Ministry of Higher Education

Kunduz University
English Language and Literature Department

English for University Students

(Grammar Course)

Compiled by: Senior Teaching Assistant Mohammad Sharif Hasanzoy

Student______________________

‫هـ ق‬1445

1
 What Are Indefinite Articles?
Indefinite articles are used to introduce a noun that has not been previously
mentioned or is not specific. They are used when the speaker is referring to a new
or unspecified noun, or when the listener does not know which particular noun
the speaker is referring to.

There are only two indefinite articles in English:

 a
 an
English indefinite articles 'a' and 'an' are used in many cases but in general, they
are used with the following nouns:

Singular countable nouns: You can only use an indefinite article with a countable
noun and it is a singular marker, so you cannot use it with uncountable or plural
countable nouns
Common nouns: You can only use indefinite articles with common nouns. Using
‘a’ with proper nouns is very rare.

We use 'a' or 'an' depending on the initial sound of the noun that follows them:
 If the noun starts with a consonant sound, use a
 If the noun starts with a vowel sound, use an
Example:
a girl
The noun 'girl' begins with a constant 'g' sound so we use 'a'.
An orange
The noun 'orange' begins with a vowel 'o' sound so we use 'an'.

2
Keep in mind that not all words that begin with a vowel letter necessarily begin
with a vowel sound and not all words that begin with a consonant letter
necessarily begin with a consonant sound. Pay attention to the examples below:
An hour
The noun 'hour' starts with letter 'h' (a consonant) but 'h' here is not pronounced
so the word starts with a vowel sound and gets 'an'.
A university
The noun 'university' starts with letter 'u' (a vowel) but 'u' here is not
pronounced as a vowel so it starts with a consonant sound and gets 'a'.

As mentioned before, indefinite articles come before a noun or noun phrase and
choosing 'a' or 'an' should be based on the sound that the noun phrase begins
with. Take a look at the example below:
A well-equipped airplane
Here noun 'airplane' begins with a vowel sound but the whole noun phrase
begins with 'w' (a consonant) so we should use 'a'.
An awesome airplane

Referring to Something Unspecific

We can use indefinite articles to refer to something unspecific in general. Using
an indefinite article indicates that the speaker does not have a specific thing in
mind. Take a look at these examples:
I need a job.
Here by using 'a' the speakers indicates that it is not important what kind of a job.
I need the job.

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 Use of 'the' (a definite article) indicates that the speaker is talking about a
specific job.
using the indefinite article 'an' in a sentence
Indefinite articles are used to refer to an unknown person or thing. In these cases,
the speaker is referring to a specific noun, but because it is unknown or not
previously mentioned, an indefinite article is used. Take a look at these examples:
He saw a man in the store.
Here, although we are talking about a specific man, because the speaker
does not know the identity of that man, an indefinite article was used.
When using an indefinite article to refer to an unknown or unspecified person or
thing, it is typically used only in the first sentence or instance of reference.
In subsequent sentences or instances of reference, a definite article is generally
used instead. This is because once the noun has been introduced with an
indefinite article, it is no longer unknown or unspecified. Take a look at this
example:
He saw a man in the store. The man pulled a gun and
killed the owner.
By using 'the man' in the second sentence we indicate that we are talking about
the same man. If we use an indefinite pronoun in the second sentence, it would
be assumed that they are two different men.
Referring to a Member of a Group with the Same Features
Indefinite articles are used to refer to a particular member of a group or class,
such as a profession, nationality, religion, etc. Here are some examples:
He always wanted to be a singer.
'A' is used to refer to a job (singer).
I'm a Protestant.
'A' is used to refer to a religion (Protestant).
Are you an Irishman or an Englishman?

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'A' is used to refer to a nationality (being English or Irish).
Referring to a Whole Group
Indefinite articles can be used to refer to a specific group or category or to all
members or things in a group in a general sense. Take a look at the examples:
An elephant is a mighty animal.
Here 'an elephant' is referring to all elephants or elephants as a group. And 'a
mighty animal' is a noun phrase in which ‘a’ is preceding the adjective 'mighty'.
A flower is beautiful.
In this sentence, 'a flower' is representing all flowers.
Before Days of the Week on Unspecific Dates
When we are referring to a particular day of the week on an unspecific date, we
can use the indefinite article 'a' with the name of the day of the week. Let us see
some examples:
I met her on a Friday.
Here, Friday refers to a day of the week but without specifying a specific date.
I'll eventually go there on a Sunday.
Talking about Price, Amount, etc.
Indefinite articles are also used to talk about prices, amounts, quantities,
and rates. For example:
This type of rice cost 50$ a kilo.
Used in Some Numbers
'A' is used before some numbers to mean 'one'. For example:
One hundred = A hundred
One thousand = A thousand
Before Jobs and Professions
When we talk about a person’s job, we use the article 'a'. For example:

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She’s a gardener.
He’s an ambulance driver.

Present simple – verb 'to be'

We can use the present simple of the verb to be to talk about situations and
states in the present.
I am ten years old.
They are Egyptian.
My mum is a doctor.
How to use it
Use am for I. Use is for he, she and it. Use are for you, we and they. We can
contract the verb, especially when we're speaking.
I am tall. = I'm tall.
You are my friend. = You're my friend.
My mum is a doctor. = My mum's a doctor.
We are doctors. = We're doctors.
They are Egyptian. = They're Egyptian.
For negatives, use not.
I am not nine years old! = I'm not nine years old!
She is not a teacher. = She's not a teacher. = She isn't a teacher.
They are not English. = They're not English. = They aren't English.
For questions, change the order of am, is or are and the person.
Are you Brazilian? Yes, I am.
Are they students? No, they're not.
Where is your brother?

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 Basic subject pronouns
There are 7 basic subject pronouns in English. You probably know them already: I,
you, he, she, it, we and they. Remember, in English we use you for singular people
and plural groups. Subject pronouns are the pronouns that refer to the person
doing the action in a sentence. In normal sentences, the subject pronoun comes
before the verb in English. Word order is not generally flexible. For example:
I made cookies.
You drove home.
He lied.
She wrote an email.
It arrived too late.
We went to school.
They like dogs.
We use subject pronouns when we don’t want to repeat a noun, or if it is obvious
who we are talking about. For example:
 Without subject pronouns: John won the lottery. John is really happy and
John is going to buy a new house.
 With subject pronouns: John won the lottery. He is really happy and he’s
going to buy a new house.
The second sentence sounds much more natural.

First, second and third person pronouns

You might hear people talking about pronouns in these different ways.
 First person pronouns are used when the speaker is involved: I and we.
 You is the second person pronoun; it refers to the person or people you are
speaking to.

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  He, she, it and they are third person pronouns; they refer to the person or
people you are talking about.
It
The pronoun it is a gender neutral pronoun in English. He is for males, and she is
for females, but it is for things which are not male or female, or if we don’t know
which gender they are. We use this pronoun most often to talk about objects:
That house is huge. It is like a mansion.
Give me that old book, it needs a new cover.
We use the subject pronoun it when we talk about time and weather:
It is 5 pm.
It’s sunny today.
We also use it to talk about countries and other geographical features in English.
Spain is a beautiful country. It has lovely weather too.
The river is very fast. It’s dangerous to swim in.
Pronouns for animals
My students often ask me which pronoun they should use for animals. And the
answer is: it depends. If you’re talking about a pet, especially a dog or a cat, you
will probably want to use he or she. If you’re talking about an animal you don’t
have a connection with, use it.
Our new puppy is playing in the garden. She’s so sweet.
There’s a mouse in the kitchen. It is eating our biscuits!
One
One is a subject pronoun. It means a person. It’s often called an impersonal
pronoun, and it is used to talk generally about people. Grammatically, it is usually
used as a third person singular pronoun. We don’t use it very often in English
because it is formal and old-fashioned language. But, it is important for you to
recognise it, because you might see it in writing or hear it on TV shows
like Bridgerton. Here’s an example:

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 What Are Demonstrative Pronouns?
Demonstrating means showing, indicating, and pointing to something; that is
exactly what demonstrative pronouns do. They indicate distance and time and
tell you where something is in relation to the speaker. Like other pronouns, these
pronouns can replace a noun.
Demonstrative Pronouns: Categorization
Demonstrative pronouns are categorized based on two factors:
1. Number: Which can be either singular or plural
2. Distance: Which can be either near or far
In the following table, 'number' indicates how many objects each pronoun refers
to, and 'distance' refers to how near or far the object is to you. Let us take a look
at these pronouns and their usage.

