency between textual specifications
and conceptual models. By leveraging restricted natural language (RNL) and formal
knowledge representation, Saeki et al.'s Framework aims to improve the accuracy and
efficiency of the conceptual modeling process.
2. Mich and Garigliano’s NL-OOPS:
Mich and Garigliano’s NL-OOPS is another notable conceptual modeling framework that
utilizes natural language processing techniques to generate UML class diagrams from textual
requirements. The framework employs pattern rules and heuristics to identify classes,
attributes, and relationships within the requirements text. By automating the generation of
UML class diagrams, NL-OOPS aims to streamline the requirements elicitation process and
improve the accuracy of conceptual models.
3. Harmain and Gaizauskas’s CM-Builder:
Harmain and Gaizauskas’s CM-Builder is a conceptual modeling framework designed to
facilitate the creation of entity-relationship (ER) diagrams from natural language
specifications. The framework employs a combination of syntactic and semantic analysis
techniques to identify entities, attributes, and relationships within the text. By generating ER
diagrams automatically, CM-Builder aims to accelerate the conceptual modeling process and
reduce the burden on domain experts.
4. Ilieva and Ormandjieva’s MDAATUR:
Ilieva and Ormandjieva’s MDAATUR framework focuses on generating use-case diagrams
from natural language requirements. The framework employs a rule-based approach to
extract actors, use cases, and their relationships from textual specifications. By automating
the generation of use-case diagrams, MDAATUR aims to improve the efficiency of
requirements elicitation and enhance communication between stakeholders.
5. Ambriola and Gervasi’s CIRCE:
Ambriola and Gervasi’s CIRCE framework is based on restricted natural language (RNL) and
formal knowledge representation formalism, such as first-order logic (FOL). The framework
aims to eliminate ambiguity and complexity in conceptual modeling by constraining the
natural language used for specifications. By leveraging formal logic, CIRCE ensures machine
processability and supports semantic round-tripping between textual specifications and
conceptual models.
6. Deeptimahanti and Babar’s UMGAR:
Deeptimahanti and Babar’s UMGAR framework focuses on generating UML class diagrams
from natural language requirements using pattern recognition and NLP techniques. The
framework aims to improve the accuracy and efficiency of class diagram generation by
automating the identification of classes, attributes, and associations from textual
specifications.
7. Ibrahim and Ahmad’s RACE:
Ibrahim and Ahmad’s RACE framework employs a rule-based approach to generate UML
class diagrams from natural language requirements. The framework analyzes textual
specifications to identify classes, attributes, and relationships, facilitating the automatic
generation of class diagrams.
8. Elallaoui et al.'s Framework:
Elallaoui et al.'s Framework is designed to generate UML class diagrams from natural
language requirements by leveraging NLP techniques and pattern recognition algorithms. The
framework aims to improve the efficiency of class diagram generation and enhance the
accuracy of conceptual models.
9. Hossain’s Bi-directional Grammar-based Framework:
Hossain’s bi-directional grammar-based framework focuses on bidirectional transformation
between natural language specifications and formal conceptual models. The framework
employs grammar rules to parse natural language specifications and generate formal
representations, facilitating semantic round-tripping and verification support.
10. ABCD:
ABCD is a conceptual modeling tool that outperforms other frameworks in terms of
precision, recall, and overgeneration. The framework utilizes advanced NLP techniques and
machine learning algorithms to extract structured knowledge from natural language
specifications and generate accurate conceptual models.
These conceptual modeling frameworks offer a diverse array of approaches and capabilities
for translating natural language specifications into formal conceptual models. By automating
the process of requirements elicitation and conceptual modeling, these frameworks aim to
improve the efficiency, accuracy, and effectiveness of software development practices.
Challenges and Opportunities:
One of the primary challenges faced by natural language-based conceptual modeling
frameworks is the variable performance of NLP techniques. While NLP has made significant
advancements in recent years, it still struggles with nuances, ambiguities, and context-
specific interpretations inherent in natural language text. Another challenge is ensuring
semantic round-tripping and verification support throughout the conceptual modeling
process. Semantic round-tripping refers to the ability to maintain consistency between textual
specifications and formal conceptual models, ensuring that changes made in one
representation are reflected in the other.
3. Limitations of Current Approaches:
Current natural language-based conceptual modeling frameworks may also face limitations in
terms of scalability, adaptability, and generalizability. Scalability refers to the ability to
handle large volumes of textual specifications and generate accurate conceptual models
efficiently. Adaptability involves the ability to accommodate diverse linguistic styles,
domain-specific terminologies, and evolving requirements. Generalizability refers to the
capability to apply conceptual modeling frameworks across different domains and application
contexts. Addressing these limitations requires interdisciplinary research efforts that combine
insights from linguistics, computer science, and software engineering to develop scalable,
adaptable, and generalizable frameworks.
