UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF

SOUTHERN PHILIPPINES
C.M. Recto Avenue, Lapasan, Cagayan de Oro City, 9000 Misamis Oriental,
Philippines

College of Engineering and Architecture

DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE

MODULE 4 | BUILDING TECHNOLOGY 1

(MATERIALS OF BUILDING CONSTRUCTION)
ARCH-121

Prepared By:
Ar. OMAR T. SALISE, UAP
METAL
Definition

• Metals are opaque, lustrous elements that are good conductors of heat and electricity. Most
metals are malleable and ductile and are, in general, denser than the other elemental
substances.

FERROUS VS NON-FERROUS METALS

• Properties

On a chemical level, the main difference is that ferrous metals contain iron, while non-ferrous metals
do not. Ferrous metals are also magnetic. They are more vulnerable to rust and corrosion when
exposed to the elements (except for wrought iron, which contains so much iron that it resists
oxidization altogether). There is also a big difference in weight: non-ferrous metals, like aluminum,
copper and brass, are much lighter than ferrous metals, like carbon steel, cast iron and wrought iron.

• Use

Due to their strength and weight, ferrous metals are most commonly used for things like bridges,
skyscrapers, shipping containers, railways, large pipes, tunnels, and cars. Their magnetic properties
are also useful in the manufacturing of electrical appliances like refrigerators.

Non-ferrous metals are most commonly used for things that require a lighter weight. For example,
aircraft construction, canning and bottle top production. Their higher conductivity and malleability
also enable them to be used for things like electrical cables, power lines, television sets, and radios.
Precious non-ferrous metals, like gold and silver, are also an essential part of the jewelry industry.

HEAT TREATING

• It has long been known that the properties of some metals could be changed by heat treating.
Grains in metals tend to grow larger as the metal is heated. There are many ways in which metals
can be heat treated:

1. Annealing

- is a softening process in which metals are heated and then allowed to cool slowly.

2. Quenching

- is the process in which metals are cooled rapidly after heating

- results in a metal that is very hard but also brittle.

(Quenching was used quite early in the history of processing steel. In fact, it was believed that biological
fluids made the best quenching liquids and urine was sometimes used. In some ancient civilizations,
the red hot sword blades were sometimes plunged into the bodies of hapless prisoners! Today metals
are quenched in water or oil. Actually, quenching in salt water solutions is faster, so the ancients were
not entirely wrong. )
 3. TEMPERING
- Gently heating a hardened metal and allowing it to cool slowly, producing a metal that is
still hard but also less brittle.

4. COLD WORKING
- When a metal is bent or shaped, dislocations are generated and move. As the number of
dislocations in the crystal increases, they will get tangled or pinned and will not be able to
move. This will strengthen the metal, making it harder to deform. This process is known as
cold working. At higher temperatures the dislocations can rearrange, so little strengthening
occurs.
- Heating removes the effects of cold-working. When cold worked metals are heated,
recrystallization occurs. New grains form and grow to consume the cold worked portion. The
new grains have fewer dislocations and the original properties are restored.

FORMING METALS

In industry, molten metal is cooled to form the solid. The solid metal is then mechanically shaped
to form a particular product. How these steps are carried out is very important because heat and
plastic deformation can strongly affect the mechanical properties of a metal.

1. ROLLING

2. FORGING

3. DRAWING

4. STAMPING

5. EXTRUSION

6. CASTING

1. ROLLING

• It is the process of when work material is plastically deformed by compressive forces

between two constantly spinning rolls.

• It is one of the most important manufacturing processes in the modern world. The
large majority of all metal products produced today are subject to metal rolling at one
point in their manufacture. Metal rolling is often the first step in creating raw metal
forms. The ingot or continuous casting is hot rolled into a bloom or a slab, these are
the basic structures for the creation of a wide range of manufactured forms. Rolling
is most often, (particularly in the case of the conversion of an ingot or continuous
casting), performed hot.

• At a rolling mill, blooms and slabs are further rolled down to intermediate parts such
as plate, sheet, strip, coil, billets, bars and rods. Many of these products will be the
starting material for subsequent manufacturing operations such as forging, sheet
metal working, wire drawing, extrusion, and machining.
 • The process can be carried out hot, warm, or cold, depending on the application and
the material involved. Rolling of blooms, slabs, billets, plates ae usually done at
temperatures above the recrystallization temperature (hot rolling). Sheet and strip
often are rolled cold in order to maintain close thickness tolerance

2. FORGING

• Is controlled, plastic deformation on working of metals into predetermined shapes by

means of pressure or impact blows, or a combination of both.