Pronouns Near Far

Singular This That

Plural These Those

Uses of Demonstrative Pronouns
In English, demonstrative pronouns are used to point to or indicate a specific
person, place, thing, or idea. They assist the speaker in conveying information
about the location or identity of the subject, and can provide context about the
relationship between the speaker and the subject.
1. To Show Reachability
The primary function of demonstrative pronouns is to indicate the position of an
object or person in relation to the speaker. By using 'this' or 'that', the speaker
can convey whether the object or person is within reach or not.
This is an apple; it is sweet.

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 In this example, by using 'this' you show that the apple is in your hand or within
reach.
That, over there, is my house.
In this example, you are speaking about the house from a distance.
2. To Distinguish Something by Difference in Distance
Demonstrative pronouns enable the speaker to distinguish between two things
based on distance. The nearer object is referred to as this or these, while the
farther object is called that or those. Proximity, rather than actual reachability,
determines which pronoun to use. Thus, "this" and "that" differentiate based on
relative closeness, not absolute closeness. The distinction is made from the
speaker's perspective.Look at the following examples:
My sister and I share a room; this is my bed and that is hers.
In this example, 'my bed' is nearer than 'my sister's bed'. None of them may be in
reach, but one of them is nearer than the other.
These are my friends and those are my colleagues.
In this example, again 'my friends' are nearer than 'my colleagues.'
3. To Show Distance in Time
Demonstrative pronouns can indicate temporal distance in addition to spatial
distance. The present time is viewed as near, while the past and future are seen
as distant. There are three ways demonstrative pronouns are used to refer to
time:
1. Using near pronouns to talk about present time (now) or something that
is happening now:
Is this a bad time or can you talk now?
In this example, 'this' refers to the present time.
2. Using far pronouns to talk about a situation or condition in the past or future:
That was amazing.
In this example, 'that,' refers to a past time.

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That will be hard to take care of.
Here, in this example, 'that' refers to a future time.
3. Using plural near or far pronouns to talk about the general condition of life in
the present, past or future:
These are strange times.
In this example, 'these' refers to general present conditions.
Those were hard times.
Here, 'those' refers to general past conditions.
4. To Talk about People
You can use demonstrative pronouns to introduce yourself on the phone:
Hello, this is Steve.
Here, the person is introducing himself by using the term 'this.'
As you can see, distance and time are not indicated anymore when you use
demonstrative pronouns for people.
Avoid Using Demonstratives in Two Consecutive Sentences
When you use a demonstrative pronoun to refer to something for the first time in
a sentence, you need to remember that if you want to refer to the same thing
again, you have to use 'it' instead of the demonstrative pronoun. The same rule
applies to 'these' and 'those,' which should be replaced by 'they.' Look at the
example below:
Look at that! It's beautiful!
As you can see, we used 'it' for a singular item, after being mentioned for the first
time.
Check these out! They are made of great material and they are cheap too!
As you can see, we used 'they' for a plural item, after being mentioned for the
first time.

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Demonstratives as Subjects and Objects
Using demonstrative pronouns to point to something
Demonstrative pronouns can become the subject or the object of a sentence. You
should know that being the subject or object does not change the meaning of
these pronouns. Let's see some examples:
This is what I have to read.
Here, demonstrative pronoun 'this' is the 'subject' of the sentence.
I cant read this; the handwriting is awful.
Here, demonstrative pronoun 'this' is the object of the sentence. You can easily
recognize the object by the position of the demonstrative pronoun. whenever it is
after a main verb it is an object.
We are not going to sell those to the customers; they are hideous!
Here 'those' is the object of the sentence. Remember, there is no noun after the
demonstrative pronoun.

WHAT
What is a wh word you use to ask about general questions.
For example
What do you do in the morning? I study in the morning.
What do you eat at night? I eat dinner
When you ask a question with what, you don’t use “what” in the answer. You give
the information.
What do you do in the morning? (what activities)

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Where
“Where” is another WH question word that you will use to ask questions, but the
meaning is different. With the word “where” you want to know “location”.
Where are you from? I’m from Brazil
Where do you work? I work at IBM
Where do you go on weekends? I go to the park on weekends!
Just like what, the word “where” is not used when you are giving an answer. In
your answer, you will give the location.
Where do you work? I work “at IBM” the location

WHEN
“When” is a WH question word used to talk about the time, at what time. Look at
some examples
I study English on Mondays and Wednesdays – this is an affirmative sentence,
right? How can we ask a question with When?
Take a look:
When do you study English? I study English on Mondays and Tuesdays
When do you read books? I read books in the morning
What Is the Difference Between Have and Has?
The words "has" and "have" both come from the verb "to have."
To have means to possess or hold something. It also means to experience or
undergo something. "Has" and "have" both mean the same thing as "to have."
So why are there two different versions of the word?
When Should I Use Have or Has?

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It’s all to do with who we are talking about. Whether you
use have or has depends on the point of view you are using. Luckily, you only
use has when talking in the third-person singular (that’s grammar jargon for
using he, she, or it in a sentence).
If you’re not using he, she, or it, you can almost always use "have." Keep reading
for the exceptions.
First, let’s look at some examples of when to use has and have.
When Do I Use Have?
We use have when talking about ourselves in the first person
perspective (using I), when addressing someone else directly in the second person
perspective (using you), or when referring to multiple people in the third person
plural (using they).
Here are some examples:
 I have a dog.
 You have a cat.
 They have horses.
In all three of the examples above, have is used to indicate ownership.
Now take a look at these:
 I have seen that movie.
 You have been there, right?
 They have worked hard on this project.
In these examples, have is used to show that the subject of the sentence (I, you,
they) has been through an experience (seeing the movie, going to a place,
working on a project).
To recap: If you’re using I, we, you, or they, use have.

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When Do I Use Has?
We use has when talking about someone or something else in the third person
singular. That means that if you’re referring to just one person or thing, and
you’re not using "I" or "you" to refer to them, you need to use has.
Here are some examples:
 She has red hair.
 He has eight siblings.
 It has many special features.
As before, in all of those examples has indicates ownership.
Now take a look at these:
 She has been to school.
 He has learned how to crochet.
 It has fallen over.

Do the following exercise with filling the blank spaces with (Have/has).
1. We

a dog.
2.
He

an apartment near Central Park.

3.
My room
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 two windows.
4.
I

a lot of friends around the world.

5.Kevi

two sons.
6.
His sons

separate rooms.
7.
They

blue eyes.
8.
She

breakfast at 7.30 am.

9.
That child

many toys.
10.
We

a new bicycle.

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 Object pronouns
What is direct objects?
A direct object is a noun that receives the action of the verb. Don’t get the direct
object confused with the subject—the noun that performs the actions—or the
verb itself.
Direct objects usually answer the questions “what?” or “whom?” Let’s take
another look at the direct object example above.
The students eat cake.
Ask yourself, “What did the students eat?” The answer is the direct object, which
in this case is “cake.” Let’s try a new direct object example:
The family hugged their dog.
What’s the direct object? Ask yourself, “Whom did the family hug?” The answer,
of course, is “dog.”
Direct object pronouns
English uses two different pronouns to refer to the same person, depending on
whether the pronoun is used as a subject or an object. For example, if you were
talking about yourself as the subject of a sentence, you would use I, but if you
were talking about yourself as the object, you would use me.
With direct objects, always use the object pronoun. If you’re unfamiliar with the
differences, you can review subject and object pronouns here, but there’s a quick
chart as a reminder below.