4. Future Research Opportunities:
Despite the challenges, natural language-based conceptual modeling frameworks present
numerous opportunities for future research and development. One such opportunity is the
exploration of federated learning techniques, which enable collaborative model training
across distributed datasets without compromising data privacy and security. Federated
learning can enhance the accuracy and robustness of NLP models by leveraging diverse
linguistic patterns and domain-specific knowledge from multiple sources. Additionally, future
research can focus on automated formalization of requirements text into controlled natural
language, enabling more efficient and reliable translation of textual specifications into formal
conceptual models. By addressing these research opportunities, the field can advance towards
more effective and scalable natural language-based conceptual modeling frameworks.
The natural language-based conceptual modeling frameworks face challenges related to the
variable performance of NLP techniques, semantic round-tripping, verification support, and
limitations of current approaches. However, these challenges also present opportunities for
future research and development, including the exploration of federated learning techniques
and automated formalization of requirements text. By addressing these challenges and seizing
these opportunities, the field can make significant strides towards realizing the full potential
of natural language-based conceptual modeling frameworks in software development.
Implications for Software Development:
Natural language-based conceptual modeling frameworks offer significant implications for
the software development process, ranging from improving efficiency and accuracy in
requirements elicitation to impacting knowledge representation. Additionally, ethical
considerations related to the use of NLP techniques are critical for ensuring transparency and
accountability in software development practices.
1. Efficiency and Accuracy in Requirements Elicitation:
One of the key implications of natural language-based conceptual modeling frameworks is
the potential to improve the efficiency and accuracy of requirements elicitation. By
automating the process of translating natural language specifications into formal conceptual
models, these frameworks streamline the requirements gathering process. This not only saves
time and resources but also reduces the likelihood of misinterpretation and ambiguity
inherent in manual requirements elicitation. As a result, software development teams can
obtain clearer and more accurate requirements, leading to better-informed design decisions
and ultimately, higher-quality software products.
2. Impact on Knowledge Representation:
Natural language-based conceptual modeling frameworks also have significant implications
for knowledge representation in software development. By formalizing domain knowledge
expressed in natural language into structured conceptual models, these frameworks provide a
systematic and structured representation of the problem domain. This enables software
developers to better understand the intricacies of the domain and make informed design
choices. Moreover, formal conceptual models serve as a common language for
communication and collaboration between stakeholders, facilitating clearer and more
effective communication throughout the software development lifecycle.
3. Ethical Considerations:
Ethical considerations related to the use of NLP techniques in natural language-based
conceptual modeling frameworks are paramount. As these frameworks rely on algorithms to
process and analyze natural language text, there is a risk of biases, inaccuracies, and
unintended consequences. It is essential for software development teams to be transparent
about the limitations and potential biases of NLP algorithms and to implement mechanisms
for accountability and oversight. Additionally, ensuring data privacy and security is crucial
when handling sensitive textual specifications. By addressing these ethical considerations,
software development teams can build trust and confidence in the use of natural language-
based conceptual modeling frameworks.
Transparency and accountability are fundamental principles that should guide the use of
natural language-based conceptual modeling frameworks in software development. Software
development teams must be transparent about the methodologies, algorithms, and techniques
used in these frameworks, as well as the limitations and potential biases associated with them.
Additionally, implementing mechanisms for accountability, such as regular audits and
reviews, can help mitigate the risks of errors and biases in the conceptual modeling process.
By promoting transparency and accountability, software development teams can ensure that
natural language-based conceptual modeling frameworks are used responsibly and ethically.
Conclusion:
In conclusion, this report has provided a comprehensive exploration of natural language-
based conceptual modeling frameworks and their implications for software development.
Throughout the analysis, several key points have been highlighted, underscoring the
importance of these frameworks and identifying areas for further research and development.
Firstly, the paper has emphasized the critical role of natural language-based conceptual
modeling frameworks in bridging the gap between domain experts' understanding and formal
representations required for software development. By leveraging natural language
processing techniques, these frameworks streamline the requirements elicitation process,
improve the accuracy of conceptual models, and enhance communication between
stakeholders.
Additionally, the paper has underscored the diversity of approaches and capabilities among
conceptual modeling frameworks, ranging from generating different types of diagrams to
supporting semantic round-tripping and verification. By comparing and contrasting various
frameworks, readers gain insights into their comparative performance and suitability for
different use cases, enabling informed decision-making in selecting the most appropriate tool
for specific software development projects.
Moreover, the paper has highlighted the challenges inherent in natural language-based
conceptual modeling frameworks, such as the variable performance of NLP techniques, the
need for semantic round-tripping and verification support, and the limitations of current
approaches. These challenges present opportunities for further research and development,
including the exploration of federated learning techniques and automated formalization of
requirements text.
Furthermore, the paper has emphasized the ethical considerations related to the use of NLP
techniques in conceptual modeling, highlighting the importance of transparency and
accountability in software development practices. By promoting ethical principles such as
transparency and accountability, software development teams can build trust and confidence
in the use of natural language-based conceptual modeling frameworks.
The paper has made a significant contribution to the ongoing conversation within the research
community surrounding natural language-based conceptual modeling frameworks. By
providing a comprehensive analysis, identifying future research directions, and emphasizing
the importance of ethical considerations, the paper has laid the groundwork for further
inquiry and debate in this field. Ultimately, the paper has the potential to shape the future of
conceptual modeling practices, driving innovation and advancement in software development
processes.