• Involves shaping metals using localized, compressive forces after heating the metal to
a point where it's malleable.

• Metal forging is known to produce some of the strongest manufactured parts

compared to other metal manufacturing processes, and obviously, is not just limited
to iron and steel forging but to other metals as well. Different types of metals will
have a different factors involved when forging them, some will be easier to forge than
others.

• Metal forging, specifically, can strengthen the material by sealing cracks and closing
empty spaces within the metal. The hot forging process will highly reduce or eliminate
inclusions in the forged part by breaking up impurities and redistributing their
material throughout the metal work.
 3. DRAWING

• Is a manufacturing process that forms metal work stock by reducing its cross-
section. This is accomplished by forcing the work through a mold (die), of smaller
cross-sectional area than the work. This process is very similar to metal extrusion,
the difference being in the application of force. In extrusion the work is pushed
through the die opening, where in drawing it is pulled through.

• The metal drawing process in manufacturing industry is usually performed cold. Cold
working will impart the drawn product with accurate tolerances, favorable grain
structure, improved material properties and good surface finish.

4. STAMPING

• Is a manufacturing process also known as pressing, includes a variety of sheet-metal

forming manufacturing processes, such as punching using a machine press or stamping
press that includes blanking, piercing, embossing, bending, flanging, and coining

• BENDING

- Bending is a common metalworking technique used to process sheet metal. Vulcan Metal
Stampings does this process by hand or by using a V-die on a brake press.

• BLANKING

- Is a shearing process where a punch and die are used to create a “blank” from sheet metal or strip.

• COINING

- Is a form of precision stamping in which a work-piece is subjected to a sufficiently high stress to

induce flow on the surface of the material. The term originated from the process of manufacturing
coins.

• EMBOSSING

- Is a process for producing raised or sunken designs or relief in sheet metal

5. EXTRUSION

• is a metal forming process in which a work piece, of a certain length and cross section, is
forced to flow through a die of a smaller cross-sectional area, thus forming the work to
the new cross section. The length of the extruded part will vary, dependent upon the
amount of material in the work piece and the profile extruded. Numerous cross sections
are manufactured by this method. The cross section produced will be uniform over the
entire length of the metal extrusion.

6. CASTING

• A mold is formed into the geometric shape of a desired part. Molten metal is then poured
into the mold, the mold holds this material in shape as it solidifies. A metal casting is
created. Molds can be classified as either open or closed. An open mold is a container,
like a cup, that has only the shape of the desired part. The molten material is poured
directly into the mold cavity which is exposed to the pen environment.
Sample images for casting metals.

TYPES OF METAL
1. ALUMINUM

2. IRON

3. STEEL

4. COPPER

5. TIN

6. ZINC

7. BRASS

8. BRONZE

9. CHROMIUM

10. NICKEL

11. LEAD
1. ALUMINUM

• Is a soft, nonmagnetic silvery metal

• Characterized by its light weight (1/3 that of iron, brass or copper)
• Low melting point
• High thermal and electrical conductivity (surpassed only by silver and copper)
• Moderately high coefficient of expansion
• Readily combines with oxygen to form aluminum oxide, a transparent film that makes it
corrosion resistant
• Is readily attacked by alkalis, hydrochloric acid and other dilute acids.
• Is subject to galvanic action and should therefore be electrically insulated from direct contact
with metals other than zinc, cadmium, magnesium and nonmagnetic stainless steel.
• Is easily worked: can be hot or cold rolled, extruded, forged, pressed, drawn, molded, stamped,
bent and shaped.
• Can be riveted, bolted, welded, brazed and soldered.

In architectural work practically all fabricated forms of aluminum are used for:
• rod
• bar
• extrusion
• casting
• sheet
• strip, etc.
• “Alclad” is a term applied to certain aluminum products, refers to the protective coating
(cladding) applied, primarily for corrosion resistance, to thin sheets of an alloy whose corrosion
resistance has been decreased by the constituents added to give strength and other
characteristics.

• Cladding improves the appearance of the alloy. This thin, integral cladding usually consists of
pure aluminum, magnesium silicide, or zinc alloys, with or without manganese.