SUBJECT OBJECT
PRONOUN PRONOUN

I me

you you

he/she/they/it him/her/them/it

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we us

you (plural) you (plural)

they them

Direct objects vs. indirect objects

One of the most confusing topics in English is understanding the difference
between direct objects vs. indirect objects. While direct objects answer the
questions “what?” or “whom?” about the action of the verb, indirect objects
answer questions like “to whom?” or “for what?”
My brother loaned me five dollars.
In this sentence, loaned is the verb and my brother is the subject (because he’s
doing the loaning). The direct object is five dollars because it answers “what is
being loaned?” The indirect object is me because it answers “to whom are the five
dollars being loaned?”
Just like direct objects, indirect objects are only used with transitive verbs.
(Intransitive verbs never take an object, either direct or indirect.) While direct
objects are necessary for transitive verbs, indirect objects are optional.
Direct objects and linking verbs
One last rule about direct objects involves linking verbs like be, seem, and feel.
Linking verbs seem to use direct objects, but the word following the linking verb is
really called a complement, which is something a little different. A complement is
often an adjective, but when it’s a noun, it’s easy to confuse it for a direct object.
They are an expert at procrastination.
In this example, “an expert” may seem like a direct object, but it’s really a
complement, as it explains more about the subject, in this case, “they.” The
verb are, a conjugation of be, is a linking verb, not a transitive verb.

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 Singular and Plural Nouns

A noun names a person, place, thing, or idea.

Usually, the first page of a grammar book tells you

about nouns. Nouns give names of concrete or abstract things in our lives.
As babies learn "mom," "dad," or "milk" as their first word, nouns should be the
first topic when you study a foreign language.

For the plural form of most nouns, add s.

 bottle – bottles
 cup – cups
 pencil – pencils
 desk – desks
 sticker – stickers
 window – windows
For nouns that end in ch, x, s, or s sounds, add es.
 box – boxes
 watch – watches
 moss – mosses
 bus – buses
For nouns ending in f or fe, change f to v and add es.
 wolf – wolves
 wife – wives
 leaf – leaves
 life – lives
Some nouns have different plural forms.

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  child – children
 woman – women
 man – men
 mouse – mice
 goose – geese
Nouns ending in vowels like y or o do not have definite rules.
 baby – babies
 toy – toys
 kidney – kidneys
 potato – potatoes
 memo – memos
 stereo – stereos
A few nouns have the same singular and plural forms.
 sheep – sheep
 deer – deer
 series – series
 species – species

[Quiz 1.1]

Choose the correct form of the noun in each sentence.

1)I have three (child, children).

2)There are five (man, men) and one (woman, women).
3)(Baby, Babies) play with bottles as toys.
4)I put two big (potato, potatoes) in the lunch box.
5)A few men wear (watch, watches).

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6)I put a (memo, memos) on the desk.
7)I saw a (mouse, mice) running by.
8)There are few (bus, buses) on the road today.

Common and proper nouns

Common nouns refer to non-specific people (e.g. man, woman, girl…), places
(e.g. city, ocean, country…), things (e.g. table, book, computer…), ideas (e.g. love,
respect, envy…) Proper nouns, however, name specific people, places, or things.
List of Common Nouns
Here’s a table with examples of common nouns classified into categories:

Category Examples

People man, woman, child, teacher

Places city, ocean, park, restaurant

Things table, book, computer, bicycle

Ideas love, respect, envy, freedom

Characteristics of Common Nouns

Here are some characteristics of common nouns:
1. Article Usage:
 Common nouns may be preceded by articles such as “the” or “a.”
 Example: “the city I like,” “a woman,” “the book over there.”

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 2. Countability:
 Common nouns can be either countable or uncountable.
 Countable: “cities,” “friends,” “boys.”
 Uncountable: “love,” “hate,” “respect.”
3. Capitalization:
 Common nouns are not capitalized unless they appear at the
beginning of a sentence.
 Example: “The city is bustling,” but “I visited a city last week.”

What Are Proper Nouns?

Proper nouns are names for special, specific people, places, or things. They point
to particular individuals or unique entities, like “John,” “Pacific Ocean,” “London,”
and “Mercedes.” These names are special because they are about particular and
distinct things.
List of Proper Nouns
Here is a list of proper nouns classified into different categories:

Category Examples

People John, Mary, Albert

Places Paris, Mount Everest

Countries Canada, Australia

Rivers Nile, Amazon

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 Category Examples

Mountains Rocky Mountains, Alps

Cities London, Tokyo

Brands Apple, Mercedes

Celestial Bodies Sun, Sirius

Characteristics of Proper Nouns

Proper nouns possess distinctive characteristics that set them apart from
common nouns. Understanding these features is crucial for identifying and using
them effectively.
1. Capitalization:
 One key feature of proper nouns is that they are always capitalized.
Regardless of their position in a sentence, names such as “Leila,”
“California,” and “Mississippi” begin with a capital letter.
2. Number Invariance:
 Proper nouns typically remain invariant for number. While most are
singular, there are exceptions when referring to entities like families,
mountain ranges, or groups of islands, where they can take on a
plural form.
 Examples: “The Johnsons family,” “The Himalayas,” “The
Hebrides.”
3. Article Usage:
 Unlike common nouns, English proper nouns are generally not
preceded by articles such as “the” or “a.” This absence of articles
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distinguishes them in sentences.
Example: Not “the John,” but simply “John.”
Determiner and Modifier Absence:
Proper nouns do not typically require other determiners or modifiers. They stand
alone without additional qualifiers like “many” or “much.”
Example: Not “many John,” but just “John.”

Affirmative
We use there is to say that something exists or is in a place.
There is a bridge in the park.
We use there is for singular nouns and there are for plural nouns.
There is a restaurant in the station.
There are two cafés in the shopping centre.
We can say there's instead of there is. We often say this when we speak. But there
is no short form for there are.
There is a restaurant in the station. > There's a restaurant in the station.
There are two cafés. > There're two cafés.
When we are speaking informally and make a list of things, we often use there
is or there's instead of there are.
There's a café, a supermarket and a bus stop on my street.
(Instead of There are a café, a supermarket and a bus stop on my street.)
Negative
For negatives, we use there isn't or there's not (= there is not) for singular
and there aren't (= there are not) for plural.
There isn't a pharmacy near the hotel.
There aren't any restaurants near the hotel.

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 We often use there isn't a + singular noun, there isn't any + uncountable noun
and there aren't any + plural noun.
There isn't a café near here.
There isn't any milk.
There aren't any toilets in the park.
To show that the negative is important, we also often use there is no +
uncountable noun and there are no + plural noun. (It is possible to use there is
no + singular noun, but it's not as common.)
There's no milk.
There are no toilets in the park.
Questions
For questions, we say Is there for singular nouns and uncountable nouns and Are
there for plural nouns.
Is there a café near here?
Is there any milk in the fridge?
Are there any toilets in the park?
To answer, we say Yes, there is (not Yes, there's) or No, there isn't, or Yes, there
are or No, there aren't.
Is there a café near here? Yes, there is. / No, there isn't.
Is there any milk in the fridge? Yes there is. / No, there isn't.
Are there any toilets in the park? Yes, there are. / No, there aren't.
Here is a summary of these forms.

singular plural

there is
affirmative there are
there's

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 singular plural

there is not
there are not
negative there isn't
there aren't
there's not

there isn't a ... (countable)

negative + a/any there aren't any ...
there isn't any ... (uncountable)

negative + no there is no ... there are no ...

question Is there ...? Are there ...?

