Informal Fallacies

The term "fallacy" is from the Latin fallo which means "I deceive." That is why it has come to
mean a deceptive argument, that is, an argument that seems to be correct but is actually incorrect.

A fallacy may be formal when the deception is due to violations of the antecedent-consequent
relationship or the rules of the syllogism, both categorical and hypothetical. But a fallacy may also
be non-formal when the deception is due to the material content of the argument. It is this latter
sense that is the object of our study now.

We shall follow substantially the Aristotelian classification of fallacies. Aristotle divides them
into two: verbal and nonverbal.

Verbal Fallacies

These are due to the misuse of a word or a phrase which camouflages the real intent of the
argument. Among these fallacies are:

1. Equivocation - is the error of using the same word or phrase with different meanings in the
same argument.

Example:

"Boy" rhymes with "toy"; but you have a boy; therefore, you have a toy.

"Boy" and "toy" are words and differ from the existential boy and toy.

2. Amphiboly — is lack of verbal clarity because of a grammatical error.

This usually happens when the antecedents of pronouns are vague or when participles are
misplaced.

Examples:

• My mother told your mother that she should go to the Real Estate Division of the
SSS. To whom does "she" refer?

• To be repaired: the rocking chair of an old lady with two broken legs. Whose iegs?
The rocking chair's or the old lady's?

3. Composition – is the error which states that what is true of the parts of a whole is true for
the whole thing. But not all part-to-whole inferences are fallacious.

For example: Each student in that class has superior intelligence; hence all students in that
class have superior intelligence.

4. Division — is the converse of composition. It states that what is true of the whole is true of
the parts of the whole.

Example: The family of Santiago is very musical; therefore Consolacion, the eldest daughter,
must be musically inclined.

Non-Verbal Fallacies

1. Accident — is the fallacy that equates or confuses substance with accident.

Example: All men are equal; but Johnny's hair is blond while that of Cesar is jet black;
therefore, not all men are equal.
2. Confusion of Absolute and Qualified Statements - is the fallacy that considers as (a)
totally true or false what is true or false of particular instances only, and (b) what is true or
false of particular instances only as true or false of all its instances.

Examples:

a) The Japanese are technologically oriented; therefore, Yoloshita, a Japanese, is a

technology expert.

b) Charito is a Pampagueña and she is a good cook; therefore all Pampangueñas are good
cooks.

3. Ignoratio Elenchi — is the fallacy that proves some other conclusion rather than the one at
issue. It is often referred to as "missing the point" or "irrelevant conclusion" or "gene tic fallacy"
(which concentrates on the source rather than the product of the source).

This fallacy has different forms, among which are:

a. Argumentum ad hominem (attack against the man) — The attack is levelled against
the man, not against his argument.

Example: I saw and heard the candidate on TV last night. I shall not vote for him
because he has lost his good looks.

A variation of this ad hominem attack is called the tu quoque fallacy. Tu quoque

means "you're another".

Example: You say I'm not pretty? Look who's talking.

b. Irrelevant Function or Goals — ascribes to a certain plan or program a goal it was

not intended to achieve.

Example: The SWA should sell NGA rice to the public.

c. Emotional Appeals, such as:

(1) Appeal to Pity (Argumentum ad Misericordiam)

Example: Vote for Lim because he has already put in a lot of money and heartache
in the campaign.

(2) Appeal to the People (Argumentum ad Populum)

Example: A rabble rouser: "All Muslims to arms! A Muslim earlier today was killed by
a Christian!"

(3) Appeal to Shame (Argumentum ad Veracundiam)

Example: How dare you doubt the word on poetry of the great science genius
Einstein?

(4) Appeal to Force (Argumentum ad Baculum)

Example: Agree with me or I shall hit you with this stick.

(5) Appeal to Pride (Argumentum ad Superbiam)

Example: Of course, the painting is beautiful. I did it, didn't I?

 4. Begging the Question — is the fallacy of using the conclusion as a premise and using it to
prove the same conclusion. It has several forms:

(1) The Vicious Circle

Example: Why are you standing? Because I am not sitting.

(2) Both Premise and Conclusion Argument

Examples: 1) This is a flawless gem because it is without blemish.

2) He is a person of impeccable character because he is irreproachable.

(3) Question-Begging Expressions

Examples: 1) The Dean of Men addressing the Council for Student Affairs convened
to pass judgment on a student:

"Let us deliberate on whether this troublemaker with borderline grades should be

expelled or suspended." Judgment has already been passed with the use of such an
expression.

2) It is clearly evident that Nicky is a liar. Such terms as "it was clearly evident," "there
is no question that," "certainly," "surely," and "of course" are question-begging in the
sense that they intend to persuade by exuding confidence although usually they are
unnecessary.

(4) The Loaded Question or Many Questions

Example: Do you still cheat on your wife? This is actually equivalent to two questions:
(1) Did you ever cheat on your wife? and (2) Are you still cheating on her?

5. False Cause — The Aristotelian fallacy is what the term says: the reason assumed for the
thesis is not really the reason and, therefore, the conclusion is absurd.

The Folks Arts Center is, established by the First Lady to please the Americans. (As you can
see, this is a preposterous deduction.)

Later logicians give a wider scope to this fallacy. They ascribe it to any confusion of causal
with non-casual relationship like temporal causes.

Example: She was born ahead of you; therefore, she is your mother.

6. Consequent — is the error we are already familiar with when it infers that because the
consequent is true, the ante cedent is true, and that because the antecedent is false, the
consequent is false.

Non-Aristotelian Fallacies

1. Non Sequitur — is the name of the fallacy wherein propositions simulate a syllogism with
the result that the conclusion does not follow.

Example: Movie stars are people; but Gina wants to be a movie star; therefore, she is going
to Hollywood.
2. Suppressing the Facts — is the error that occurs when only favorable or unfavorable facts
are given. Examples are lives of saints which picture them as beings who never were men
of flesh and blood, also character assassinations of political opponents.

3. Argument from Silence — is the fallacy which considers that because nobody speaks about
something or because a fact is not in books or in newspapers, it did not happen.

4. Illicit Generalization - is the fallacy that draws a conclusion from insufficient evidence. We
took this up in the chapter on induction.

5. False Assumption - is the fallacy which means use of a false unexpressed premise to draw
a conclusion.

Example: You cannot see God; therefore, there is no God.

This rests on the false unexpressed premise that you must have sensible evidence for the
existence of something.

6. Unwarranted Assumption — has several forms, some of which we shall consider here:

a. Confusing Necessary and Sufficient Condition - is the error which considers

"necessary" and "sufficient" as equivalent terms.

Example: Exercise is necessary for good health; it is sufficient for good health.

b. Assumption of Irreversible Order — is one that assumes that if A is B, B cannot be

A. But it forgets that there are instances where reciprocity is involved, as in the matter
of feelings: I love you and you love me.

c. Argument of the Beard — has its origin from the practice of ancient philosophers
who used to discuss the number of hairs in a beard. It has several forms, two of which
are:

a) Small differences are not always important.

Example: Usher: The auditorium is SRO. There is no available space.

Latecomer: Please let me in. I'm alone.

I'm sure I can squeeze in.

b) Small differences are unimportant; therefore, all differences are unnoticeable.

Example: The angle is ninety degrees. Another two degrees will not be noticed.