• ALUMINUM SHEET AND STRIP

- used for roofing, flashing, gutter, etc
• ALUMINUM FOIL
- rolled to a thickness of 0.005” (above 0.005” it is technically considered to be sheet), used
mainly for thermal insulation and vapor barriers
- It may serve also as a surface finish material when laminated to various sheet and board
materials. In this form it also supplies additional insulation value to the sheet or board.
• CORRUGATED ALUMINUM
- This is rigidized sheet fabricated of special aluminum alloys specifically developed for this
purpose. It usually consists of an aluminum alloy core of one type clad with another, highly
corrosion-resistant aluminum roofing and siding
• STRUCTURAL ALUMINUM
- When aluminum is used as a structural material, important factors, arising from its physical
and chemical characteristics, are considered:
 - Aluminum can be extruded; therefore, a structural shape can be produced economically to
meet the specified structural design requirements.
- Very corrosion resistant aluminum alloys are available; requiring no painting and the
thickness of sections can be reduced since a safety margin is not necessary to cover loss of strength
due to corrosion.
- Aluminum is very lightweight material, hence aluminum girders and columns show
increased efficiency with large bay spacing. However, because the modulus of elasticity of aluminum
alloys is lower than steel, its means that buckling is a possibility and should always be checked.

• ALUMINUM DOORS AND WINDOWS

- These are generally fabricated from extrusions and rolled shapes.
• ALUMINUM PANELS AND SANDWICH PANELS
- are pre-fabricated units, generally manufactured
- using dimensions of modular and non-modular window-width for building exterior, and
- in 600mm, 900mm, and 1200mm widths for interior partitions and dividers.
Panels for the exterior of buildings primarily consist of:
- an aluminum exterior facing which may be an aluminum casting
- an extrusion or sheet material which has been pressed, stamped or formed into specially
design shapes.

• ALUMINUM PANELS AND SANDWICH PANELS

- A sandwich panel comprises a system of construction called skin construction.
- A cellular core of aluminum or other material has a skin of aluminum applied and bonded
to both sides, thereby forming a unified whole in which all the components work as one.
• ORNAMENTAL ALUMINUM
- Many kinds of rods, bars, pipes, railings, fittings, and special shapes are manufactured as
stock items for use in ornamental design of railings, grilles, screens, etc.
• ALUMINUM MESH AND WIRE CLOTH
- are used for fencing, particularly chain link fencing and insect screening.

2. IRON
• tough,
• malleable silvery-white metal that is
• soft and ductile as copper
• it is easily magnetized
• is the most magnetically permeable of the metals
• it oxidizes rapidly in air and is readily attacked by most acids.
• can be hardened by heating and sudden cooling
• and made more pliable or more workable by heating and slow cooling.
• At very low temperatures is very brittle
• at red heat it is soft, and
at white heat it can be welded.
A. CAST IRON
• is an iron-carbon alloy that contains more than 1.7% carbon
• is poured while molten into forms
• it can be easily cast into any shape, but it is too hard and brittle to be shaped by hammering,
rolling, or pressing.
• Cast iron is used in the architectural field mainly for piping and fittings, ornamental
ironwork, hardware, as the base metal for porcelain enameled plumbing fixtures, and for
miscellaneous casting such as floor and wall brackets for railings, vents, circular stairs
manhole covers, and gratings.

B. WROUGHT IRON
• is almost pure iron with less than 0.1% carbon, usually not more than 0.05% is poured while
molten into forms
• contains 2.5%, of slag (iron silicate) in purely physical association, not alloyed.
• Wrought iron is soft, malleable, tough, fatigue-resistant, and resistant to progressive
corrosion.
• It has good machinability and can be forged, bent, rolled, drawn, and spun. It can be welded
by any of the commonly used procedures. Wrought iron is available in the form of pipes,
plates, sheets, special shapes, and bars.
• Wrought iron is now used in the architectural field primarily in the form of genuine wrought
iron pipe, chain, sheet, and ornamental ironwork. Wrought iron pipe is used extensively for
plumbing, heating, and air conditioning where a corrosion-resistant, tough, durable material
is required.
• Because it is intrinsically related to classical architecture and requires high skilled
craftsmanship, wrought ironwork today is used only in furniture, railing, fences, grilles, and
small decorative objects.
 3. STEEL
• The word “steel” usually refers to plain carbon steel which is defined as alloys of iron and
carbon which do not contain more than 2% carbon and which are made in malleable or ingot
form.
• In plain or straight carbon steels the iron is always in excess of 95%.
• phosphorus, sulfur, oxygen and nitrogen are present, the last three as impurities.
• Manganese, silicon, aluminum, copper and nickel may also be present either as residual
impurities or as elements deliberately added in small quantities to control the properties of
the steel.
• Carbon steel can be wrought, rolled, cast, and welded, but not extruded.