Other verb tenses

We can use there is and there are in many other verb tenses.
There was a storm last night. (Past simple)
There were a lot of cars on the roads yesterday. (Past simple)
There will be a lot of people at the shopping center tomorrow. (Future simple)

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 Some more WH words

Who
Use “who” to ask about a person.
Examples:

Question Answer

Who is that? It’s our new teacher.

Who did you invite to your party? I invited Maria, Lee, and Abdul.

Why
Use “why” to ask about a reason.
Examples:

Question Answer

Why do you like reading so much? I like it because I can learn new things.

Why did you call me? I called you to invite you to my party.

How Questions
You can use the word “how” to ask questions in English. These are called “how
questions”.[1]
Similar to “Wh-“ questions, you can ask:
How + modal verb
For example:
 How can you sing so well?
 How can you know so many languages?

27
  How can I get there?
How + verb (any tense)
 How did she do that?
 How are we going to get there?
 How is it outside?

 Rule 1. Using an apostrophe to show singular possession

 Rule 1a. Use the apostrophe to show possession. To show possession with
a singular noun, add an apostrophe plus the letter s.

 Examples:
a woman’s hat
the boss’s wife
Mrs. Chang’s house
 Rule 1b. Many common nouns end in the letter s (lens, cactus, bus, etc.). So
do a lot of proper nouns (Mr. Jones, Texas, Christmas). There are conflicting
policies and theories about how to show possession when writing such
nouns. There is no right answer; the best advice is to choose a formula and
stay consistent.
 Rule 1c. Some writers and editors add only an apostrophe to all nouns
ending in s. And some add an apostrophe + s to every proper noun, be
it Hastings’s or Jones’s.

 One method, common in newspapers and magazines, is to add an apostrophe

+ s (’s) to common nouns ending in s, but only a stand-alone apostrophe to
proper nouns ending in s.

 Examples:
the class’s hours
Mr. Jones’ golf clubs
the canvas’s size
Texas’ weather

28
 Rule 2. Using an apostrophe to show plural possession
 Rule 2a. Regular nouns are nouns that form their plurals by adding either
the letter s or es (guy, guys; letter, letters; actress, actresses; etc.). To show
plural possession, simply put an apostrophe after the s.

 Correct: guys’ night out (guy + s + apostrophe)

Incorrect: guy’s night out (implies only one guy)
Correct: two actresses’ roles (actress + es + apostrophe)
Incorrect: two actress’s roles
 Rule 2b. Do not use an apostrophe + s to make a regular noun plural.

 Incorrect: Apostrophe’s are confusing.

Correct: Apostrophes are confusing.

Incorrect: We’ve had many happy Christmas’s.

Correct: We’ve had many happy Christmases.

 In special cases, such as when forming a plural of a word that is not

normally a noun, some writers add an apostrophe for clarity.

 Example: Here are some do’s and don’ts.

 In that sentence, the verb do is used as a plural noun, and the apostrophe was
added because the writer felt that dos was confusing. Not all writers agree;
some see no problem with dos and don’ts.

 However, with single lowercase letters, it is advisable to use apostrophes.

 Example: My a’s look like u’s.

 Imagine the confusion if you wrote that sentence without apostrophes.

Readers would see as and us, and feel lost.

29
 Rule 2c. English also has many irregular nouns (child, nucleus, tooth, etc.).
These nouns become plural by changing their spelling, sometimes becoming
quite different words. You may find it helpful to write out the entire
irregular plural noun before adding an apostrophe or an apostrophe + s.

 Incorrect: two childrens’ hats

The plural is children, not childrens.
Correct: two children’s hats (children + apostrophe + s)
Incorrect: the teeths’ roots
Correct: the teeth’s roots
 Rule 2d. Things can get really confusing with the possessive plurals of
proper names ending in s, ch, z, such as Hastings, Jones, Birch, and Sanchez.

 If you’re the guest of the Ford family—the Fords—you’re the Fords’ guest
(Ford + s + apostrophe). But what if it’s the Hastings family?

 Most would call them the "Hastings." But that would refer to a family
named "Hasting." If someone’s name ends in s, ch, z, we must add es for the
plural. The plural of Hastings is Hastingses. The members of the Birch
family are the Birches.

 To show possession, add an apostrophe.

 Incorrect: the Hastings’ dog

Correct: the Hastingses’ dog (Hastings + es + apostrophe)

Incorrect: the Jones’ car

Correct: the Joneses’ car

Incorrect: the Birch’s home

Correct: the Birches’ home

30
 Incorrect: the Sanchez’ new baby, the Sanchezs’ new baby
Correct: the Sanchezes’ new baby

 In serious writing, this rule must be followed no matter how strange or

awkward the results.
 Rule 2e. Never use an apostrophe to make a name plural.

 Incorrect: The Wilson’s are here.

Correct: The Wilsons are here.
Incorrect: We visited the Sanchez’s.
Correct: We visited the Sanchezes.
 Rule 3. With a singular compound noun (for example, mother-in-law), show
possession with an apostrophe + s at the end of the word.

 Example: my mother-in-law’s hat

 If the compound noun (e.g., brother-in-law) is to be made plural, form the

plural first (brothers-in-law), and then use the apostrophe + s.

 Example: my two brothers-in-law’s hats

 Rule 4a. If two people possess the same item, put the apostrophe + s after
the second name only.

 Example: Cesar and Maribel’s home is constructed of redwood.

 However, if one of the joint owners is written as a pronoun, use the

possessive form for both.

 Incorrect: Maribel and my home

Incorrect: Mine and Maribel’s home
Correct: Maribel’s and my home

31
 Incorrect: he and Maribel’s home
Incorrect: him and Maribel’s home
Correct: his and Maribel’s home

 Incorrect: you and Maribel’s home

Incorrect: yours and Maribel’s home
Correct: Maribel’s and your home

 Note: As the above examples demonstrate, when one of the co-owners is

written as a pronoun, use possessive adjectives (my, your, her, our, their).
Avoid possessive pronouns (mine, yours, hers, ours, theirs) in such
constructions.

 It should be mentioned that compound possessives are often clunky as well

as confusing. For instance, a picture of her and Cesar’s house could refer to
a photo of "her" in front of the house that Cesar owns or a photo of the house
that she and Cesar co-own. Big difference. Such ambiguous sentences
should just be rewritten.
 Rule 4b. In cases of separate rather than joint possession, use the possessive
form for both.

 Examples:
Cesar’s and Maribel’s homes are both lovely.
They don’t own the homes jointly.

Cesar and Maribel’s homes are both lovely.

The homes belong to both of them.
 Rule 5. Use an apostrophe with contractions. The apostrophe is placed
where a letter or letters have been removed.

 Examples: Doesn’t, it’s, ’tis, can’t, you’d, should’ve, rock ’n’ roll, etc.
Incorrect: Does’nt

32
 Rule 6. There are various approaches to plurals for abbreviations, single
letters, and numerals.

 Many writers and editors prefer an apostrophe after single capitalized letters.
(See Rule 2b. in regard to single lowercase letters.)

 Example: I made straight A’s.

 With groups of two or more capital letters, apostrophes seem less necessary.

 Examples:
There are two new MPs on the base.
He learned his ABCs.

She consulted with three M.D.s.

Some write M.D.’s to give the s separation from the second period.

 There are different schools of thought about years and decades. The
following examples are all in widespread use:

 Examples:
the 1990s
the 1990’s
the ’90s
the 90’s

 Awkward: the ’90’s

 Rule 7. Amounts of time or money are sometimes used as possessive
adjectives that require apostrophes.

 Incorrect: three days leave

Correct: three days’ leave

33
 Incorrect: my two cents worth
Correct: my two cents’ worth
 Rule 8. The personal pronouns hers, ours, yours, theirs, its, whose, and the
pronoun oneself never take an apostrophe.

 Examples:
Correct: Feed a horse grain. It’s better for its health.

Incorrect: Who’s glasses are these?

Correct: Whose glasses are these?

Incorrect: Talking to one’s self in public is odd.

Correct: Talking to oneself in public is odd.
 Rule 9. When an apostrophe comes before a word or number, take care that
it’s truly an apostrophe (’) rather than a single quotation mark (‘).

 Incorrect: ‘Twas the night before Christmas.

Correct: ’Twas the night before Christmas.

Incorrect: I voted in ‘08.

Correct: I voted in ’08.
 NOTE

 Serious writers avoid the word ’til as an alternative to until. The correct
word is till, which is many centuries older than until.

 Rule 10. Beware of false possessives, which often occur with nouns ending
in s. Don’t add apostrophes to noun-derived adjectives ending in s. Close
analysis is the best guide.

 Incorrect: We enjoyed the New Orleans’ cuisine.

34
 In the preceding sentence, the word the makes no sense unless New
Orleans is being used as an adjective to describe cuisine. In English, nouns
frequently become adjectives. Adjectives rarely if ever take apostrophes.

 Incorrect: I like that Beatles’ song.

Correct: I like that Beatles song.

 Again, Beatles is an adjective, modifying song.

 Incorrect: He’s a United States’ citizen.

Correct: He’s a United States citizen.
 Rule 11. Beware of nouns ending in y; do not show possession by changing
the y to ies.

 Correct: the company’s policy

Incorrect: the companies policy

 To show possession when a noun ending in y becomes plural, write ies’. Do

not write y’s.

 Correct: three companies’ policies

Incorrect: three company’s policies

 Exception: Names and other proper nouns ending in y become plural simply
by adding an s. They do not form their plurals with an apostrophe, or by
changing the y to ies.

 Correct: The Flannerys are coming over.

Incorrect: The Flannery’s are coming over.
Incorrect: The Flanneries are coming over.

 Correct: The Flannerys’ house was robbed.

Incorrect: The Flanneries’ house was robbed

35
 Which and Whose Usage in English

'Which' and 'whose' can be determiners and pronouns, Each has its own
grammatical importance and rules. Sometimes They can be of similar rules and
other times they can be different. Actually, their main difference relies on their
meanings. 'Which' refers to things or adds details and information to things;
while 'whose' indicates possessions and it means 'of which'.
Differences
How They Differ in Their Meaning and Uses
 'Which' and 'whose':
imply different functions. We mean; as it was mentioned earlier, 'Which' is used
to ask for information about a definite set of things or people.
However, 'Whose' is used to ask about possessions related to things and people.
Which animal can jump higher the kangaroo or the rabbit?
Whose little bunny is this?
Similarities
'Which' and 'Whose' as Pronouns
 'Which' and 'whose':
can be either interrogative pronouns or relative pronouns. As you might know,
interrogative pronouns are used to ask questions. However, relative pronouns are
used to connect two clauses. 'Which' and 'whose' both can be used
in restrictive or restrictive. Remember to put a comma at the beginning and at
the end of a non-restrictive clause.
Whose are those?
This is the factory whose founder died last week.
This house, which belongs to Mr. Rite, is being sold.
Which one is your car?
The director, whose films won Oscars, works with the best screenwriters ever.

36
'Which' and 'Whose' as Determiners
 'Which' and 'whose':
as determiners are followed by nouns. Feel free to study the examples.
Whose shirts are those? → determiner
Which animal is not able to see in day light? → determine

Adjectives

Adjectives describe or modify nouns.

I like fairy tales. A fairy tale is an imaginary story that has unrealistic characters in
a fantastic background. It makes me forget about the real world and refreshes
my tired mind.

Adjectives generally appear immediately before the noun.

 A pretty girl
 Red flowers
 A long stick
 Heavy boxes
 Warm weather
Commonly, adjectives of opposite meaning are formed by adding a prefix such
as un, in, or dis.
 clear – unclear, important – unimportant, predictable – unpredictable,
believable – unbelievable, common – uncommon, aware – unaware,
ambiguous – unambiguous, conventional – unconventional, certain –
uncertain

37
  definite – indefinite, correct – incorrect, comparable – incomparable,
complete – incomplete, evitable – inevitable, expensive – inexpensive
 able – disable, assemble – disassemble, content – discontent, similar –
dissimilar
When using a string of adjectives, they should appear in a set order: size/shape +
age + color + origin + material.
 A big brown house
 A small old English desk
 A beautiful black Italian leather purse
 Delicious Chinese food
The + adjective describes a class or group of people and acts as a noun.
 the old, the young, the poor, the rich, the oppressed, the homeless, etc.
 This popular TV show is loved by the old.

Subject-Verb Agreement

Basic Rule. A singular subject (she, Bill, car) takes a singular verb (is, goes, shines),
whereas a plural subject takes a plural verb.
Example: The list of items is/are on the desk.
If you know that list is the subject, then you will choose is for the verb.
Exceptions to the Basic rule:
a. The first person pronoun I takes a plural verb (I go, I drive).
b. The basic form of the verb is used after certain main verbs such as watch, see,
hear, feel, help, let, and make. (He watched Ronaldo score the winning goal).
Rule 1. A subject will come before a phrase beginning with of. This is a key rule for
understanding subjects. The word of is the culprit in many, perhaps most, subject-

38
verb mistakes.

Hasty writers, speakers, readers, and listeners might miss the all-too-common
mistake in the following sentence:
Incorrect: A bouquet of yellow roses lend color and fragrance to the room.
Correct: A bouquet of yellow roses lends . . . (bouquet lends, not roses lend)
Rule 2. Two singular subjects connected by or, either/or, or neither/nor require a
singular verb.
Examples:
My aunt or my uncle is arriving by train today.
Neither Juan nor Carmen is available.
Either Kiana or Casey is helping today with stage decorations.
Rule 3. The verb in an or, either/or, or neither/nor sentence agrees with the noun
or pronoun closest to it.
Examples:
Neither the plates nor the serving bowl goes on that shelf.
Neither the serving bowl nor the plates go on that shelf.
This rule can lead to bumps in the road. For example, if I is one of two (or more)
subjects, it could lead to this odd sentence:
Awkward: Neither she, my friends, nor I am going to the festival.
If possible, it's best to reword such grammatically correct but awkward sentences.
Better:
Neither she, I, nor my friends are going to the festival.
OR
She, my friends, and I are not going to the festival.
Rule 4. As a general rule, use a plural verb with two or more subjects when they
are connected by and.
Example: A car and a bike are my means of transportation.

39
Rule 5a. Sometimes the subject is separated from the verb by such words
as along with, as well as, besides, not, etc. These words and phrases are not part
of the subject. Ignore them and use a singular verb when the subject is singular.
Examples:
The politician, along with the newsmen, is expected shortly.
Excitement, as well as nervousness, is the cause of her shaking.
Rule 5b. Parentheses are not part of the subject.
Example: Joe (and his trusty mutt) was always welcome.
If this seems awkward, try rewriting the sentence.
Rule 6. In sentences beginning with here or there, the true subject follows the
verb.
Examples:
There are four hurdles to jump.
There is a high hurdle to jump.
Here are the keys.
Rule 7. Use a singular verb with distances, periods of time, sums of money, etc.,
when considered as a unit.
Examples:
Three miles is too far to walk.
Five years is the maximum sentence for that offense.
Ten dollars is a high price to pay.
BUT
Ten dollars (i.e., dollar bills) were scattered on the floor.
Rule 8a. With words that indicate portions—e.g., a lot, a majority, some, all—Rule
1 given earlier in this section is reversed, and we are guided by the noun after of.
If the noun after of is singular, use a singular verb. If it is plural, use a plural verb.
Examples:
A lot of the pie has disappeared.
A lot of the pies have disappeared.
Fifty percent of the pie has disappeared.
Fifty percent of the pies have disappeared.