A. WROUGHT CARBON STEEL

• Structural steel
- this is a medium carbon steel with its carbon content controlled to give both the strength and
ductility necessary for its use.
- Structural steel is available in angles, channels, I-beams, H columns, T shapes, Z shapes,
plates, round pipe columns, sheet piling, open web joists, and light steel framing shapes.
• Reinforcement of concrete
- Usually, deformed bars of varying grades and diameters
- Structural steel is available in angles, channels, I-beams, H columns, T shapes, Z shapes,
plates, round pipe columns, sheet piling, open web joists, and light steel framing shapes.
• Sheet and strip
- Steel sheet is made from low carbon steels generally containing about 0.15% carbon and not
exceeding 0.25% carbon. Strip by definition is sheet material that is 12” or less wide. It is used in
fabricated form as decking galvanized sheet, expanded metal, panels and sandwich panels, and as a
base metal for porcelain enamel

• Corrugated steel
- This is rigidized sheet fabricated from low-carbon cold or hot-rolled steel sheets which
are either galvanized or covered with some type of bituminous coating. If galvanized,
corrugated steel is silvery in color and has a glittering frosted surface. It is generally
available in 18, 20, 22. 24, and 26 gauge sheet and strip.
• Steel Mesh and Wire Clot
- They are used for concrete reinforcement, lath for plaster, stucco, and cement, fencing, insect
screens.
• Steel Windows and Doors
• Hardware
- They are used for concrete reinforcement, lath for plaster, stucco, and cement, fencing,
insect screens.
B. ALLOY STEEL
- steels to which manganese, silicon, aluminum, titanium, and molybdenum have been added
in sufficient quantity to produce properties unobtainable in carbon steels in cast, rolled or
heat-treated form
- The alloying elements are added to increase the following properties:
 strength
 hardness
 ease and depth of hardenability
 performance at high or low temperatures
 electromagnetic properties
 wear resistance
 electrical conductivity or resistivity
In structural applications only the properties of:
 strength
 expansion
 resistance to corrosion
 ductility, and
 workability
are of interest to the architect.

4. COPPER
• is ductile, malleable, nonmagnetic metal with a characteristic bright, reddish brown color.
• has the highest electrical and thermal conductivity of any substances except silver.
• Copper useful alloys have enough strength for minor structural work
• It is attacked by alkalis and many of the common acids.
• It is highly resistant to corrosion by air and salt water.
• On exposure it soon reacts to form a surface layer of an insoluble green salt which retards
further corrosion; this green color on copper is known as its patina.
 • Copper can be cast, drawn, extruded, hot and cold worked, spun, hammered, punched,
welded, brazed, and soldered.
• The galvanic action of copper must be considered when copper is used in architecture. When
in contact with many of the common construction materials and in the presence of an
electrolyte; it will corrode these materials near the area of contact.
• The copper itself, being cathode, will not corrode. Therefore a careful check should be made
of the methods of attachment, support and securing into place.
• As copper is one of the best electrical conductors, it finds tremendous use in the entire
electrical field, from very fine wires to bus bars.
• Copper sheet and strip are used for roofing and flashing.

5. TIN
• is a soft, ductile, malleable, bluish-white metal.
• Because it is normally covered with a thin film of stannic oxide, it resists corrosion by air,
moisture, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide (which usually tarnishes and corrodes other
metals).
• takes a highly reflective polish and has the ability to wet other metals.
• The main use of the tin is in metallic form of either pure tin or tin-containing alloys for
protective coatings on stronger metals.
• Architectural uses of tin include bronzes, brasses, terneplate, mirrors, gilding, solders,
hardware and fusible alloys.