40
A third of the city is unemployed.
A third of the people are unemployed.
All of the pie is gone.
All of the pies are gone.
Some of the pie is missing.
Some of the pies are missing

Rule 8b. With collective nouns such as group, jury, family, audience, population,
the verb might be singular or plural, depending on the writer's intent.
Examples:
All of my family has arrived OR have arrived.
Most of the jury is here OR are here.
A third of the population was not in favor OR were not in favor of the bill.
Rule 9. The word were replaces was in sentences that express a wish or are
contrary to fact:
Example: If Joe were here, you'd be sorry.
Shouldn't Joe be followed by was, not were, given that Joe is singular? But Joe
isn't actually here, so we say were, not was. The sentence demonstrates
the subjunctive mood, which is used to express a hypothetical, wishful,
imaginary, or factually contradictory thought. The subjunctive mood pairs singular
subjects with what we usually think of as plural verbs.
Examples:
I wish it were Friday.
She requested that he raise his hand.
The foreman demanded that Joe wear safety goggles.
In the first example, a wishful statement, not a fact, is being expressed;
therefore, were, which we usually think of as a plural verb, is used with the
singular it. (Technically, it is the singular subject of the object clause in the
subjunctive mood: it were Friday.)

Normally, he raise would sound terrible to us. However, in the second example,

41
where a request is being expressed, the subjunctive mood is correct.

Note: The subjunctive mood is losing ground in spoken English but should still be
used in formal speech and writing.
Subject and Verb Agreement Quiz
1. For each of the following, choose the sentence in which the subject and verb
agree.

A) Every one of the shirts has a green collar.

B) Every one of the shirts have a green collar.

2.

A) This singer, along with a few others, play the harmonica on stage.

B) This singer, along with a few others, plays the harmonica on stage.

3.

A) Sandals and towels are essential gear for a trip to the beach.

B) Sandals and towels is essential gear for a trip to the beach.

4.

A) The president or the vice president are speaking today.

B) The president or the vice president is speaking today.

5.

A) Either Cassie or Marie pays the employees this afternoon.

B) Either Cassie or Marie pay the employees this afternoon.

42
“s” “es” or “ies” in Present Simple
Verbs ending in “s”, “es” and “ies” in the Present Simple tense
In the Present Simple verb form 3rd (third) person singular
we add “s”, “es” or “ies” at the end of the verb
 I run
 You run
 He/she/it runs
 We run
 You run
 They run
There are three ways to make the “S form”:
– by adding “s” to the end of a verb (run >runs, sit >sits,see >sees, play >
plays)
– by adding “es” to the end of the verb (watch > watches, guess > guesses)
– by changing final “y” to “ies” (study > studies, party > parties, fly > flies)
– irregular forms
*see table below for difference between verbs finishing with vowel + y (stay, play
etc) and verbs finishing with consonant + y (cry, fly, study etc)
See more examples of verbs with “s”, “es” and “ies”
Spelling of third person singular forms in Present
Simple Tense
Most verbs: Work - works Sit -> sits
Add “s” to inf >
Stay -> stays* See -> sees

43
 know - knows Live -> lives
>
Verbs ending Cry-> cries* Hurry-> hurries*
with
Fly-> flies* Imply-> implies*
consonant and
“y”: Try-> tries*
Change “y” for
“ies”
Verbs ending Push-> pushes Fix-> Fixes
in sibilant
Catch- catches Confess- confesses
sounds –s, -z, -
> >
ch, -sh, or -x
Buzz-> buzzes Finish-> finishes
Verbs ending Go-> goes Do-> does
with “o”
Have-> has
Verb “have”

Think about these verbs, what group do they go in?

spy, rush, get, play, tax, employ, sew, follow, fight, boil, deny, meet, look, reach,
display, pass, fry, echo, teach, ask, touch, kiss, send, buy. fax, hiss

Examples:
 Work: I work in London; They work in Berlin; He works in an office
 Study: You study English; we study geography; she studies French
 Finish: I finish early; you finish late; John finishes tomorrow
 Pass: You pass your exams; they pass their exams; Maria passes her exams
 Do: They do their homework; we do our homework; She does her
homework

44
 Have: We have a nice car; you have a big car; Fred has a black car

45
46
 What Is a Preposition of Time?
A preposition of time is a preposition used to indicate when a particular action
takes place. The most common prepositions of time are at, in and on.
Let us look at each of these in detail.
Usage of At, In, and On
The three prepositions seem to confuse many English language users as they have
the same function. What you should know is that they cannot be used
interchangeably as they refer to different time frames.
 The preposition ‘at’ is used to refer to a specific time.
 The preposition ‘on’ is used to refer to a particular day or date, such as on
Sunday, on May 25th.
 The preposition ‘in’ refers to a broader time frame, such as a month or a
year, a decade, etc.
Refer to the below-provided examples to understand the usage of these terms.

AT

Specific time At 7:00 I will see you at 7:00!

At 10:30 The party starts at 10:30.

At noon I shall meet you at noon.

At midnight I will be there at midnight.

(Expressions) At the moment He is busy at the moment.

At the same They both arrived at the same time.

time

At this time You are here at this time?

At that time At that time, I was out of station.

47
 At some point At some point, I will buy this car.

At any time Don’t go to her place at any time.

At sunrise I will meet you at sunrise.

At sunset This place looks beautiful at sunset.

At lunchtime I will see you at lunchtime.

At dinnertime I will talk to you at dinnertime.

At suppertime He might come to my place at

suppertime.

At night She called me at night.

ON

A day On Sunday The picnic is planned on Sunday.

A date On May 18th My birthday is on May 18th.

Repetitive days On Saturdays My dance classes are scheduled on

Saturdays.

On Republic Day I love watching the parade on

Republic Day.

On your birthday I will see you on your birthday.

On their He gifted a puppy on their

anniversary anniversary.

One day + time of On Friday Do you want to join me for the

day morning party on Friday morning?

On Saturday I told her on Saturday afternoon.

afternoon

48
 On Sunday On Sunday evening, I will meet her.
evening

On Monday night Where did you go on Monday

night?

(Expressions) On time We submitted the project on time.

On the dot The program started on the dot.

On the hour The clock chimes on the hour.

IN

Months In December I am getting married in December.

Seasons In summer It is too hot in summer.

In the summer We can plan in the summer.

Years In 2019 They moved to the U.S. in 2019.

Centuries In the 1900s The movies of the 1900s were amazing.

Long periods In the Middle This was done in the Middle Ages.
Ages

(Expressions) In the past In the past, I used to live in this house.

In the future In the future, I am planning to buy this

car.

In a few days I will come back in a few days.

In ten minutes He is coming in ten minutes.

In the morning I will meet you in the morning.

In the afternoon He is sleeping in the afternoon?

49
 In the evening I am going to her place in the evening.

What is Simple Present Tense?

Simple Present tense (also known as the Present Indefinite Tense), the base form
of the verb, is used to express general truths/facts (such as - “the sun rises in the
east.”), habits (I wake up in the morning) and planned events in the near future
(Ram’s birthday comes next week).
Where is Simple Present Tense Used? | Examples
The Present Indefinite Tense is used in various cases. The various instances,
where the Simple Present tense is used to construct the sentence structure, are
given below.
 To Express Habits/Daily Routine: the things you usually do, routined
habits/activities. For example:
 I wake up at 6 am.
 I go to school.
 General Truths: (also the permanent truths) are the universal truths and
facts that can be described using the Present Indefinite tense. Simple
present tense examples of this kind are given below.
 The sun rises in the east.
 Delhi stands on the bank of the river Yamuna.
 Near Future Events: the actions that are going to be performed in the near
future are also expressed using the Simple Present tense. For example:
 They leave at 9 am tomorrow.
 My birthday comes off next week.
 Present Time: the activity that is ongoing in the present time. For example:
 Rohit lives in Chandigarh.