6. ZINC
• is medium hard, bluish-white metal
• is characterized by brittleness and low strength.
• is readily attacked by acids and alkalis.
• It is resistant to corrosion by water. On exposure to air, a film of zinc carbonate or oxide
forms which protects zinc from further oxidation.
• The most important uses of zinc are as protective coatings (galvanizing) on iron and steel as
die-casting metal, and as an alloying element in brasses.
• The most common galvanized material used in architecture is galvanized iron (steel) sheet and
strip.
• Galvanized sheets become defaced and discolored when subjected to dampness and extremes
of temperature.
• If the sheets are piled flat in the open or tightly bundled in a warehouse, the zinc coating can
also be damaged by the consequent absence of oxygen and carbon dioxide between two
sheets. This absence prevents the formation of a protective film of zinc carbonate; instead zinc
hydroxide forms and destroys the galvanizing.

7. BRASS
• fundamentally an alloy of copper and zinc with small quantities of other elements
sometimes added to give the special qualities.
• The copper-zinc proportions may vary from 95% copper and 5% zinc to 55% copper and
45% zinc.
• As a class, brass alloys are less hard and strong than steels (iron-base alloys) but are
superior in workability and resistance to corrosion.
• All brasses react with other metals. When brass is used in direct contact with any other
metal, a careful check should be made of its position on the galvanic series.
• Brass should not come into direct contact with iron, steel or stainless, aluminum, zinc or
magnesium if there is an electrolyte present or the possibility of one forming at the point of
contact.

• In architecture, brasses are used for doors, windows, door and window frames, and for
ornamental metalwork such as railings, trims, grilles, etc.
• They are also used extensively for finish hardware, plating of hardware, and other
miscellaneous accessories such as screws, nuts and bolts, anchors, etc.
 8. BRONZE
• True bronze is an alloy of copper and tin which varies only slightly from 90% copper and 10%
tin composition.
• This bronze is a rich golden-brown metal, originally worked by forging and particularly suited
for casting since it is corrosion resistant, dense and hard enough to take an impression of a
mold of any delicacy whatever.
• The term “bronze” however, is no longer used in this limited sense. In commercial practice the
terms “brass” and “bronze” may be used without much regard for their original meanings.

Bund Finance Centre, Shanghai

• The term “bronze” now usually has a prefix and indicates alloys of copper with silicon,
manganese, aluminum, and other elements with or without zinc, e.g. silicon bronze.
• A few brasses are known as bronzes because they have the characteristic bronze color.
• Of the three types of so-called bronzes in architectural work, only one is true bronze. This is
the statuary bronze, which consist usually of 97% copper, 2% tin and 1% zinc.
• As for the others, architectural bronze is really a leaded brass, and commercial bronze is one
of the more commonly used brasses (90% copper and 10% zinc).
• The architectural uses of bronze are confined to statuary, plaques, medallions and other
ornamentation, and miscellaneous rough and finish hardware.
9. CHROMIUM
• is a steel-white metal which takes a brilliant polish and is harder than cobalt or nickel.
• It is nonmagnetic at ordinary temperatures but becomes magnetic at 13°F.
• It does not tarnish in air, resists oxidizing agents, is soluble in acids and strong alkalis.
• The principal use of chromium is an alloying ingredient in ferrous and nonferrous metallurgy.
• Chromium plating is one of the most commonly encountered usage of this material in
architecture. It gives a thin, hard, bright, wear resistant surface which sheds water when highly
polished. The metals that can be plated with chromium include aluminum, copper, iron,
magnesium, nickel, titanium, zinc and their alloys. The chromium is electro deposited as a thin
layer of pure metal.
10. NICKEL
• Is an inert silvery metal and resistant to strong alkalis and to most acids.
• It resembles iron in strength and toughness and copper in its resistance to oxidation and
corrosion.
• Nickel takes a high polish and can be hot and cold rolled forged, bent, extruded, spun, punched
and drawn.
• When alloyed with other metals, nickel imparts its qualities of strength, hardness, toughness,
ductility, corrosion resistance, and strength at high temperatures to the resulting material. The
major use of nickel therefore is in alloys.
• Another important use of nickel is as protective or decorative coating for other metals. It can be
applied to the following base metals and their alloys: aluminum, brass, copper, iron,
magnesium, steel, tin, and zinc.