50
  I study in class 5.
 Exclamatory Sentences that start with “see”, “here” and “there”: these
are some powerful expressions that indicate an action in the present
moment. Simple present tense examples of this kind are given below.
 See, how it rains.
 Here comes the principal.
 To Repeat a Quotation: the quotations from famous personalities can be
repeated as such by making use of the Present Simple Tenses. For example:
 Keats says, “A thing of beauty is a joy forever.”
 Browning says, “Who knows the world may end tonight.”
 To Express a Past Event in a Narrative: past events in a narrative can be
expressed by making use of the simple present tenses, for example:
 Sher Singh takes his sister and leaves for Holland.
 Laxmi Bai now rides her horse and leads her army.
 Imperative Sentences: used to start “imperative sentences” as given
below.
 Obey your elders.
 Do not speak a lie.
Simple Present Tense Rules
Below we have covered the simple present tense formula (rules) that may come
in handy to you while describing your daily activities in an affirmative, negative
and interrogative manner. Check out the rules for making simple present tense
sentences below.

Simple Present Tense Rules

Types of Sentences Singular Noun (Subject) Plural Noun (Subject)

Affirmative Subject + V1 + s/es + Object Subject + V1 + Object

51
 Subject + does not + V1 +
Negative Subject + do not + V1 + Ob
Object

Interrogative Does + Subject + V1 + object? Do + Subject + V1 + object

Where: V1 denotes the first form of Verb.

Note: In all Simple present tense examples, the singular subject rules apply to
“he, she and it” and for the rest (I, we, you, they), plural subject rules will apply.
You can create simple present-tense sentences by using the above rules. For
example:

Types of Sentences Simple Present Tense Examples

Affirmative Ram plays football. Students go to school.

Negative Ram does not play football. Students do not go to sch

Interrogative Does Ram play football? Do students go to school?

Rules for Adding -s/es and -ies to Verbs in Simple Present Tenses
There are two rules that will help you understand where and when to add “s”,
“es” and “ies” as suffixes to the first form of the verbs in sentences while using
the simple present tense (or Present Indefinite Tense). The correct use of s/es and
ies are given below.
 When the first form of the verb ends in -o, -ss, -sh, -ch, and -x.
When the verb in simple tense ends in -o, -ss, -sh, -ch, and -x, the suffix “es” is
added. In the rest of the cases, add “s” to the verb. For example, “go” becomes
“goes”, “search” becomes “searches” and “run” becomes “runs”.
 When the first form of the verb ends in a consonant followed by -y.
When the verb in a simple present tense sentence ends in a -y and there is a
consonant before -y, “ies” is added as a suffix to the verb. For example, “carry”
becomes “carries” and “copy” becomes “copies”.
5 Common Mistakes While Learning Simple Present Tense

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Below are the common mistakes to avoid when learning the Present Indefinite
tense. These mistakes have been explained by giving incorrect simple present
tense examples, the explanation of the mistake and the correct sentence of each
example.
 Adding "-s" to the verb base for all subjects: s/es is added only to the
singular third person (he, she, it). For example:
 Mistake: They works every day.
 Explanation: The "-s" ending is only added to the base verb form for
singular third-person subjects (he, she, it)
 Correction: They work every day. (Base verb form "work" is used
with the plural subject "they")
 Confusing simple present with present continuous: Simple Present Tense
describes habits, facts, and general truths, while present continuous
describes actions happening right now or around the moment of speaking.
So, the simple present tense rules are used only when we talk about a daily
habit, a general fact, a near-future event or a current moment. For
example:
 Mistake: I am eating breakfast right now, but I eats breakfast at 8 am
every day. (Mixing present continuous tense for a current action with
the simple present tense for a habit)
 Explanation: The simple present tense describes habits, facts, and
general truths that happen regularly. The present continuous tense
describes actions happening right now or around the moment of
speaking.
 Correction: I am eating breakfast right now, but I eat breakfast at 8
am every day. (Use "eat" - the base verb form - to indicate a regular
habit)
 Forgetting the auxiliary verb "do/does" in negative sentences: In the
negative sentences of the simple present tenses, you need the auxiliary
verb "do/does" before "not" + verb base.

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  Mistake: She not like coffee.
 Explanation: In negative sentences of the simple present tense, you
need to add the auxiliary verb "do/does" before "not" + verb base.
This rule applies to all subjects, i.e. I, you, he, she, it, we, you plural,
and they.
 Correction: She does not like coffee.
 Using the simple present for future events: Simple present tense is not
typically used for specific future events. Use present continuous for
planned future events or add "will" for future predictions.
 Mistake: My train leaves tomorrow at 7 pm. (Simple present for a
specific future event)
 Explanation: The simple present tense is not typically used for
specific future events with a clear timeframe. For future predictions,
the addition of “will” in the future simple tense is recommended.
 Correction: My train will leave tomorrow at 7 pm.
 Using the simple present for single, completed actions in the past: The
simple present tense is not typically used for single events that happened
and are finished in the past. Use the simple past tense for completed
actions in the past.
 Mistake: He visits his grandparents every summer. (Simple present
tense for a past action)

Different Cases of Using

Example 1 Example 2
Simple Present Tense

She exercises at the gym three We study English for two hours
Habits
times a week. in the evening.

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 Water boils at 100 degrees The sun rises in the east
General Facts
Celsius. and sets in the west.

The movie starts at 7 pm

Near Future My exams end next week.
tonight.

Present Time/Moment I live in Delhi. Rohan studies in class ninth.

Exclamatory Sentences
starting with "here" and Here comes my brother. There goes the principal.
"there"

As the proverb goes, "Early to

Shakespeare says, "All the
To Repeat a Quotation bed, early to rise, makes a man
world's a stage."
healthy, wealthy, and wise."

To Express a Past Event in a The king rides out of the castle She opens the mysterious box
Narrative (Story-telling) with his knights. and finds a treasure map inside.

Be careful when crossing the

Imperative Sentences Brush your teeth every morning.
street.

 Explanation: The simple present tense is not used for events that
happened and are finished in the past. For actions completed in the
past, simple past tense is used instead.
 Correction: He visited his grandparents every summer. (Use "visited"
- the simple past tense - to indicate a completed action)
Simple Present Tense Examples
Below are some more simple present tense examples for every case/situation
where this tense is used.
Simple Present Tense Exercises
Let us see some present indefinite tense exercises below. You can use these
practice questions as simple present tense examples worksheets to practice
later.

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Simple Present Tense Exercise - Beginner Level
Fill in the blank spaces in the following sentences with the correct form of
suggested helping verbs.
1. The mother …….. (cook) the food.
2. Rita …….. (call) me every morning.
3. She …….. (read) in tenth class.
4. The cat …… (kill) rats.
5. The sun …… (rise) in the east.
Answers:
1. cooks
2. calls
3. reads
4. Kills
5. rises
Simple Present Tense Exercise - Intermediate Level
Fill in the blank spaces in the following sentences with the correct form of
suggested helping verbs.
1. The train …….. (depart) at 7 am tomorrow.
2. Sarah …….. (go) to yoga classes every day.
3. The gardener ……. (take care) of the plants
4. Here …….. (come) the train.
5. I go to …….. (play) every evening.
Answers:
1. Departs
2. Goes

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 3. takes care
4. Comes
5. play
Present Indefinite Tense Exercise - Advanced Level
Fill in the blank spaces in the following sentences with the correct form of
suggested helping verbs.
1. …… (do/does) he ……… (play) tennis?
2. When …….. (do/does) the bus ……. (leave)?
3. We …….. (achieve) great things when we work together.
4. Most people ………. (believe) in the importance of education.
5. The children …….. (play) in the garden every afternoon after school.

Forming English adjectives

We can create adjectives from nouns, verbs or even other adjectives by
using suffixes (endings) and prefixes (letters placed before the word).
Examples:
child → childish (noun + suffix)
inform → informative (verb + suffix)
possible → impossible (prefix + adjective)
Although there are many common prefixes and suffixes, there are no fixed rules
that tell us when to use which one. The best way to learn is through repetition
and practice – which is why Lingolia offers plenty of online exercises to help you
master English adjectives.

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 Making adjectives with suffixes
Many adjectives are formed by adding suffixes (endings) to nouns and verbs.
Many suffixes only fulfil a grammatical role and simply indicate that the word is
now an adjective, but there are some suffixes that carry their own meaning:
 The suffix -less means without something, whereas the suffix -ful usually
means to have something.
Example:
hopeful ≠ hopeless
 However, only few adjectives can be made into opposite pairs like this.
Examples:
homeless
but not: homeful
beautiful
but not: beautiless
 We can add the suffix -ish to nouns and adjectives to change their meaning
to like something.
Examples:
Don’t be childish.
= like a child
The jacket is a bluish colour.
= like blue
 For some materials, we can add the suffix -en to create adjectives that
mean made of.
Examples:
A wooden chair.
A woollen jumper.
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  When added to a verb, the suffix -able creates adjectives that
express ability.
Examples:
Is the water drinkable?
= can you drink it?
Spelling rules
Usually, we just add the suffix to the end of the verb or noun.
Examples:
drink → drinkable
success → successful
However, sometimes we must add, remove or change letters before adding a
suffix.
 We double the final consonant after a short stressed vowel.
Example:
sun → sunny
 A -y at the end of a word becomes -i.
Example:
beauty → beautiful
 We remove the final -e if the suffix begins with a vowel, but -ee, -oe and -
ye stay the same.
Example:
fortune → fortunate
but: agree → agreeable
Table: Adjectives from nouns
The table below shows a list of common suffixes we can add to nouns to form
adjectives:
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Suffix Noun Adjective More Examples

-able comfort comfortable accountable, memorable …

brutal, foundational, magical, logical,

-al nature natural
normal …

-ate passion passionate accurate, corporate, fortunate …

-en gold golden silken, wooden, woollen …

-etic energy energetic genetic, magnetic …

beautiful, painful, peaceful, thoughtful,

-ful colour colourful
successful …

-ible response responsible accessible, horrible, sensible, terrible …

athletic, catastrophic, heroic, poetic,

-ic history historic
scientific …

-ical alphabet alphabetical economical, historical …

-ish child childish foolish, selfish, greenish …

-less home homeless careless, doubtless, jobless, motionless …

-ly day daily friendly, lovely, monthly …

advantageous, disastrous, religious,

-ous fame famous
suspicious …

bloody, chilly, dirty, easy, rainy, sunny,

-y wind windy
wealthy …

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Adjective or Adverb?
As shown in the table, the suffix -ly can be used to make adjectives from nouns.
Example:
friend → friendly
But wait! I hear you ask, I thought -ly is the ending for adverbs and not adjectives?
Actually, it’s both!
 Some words ending in -ly are purely adjectives:
Examples:
That’s a lovely dress.
He’s a friendly guy.
 Some words ending in -ly are solely adverbs:
Examples:
He ran quickly.
The teacher speaks slowly.
 And some words ending in -ly are both:
Example:
A weekly meeting. (adjective)
We update the website weekly. (adverb)
The difference depends on how they are used in a sentence. Head over to our
page all about adjectives vs. adverbs in English grammar to learn more!
Table: Adjectives from verbs
The table below shows some of the most common suffixes we can add to verbs to
form adjectives:

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 Suffix Verb Adjective More Examples

-able read readable adaptable, believable, forgettable, reliable …

-ative talk talkative conservative, informative …

-ive attract attractive active, creative, negative, relative …

-ed* annoy annoyed confused, embarrassed, excited …

-ing* annoy annoying confusing, embarrassing, exciting …

-ful help helpful harmful, hopeful, playful, useful …

*-ed or -ing?
Some adjectives formed from verbs can have two possible endings: -ed or -ing.
Examples:
confuse – confused/confusing
bore – bored/boring
The difference between -ed and -ing adjectives is as follows:
 -ed adjectives describe a person’s feelings.
Example:
Erica is bored at work.
= she feels bored
 -ing adjectives describe the effect of a noun. Adjectives ending in -
ing describe the thing or person that causes a feeling.

Example:
Erica’s job is boring.
= the job bores Erica

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Info
Be careful! Confusing the -ed and -ing endings can completely change the
meaning of a sentence.
Example:
I was terrified on Halloween.
I felt scared
I was terrifying on Halloween.
I was scary and caused everyone else to feel scared
See participles and confusing words for more information and exercises on the
difference between -ed and -ing.
Country Adjectives
Adjectives that describe nationality are always written with capital letters.
 We usually form country adjectives by adding -n to the end of the word.

Example:
America → American
Russia → Russian
Australia → Australian
 But we can also use -ese, -i, -ian and -ish to build country adjectives.

Example:
Japan → Japanese
Iraq → Iraqi
Ukraine → Ukrainian
The table below provides an overview of country adjectives.

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Suffix Country Adjective Example

China Chinese
-ese Portugal Portuguese In China, we met a lot of Chinese people.
Suda Sudanese

Pakistan Pakistani
Pakistani cuisine is often served with rice or
-i Yemen Yemeni
bread.
Qatar Qatari

Canada Canadian
Canadian people are famous for being very
-ian Italy Italian
polite.
Palestine Palestinian

Great
British
Britain
-ish Spanish British weather is not the best.
Spain
Turkish
Turkey

Austria Austrian
-n Jamaica Jamaican Jamaican music is famous all of the world.
Russia Russian

 Some countries have irregular forms.

Example:
Germany → German
France → French
Greece → Greek

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Switzerland → Swiss
Ireland → Irish
For a detailed list of countries, languages and adjectives see: List of Countries and
Nationalities
Adjectives with prefixes
Most adjectives in English have an opposite. Often, these word pairs are
completely different to one another:
Examples:
big ≠ small
hot ≠ cold
tall ≠ short
However, we can also use prefixes to form opposite adjectives.
il-, im- and ir-
The prefixes il-, im- and ir- are only used before particular letters:
 il- comes before words that start with an -l
Example:
legal → illegal
 im- comes before words that start with an -m or a -p
Example:
patient → impatient
 ir- comes before words that start with an -r
Example:
responsible → irresponsible
The table below shows the most common adjectives that form their opposites
with the prefixes il-, im- and ir-:

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 Opposite
Prefix Adjective More Examples
Adjective

legal illegal
il- illiterate, illegible, illegitimate …
logical illogical

patient impatient immobile, immoral, impartial,

im- impersonal, impolite, impossible,
mature immature improper …

regular irregular
irrational, irrelevant, irreparable,
ir-
irreplaceable …
responsible irresponsible

dis-, in- and un-

The most common prefixes for forming opposite adjectives are un-, dis-, and in-.
Unlike the prefixes above, there are no fixed rules as to which letters can follow
the prefixes un-, dis- and in-. The table below shows some typical examples:

Opposite
Prefix Adjective More Examples
Adjective

lucky unlucky unable, unapologetic, uncertain,

un- unclear, unimportant, unprepared,
comfortable uncomfortable unsure …

honest dishonest
disagreeable, disheartened,
dis-
disgraceful, disobedient …
respectful disrespectful

correct incorrect
inefficient, inexplicable, infamous,
in-
informal, inhumane …
accurate inaccurate

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