11. LEAD
• Lead is a blue-gray, soft, very heavy metal (the heaviest of the common metals).
• It is extremely workable, has good corrosion resistance, is easily recovered from scrap
materials, and is relatively impenetrable to radiation.
• The corrosion resistance of lead arises from the fact that metallic lead does not react with many
compounds or solutions, and with certain others it forms compounds which act as protective
coatings against further corrosion.
• Lead is available
(1) extruded in the forms of pipe, rod, wire, ribbon, etc.
(2) rolled into sheet, foil, strip,
(3) cast
• There are several grades of lead metal of which corroding lead, chemical lead and common
desilverized lead are of interest to the architect. Corroding lead is used for fine white lead
paints, red lead, litharge (see PAINT). Chemical lead and common desilverized are used for
sheet, pipe, powdered lead, ribbon lead and alloys.
• Lead also finds many uses in rough hardware items such as expansion shields for securing bolts,
screws, and other accessories in masonry, washers, lead-headed nails,etc.
METAL JOINING
1. Soldering
• is a method to join metals, to make electrical connections, to seal joints hermetically with
another lower melting metal or alloy called the solder.
• Solders are mostly alloys of tin and lead in various proportions with small percentages of
other elements added to give special characteristics. They can be divided into the following
major types:
• - tin-lead
• - tin-lead-antimony
• - silver-lead.

2. Brazing
• Brazing is a type of soldering in which the operating temperatures are higher (but lower
than in welding) and in which stronger and higher-melting alloys are used to fill the joints,
which consequently are stronger than ordinary soldered joints. The bond is obtained by
alloying between the brazing material and the surface of the joined metals.

3. Welding
• Welding is the process by which two metals are so joined that there is an actual union of the
interatomic bonds. This may be brought about by close contact, heating, pressure, adding
molten metal, or combinations of these methods. The resulting joints are as strong or
stronger than the metals joined.
4. Rivets
• Rivets are devices used to join or fasten the metals. The rivet, a metal cylinder or rod which
has a head at one end, is inserted through holes in the materials being joined, and then the
protruding end is flattened to tie the two pieces of material together.

METALS FOR CONCRETE REINFORCEMENT

1. STEEL BARS
• Reinforcement for concrete construction is mostly in the form of steel bars and rods
of round or square cross section. The bars may be plain or deformed (with lugs or
projections for better bonding to the concrete). They are called billet-steel bars or
rail-steel bars.
• Billet-steel bars are made by the open hearth furnace by the acid Bessemer furnace
and meet fixed chemical compositions. They are rolled from billets directly reduced
from ingots and come in three grades: structural, intermediate, and hard. For
architectural purposes the intermediate grade is the most generally used. Rail-steel
bars are rolled from standard T-rails and come only in one grade. Steel bars vary in
size from ¼” to 1-1/4” and in lengths of 20 or 30 feet.
2. WIRE FABRIC
• Wire fabric made of cold-drawn steel wire is widely used for the reinforcement of concrete
slabs and floors, as well as for stuccoed work.

3. EXPANDED MESH
• This is manufactured from solid steel sheets. To form the expanded mesh, the sheet is first cut
or pierced in staggered slots or patterns; then the sheet is held by the two sides parallel to the
slots and stretched by pressure until the desired openings or forms are obtained. Sheets may
also be stamped, perforated or deformed into an open mesh. The forms into which sheet can
be shaped include diamond, crimp, herringbone and Z-rib, to name only a few. Expanded mesh
is therefore free from mechanical and welded joints., e.g. STEELCRETE.

4. LATHS
• In addition to the various meshes mentioned above, permanent centering or self-centering
laths are produced in many forms. These laths are furnished either in flat or segmental sheets,
pressed into a series of solid ribs, between which the metal is stamped, perforated or deformed
into an open mesh-work. These laths are furnished painted or galvanized, and in open-hearth
mild steel or in special copper-bearing or alloy steels, e.g. “RIBPLEX”, “HYRIB”.
STORAGE & CARE FOR METAL REINFORCEMENT

• Metal reinforcement shall be stored in racks above the ground and away from moisture and
vegetation.
• If a large quantity of reinforcement is stored at the site for an extended period, it is well to
build shed over the storage racks.
• A bright-red rust, such as forms in a few days on reinforcement exposed to rain, is not in any
way detrimental. Actual rust scales, however, may indicate a reduction in the effective cross
section of the bar.
• Deep scaling should be considered a sufficient reason for condemning the use of reinforce
unless it is first cleaned of mill and rust scale and used as the equivalent of a smaller size.
• All reinforcement should be kept free from oil which will tend to reduce the bond between
concrete and steel.